ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS PRINCIPLE

ELECTRICITY
AND
ELECTRONICS
PRINCIPLE
MODULE

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Unit 1 - Basic Electricity

Electricity is an essential part of modern life, powering everything from

household appliances to industrial machinery. Understanding the basics of
electricity is crucial for anyone pursuing a career in electrical and electronic
engineering or related fields. This unit provides a foundational understanding of
key electrical concepts such as electric charge, current, voltage, Ohm's Law, and
the calculation of power and energy in electrical circuits. Through theoretical
discussions, hands-on activities, and problem-solving exercises, students will
build the knowledge and skills necessary to analyze and design basic electrical
circuits.

This module is designed to bridge theoretical concepts with practical

applications, helping students appreciate the role of electricity in everyday life
and its importance in technological advancements. By the end of the unit,
students will have a clear understanding of how electrical systems function and
how to apply mathematical principles to solve real-world electrical problems.

At the end of this unit, the student will be able to:

Learning Outcomes

 Explain the concepts of charge, current, voltage, and power.

 Apply Ohm’s Law to solve basic circuit problems.
 Calculate power and energy consumption in electrical circuits.

Pretest

Instructions: Answer the following questions to assess your prior knowledge:

1. Define electric charge.

2. What is the unit of electric current?
3. State Ohm’s Law.
4. How is electrical power calculated?
5. Differentiate between voltage and potential difference.

Thank you for answering the Pretest. Please see the last
page For the key answer.

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Lesson 1: Electric Charge and Current

Specific Objective:

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define electric charge and electric current.
 Describe how current flows in a circuit.
 Differentiate between conventional current and electron flow.

Content

What is an Electric Charge?

In the CBSE curriculum, understanding the concept of electric charge and its various types is
of utmost importance.

Electric Charge Definition

Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that gives rise
to the phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and magnetic fields.
These fields exert influence on charged particles, resulting in observable effects.

Types of Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative charges. Positive charges
are associated with protons, which are subatomic particles residing in the nucleus of an atom.
They are represented by the symbol “+”. On the other hand, negative charges are linked to
electrons, which orbit the atomic nucleus and are denoted by the symbol “-“.
The distinction between positive and negative charges plays a vital role in comprehending the
behaviour of electrically charged objects. Opposite charges, such as positive and negative,
attract each other, while like charges, such as positive and positive or negative and negative,
repel each other. This fundamental principle is the foundation for various concepts in
electromagnetism and is pivotal in understanding the interaction of charged particles.

When an object carries a negative charge, it possesses an excess of electrons compared to

protons. Conversely, a positive charge indicates an excess of protons relative to electrons.
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It’s important to note that when an equal number of positive and negative charges are present,
they cancel each other out, resulting in a neutral state for the object.
By grasping the definition of electric charge and recognizing the significance of positive and
negative charges, one can understand the fundamental principles governing electricity and
magnetism.
Note: In the context of electric charge, the terms “attraction” and “repulsion” are used to
describe how charges interact with each other.

Is Electric Charge a Vector Quantity?

No, electric charge is not a vector quantity; it is a scalar quantity. While vectors have both
magnitude and direction and obey vector addition laws like the triangle law and parallelogram
law, electric charge does not exhibit these properties. When currents meet at a junction, the
resulting current is determined by the algebraic sum of the individual currents rather than their
vector sum. Thus, electric charge is considered a scalar quantity, despite having magnitude
and direction.

Measuring Electric Charge

Coloumb is the unit of electric charge.
“One coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred in one second.”
Mathematically, the definition of a coloumb is represented as:
Q = I.t
In the equation, Q is the electric charge, I is the electric current and t is the time.

Properties of Electric Charge

Electric charge possesses several important properties that help us understand its behaviour.
Let’s explore these properties:

Additivity of Electric Charge

When charges combine, their magnitudes add up algebraically. For example, if we have a
positive charge of +3 units and a negative charge of -2 units, the resulting charge would be +1
unit.

Conservation of Electric Charge:

In an isolated system, electric charge is conserved. This means that the total electric charge
within the system remains constant over time. The algebraic sum of all the charges present in
the system remains the same.

Quantization of Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in discrete, indivisible units called elementary charges. The smallest
unit of electric charge is the charge carried by an electron, which is approximately -1.6 x 10-
19 coulombs. This quantization of charge implies that electric charge cannot be divided into
smaller parts.
Understanding these properties helps us comprehend the behaviour of electric charges and
their importance in various scientific phenomena.
Note: “Algebraic sum” refers to adding charges, considering their signs (+ or -).

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To understand the properties of charge in detail, read the article below:

Coulomb’s Law
We know that like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract. However, have you
ever wondered about the strength of these forces acting between charges? Coulomb’s Law
offers us a method to calculate this force precisely.
According to Coulomb’s Law, the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
point charges is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance separating them.
The Coulomb’s Law is given by the expression:

Fe=kq1q2r2

where Fe is the electric force, q1 and q2 are electric charges, k is the Coulomb’s
constant 8.988×109 N⋅m2/C2 and r is the distance of separation.
By applying Coulomb’s Law, we can quantitatively determine the strength of the electric force
between charges and gain valuable insights into their interactions. This fundamental principle
holds great significance in the field of electromagnetism and enables us to analyse various
electrical phenomena.
Through the application of Coulomb’s Law, scientists and researchers have been able to
uncover the intricate workings of electric forces and comprehend their profound impact on the
world around us.

Methods of Charging
The process of supplying electric charge to an object or causing it to lose electric charge is
referred to as charging. There are three distinct methods by which an initially uncharged object
can acquire charge:

 Charging by friction ( triboelectric charging)

 Charging by conduction
 Charging by induction

Charging by Friction
When two objects are rubbed against each other, a transfer of charge occurs. In this process,
one of the objects loses electrons while the other gains electrons. The object losing electrons
becomes positively charged, while the object gaining electrons becomes negatively charged.
This phenomenon, where both objects become charged due to friction, is commonly known as
electrification by friction.

Charging by Conduction
Charging by conduction involves bringing an uncharged object in close proximity to a charged
object. If the charged object has an unequal number of protons and electrons, the uncharged
object will discharge electrons to achieve stability. This transfer of charge through contact is
known as charging by conduction.
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Charging by Induction
Charging by induction refers to the process of charging an uncharged object by merely
bringing it close to a charged object, without any direct physical contact. Through induction, the
charged object induces a redistribution of charges in the uncharged object, resulting in the
acquisition of charge.
By understanding these different methods of charging, we can explore the fascinating ways in
which objects become charged through friction, contact, or proximity. The study of charging
provides valuable insights into the behaviour and interaction of electric charges in various
scenarios.

Electric Current
Let us now define electric current and also know about conductors and insulators.

Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of electric current is
the Ampere.
Electrons are minute particles that exist within the molecular structure of a substance.
Sometimes, these electrons are tightly held, and other times they are loosely held. When
electrons are loosely held by the nucleus, they are able to travel freely within the limits of the
body. Electrons are negatively charged particles hence when they move, a number of charges
moves, and we call this movement of electrons as electric current. It should be noted that the
number of electrons that are able to move governs the ability of a particular substance to
conduct electricity. Some materials allow the current to move better than others. Based on the
ability of the material to conduct electricity, materials are classified into conductors and
insulators.
Conductors: these materials allow the free flow of electrons from one particle to another.
Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons. The flow of
electrons inside the conducting material or conductor generates an electric current. The force
that is required to drive the current flow through the conductor is known as voltage.
Examples of conductors: Human body, aqueous solutions of salts and metals like iron, silver
and gold.
Did You Know?
Silver is the best conductor of electricity.

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Insulators: Insulators are materials that restrict the free flow of electrons from one particle to
another. The particles of the insulator do not allow the free flow of electrons; subsequently, the
charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.
Examples of Insulators: Plastic, Wood and Glass

Prerequisites for the Current to Flow in a Conductor

Some of the prerequisites for the electric current to flow in a conductor are discussed
here. The circuit includes an energy source (a battery, for instance) that produces voltage.
Without voltage, electrons move randomly and are undirected; hence current cannot flow.
Voltage creates pressure on the electrons, which channelises them to flow in a single direction.
The circuit forms a closed conducting loop through which electrons can flow. A circuit is said to
be closed or complete when a switch is turned ON.

What Is an Electromotive Force?

The motion of free electrons is normally haphazard. If a force acts on electrons to make them
move in a particular direction, then up to some extent random motion of the electrons will be
eliminated. An overall movement in one direction is achieved. The force that acts on the
electrons to make them move in a certain direction is known as electromotive force, and its
quantity is known as voltage and is measured in volts.
Read More: Electromotive Force

Unit of Electric Current

Let us know what is current and the unit to measure it.
The magnitude of electric current is measured in coulombs per second. The SI unit of electric
current is Ampere and is denoted by the letter A. Ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge
moving past a point in one second. If there are 6.241 x 1018 electrons flowing through our
frame in one second, then the electrical current flowing through it is ‘One Ampere.’
The unit Ampere is widely used within electrical and electronic technology along with the
multipliers like milliamp (0.001A), microamp (0.000001A), and so forth.
Read More: Ampere

Visualising Electric Current

To gain a deeper understanding of what an electric current is and how it behaves in a
conductor, we can use the water pipe analogy of electricity. Certainly, there are some
limitations but they serve as a very basic illustration of current and current flow.

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Water Pipe Analogy of Electricity

We can compare the electric current to the water flowing through the pipe. When pressure is
applied to one end of the pipe, the water is forced to flow through the pipe in one direction. The
amount of water flow is proportional to the pressure placed on the end. This pressure can be
compared to the electromotive force.

Conventional Current flow Vs Electron Flow

There is a lot of confusion around conventional current flow and electron flow. In this section,
let us understand their differences.

Conventional Current Flow vs Electron Flow

Conventional Current Flow
The conventional current flow is from the positive to the negative terminal and indicates the
direction in which positive charges would flow.
Electron Flow
The electron flow is from negative to positive terminal. Electrons are negatively charged and
are therefore attracted to the positive terminal as unlike charges attract.

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Properties of Electric Current

After we define electric current, let us learn the properties of electric current. Electric current is
an important quantity in electronic circuits. We have adapted electricity in our lives so much
that it becomes impossible to imagine life without it. Therefore, it is important to know what is
current and the properties of the electric current.

 We know that electric current is the result of the flow of electrons. The work done in
moving the electron stream is known as electrical energy. Electrical energy can be
converted into other forms of energy such as heat energy, light energy, etc. For
example, in an iron box, electric energy is converted to heat energy. Likewise, the
electric energy in a bulb is converted into light energy.
 There are two types of electric current known as alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC). The direct current can flow only in one direction, whereas the alternating
direction flows in two directions. Direct current is seldom used as a primary energy
source in industries. It is mostly used in low voltage applications such as charging
batteries, aircraft applications, etc. Alternating current is used to operate appliances for
both household and industrial and commercial use.
 The electric current is measured in ampere. One ampere of current represents one
coulomb of electric charge moving past a specific point in one second.

1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second

 The conventional direction of an electric current is the direction in which a positive

charge would move. Henceforth, the current flowing in the external circuit is directed
away from the positive terminal and toward the negative terminal of the battery.

Effects of Electric Current

After defining electric current, let us learn various effects of electric current. When a current
flows through a conductor, there are a number of signs which tell if a current is flowing or not.
Following are the most prominent signs:

Heating Effect of Electric Current

When our clothes are crumpled, we use the iron box to make our clothes crisp and neat. Iron
box works on the principle of heating effect of current. There are many such devices that work
on the heating effect.
When an electric current flows through a conductor, heat is generated in the conductor.
The heating effect is given by the following equation
H=I2RT
The heating effect depends on the following factor:

 The time ‘t‘ for which the current flows. The longer the current flows in a conductor
more heat is generated.
 The electrical resistance of the conductor. Higher the resistance, the higher the heat
produced.
 The amount of current. The larger the amount of current higher the heat produced.
If the current is small then the amount of heat generated is likely to be very small and may not
be noticed. However, if the current is larger then it is possible that a noticeable amount of heat
is generated.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

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Another prominent effect that is noticeable when an electric current flows through the
conductor is the build-up of the magnetic field. We can observe this when we place a compass
close to a wire carrying a reasonably large direct current, and the compass needle deflects.
The magnetic field generated by a current is put to good use in a number of areas. By winding
a wire into a coil, the effect can be increased, and an electromagnet can be made.

Chemical Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current passes through a solution, the solution ionizes and breaks down into
ions. This is because a chemical reaction takes place when an electric current passes through
the solution. Depending on the nature of the solution and the electrodes used, the following
effects can be observed in the solution:

 change in the colour of the solution

 metallic deposits on the electrodes
 a release of gas or production of bubbles in the solution
Electroplating and electrolysis are the applications of the chemical effect of electric current.

Learning Activity

Activity 1:

Concept Mapping: Create a concept map connecting electric charge, current, and their
properties. Include real-life examples such as lightning and battery-powered devices.

Activity 2:

Group Experiment: Build a simple circuit with a battery, wires, and a light bulb to observe how
current flows and its effects on components.

Activity 3:

Problem-Solving Exercise: Given the charge and time, calculate the current using the formula ,
where is the charge in coulombs and is time in seconds.

Thank you for reading the content. Now that you had
learned about the Basic Electricity, do the succeeding
learning activities. If you have questions regarding the
activity, you may visit our google class with this code:
zdjlchj or contact me to the number indicated in the course
guide. If you had poor connectivity, you are given another
week to accomplish the tasks.

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Lesson 2: Voltage and Potential Difference

Specific Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define voltage and potential difference.

 Explain how potential difference drives current in a circuit.
 Illustrate the concept of voltage using examples.

Content

Voltage and Electric potential difference

Voltage is the term used to refer to the potential difference. Every material in this world is made
up of atoms. Each atom is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons, which are positively
charged, negatively charged and electrically neutral respectively. As we know a force of attraction
prevails between these positively charged protons and negatively charged neutrons. A certain
amount of work must be done to separate them.

Electric Potential

Electric potential is the amount of work done in moving charged particles such as electrons
between two points. Whenever we want to separate two oppositely (positive and negative)
charged particles that have strong binding forces between them holding them together, we need
to do a certain amount of work in overcoming the force of attraction between them. The work
done in separating them apart is stored as potential energy in each of these charged particles.

Normally, charges have the property of spreading out when they are not restricted by an external
force. Accumulation of similarly charged particles at a point creates tension at that point. A certain
amount of work is done in bringing these particles together and this work is stored as potential
energy within these particles. This stored energy is known as electric potential.

Electric potential difference

The difference in electric potentials between two points in an electric field that tends to cause
movement of charged particles such as electrons from the point of higher potential to a point of
lower potential is called potential difference. When we connect a lamp to a battery, the difference
in potential prevailing between its’ positive and negative terminal causes the electrons to flow and
the lamp glows. Here the positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential and the negative
terminal is at lower potential. Potential difference is measured in volts.

What is voltage?

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Voltage is a common term used to describe the potential difference. There is no difference
between the potential difference and voltage. Both are the same. Sometimes it is also known
as electromotive force. It is denoted by the letter V. Voltage can be either constant as in the case
of DC power or varying as in the case of AC power.

Unit of potential difference

The unit of electric potential difference is volt. One volt can be defined as the potential difference
between two points when one joule of energy is used to pass one coulomb of charge from one
point to the other.

According to “Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology”, One volt can also be defined as the
potential difference measured between two points of a conductor carrying a current of 1 ampere,
when the power dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt. It is termed after the Italian
physicist and pioneer of electricity and power, Alessandro Volta (1745–1827). He is the inventor
of the electric battery.

Sources of Electric Voltage

Normal AA size battery that you can find in your house has a potential difference of 1 volt
between its positive and negative terminals. Similarly, the potential difference measured between
the Line and neutral points of a wall socket can be 230V or 110V. The difference is that the
battery supplies DC voltage and the wall socket supplies AC voltage. AC and DC voltages are
briefly explained in the following sections.

Difference between single-phase and three-phase power AC supplies

Mathematical representation of Voltage or potential difference

The electric potential difference or Voltage V= W/Q or v= dw/dq

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Where,

W – Work-done in moving those charges.

Q- Coulombs of charge.

Example:

30 joules of energy is consumed in separating two charges of 10 coulombs each over a distance.
What will be the voltage developed?
Solution:

Voltage V= W/Q = 30/10 = 3V

DC Power

DC power is the one that causes all charged particles to move in the same direction. The most
common source of DC is a household battery. The electrons in the negative terminal of the
battery flow to its negative terminal when connected to a load. The direction of flow of electrons
never reverse.

AC Power

The direction of motion of charged particles changes constantly on the application of AC power
changes. The power supplied by the power utility company is AC. The magnitude and direction of
an AC supply change constantly from positive to negative and is normally sinusoidal in nature. In
power stations, huge alternators are used to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Image showing the difference between AC voltage and DC voltage

Source:http://www.acsolarwarehouse.com

How can we measure voltage?

The electric potential difference is measured using a device called a voltmeter. It is connected
across the two points between which voltage is measured. A voltmeter can be analogue or digital.
Analogue voltmeters consist of a high resistance connected in series to a moving coil
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galvanometer. Various types of analogue voltmeters are available in the market. Digital voltmeter
works by converting the voltage to digital form and displaying it on a numerical display.

Image Source: Taj Scientific

Learning Activity

Activity 4:

Diagram Analysis: Analyze and label a circuit diagram with voltage sources and potential
differences. Identify areas with high and low potential.

Activity 5:

Hands-On Activity: Use a multimeter to measure the voltage across resistors in a series and
parallel circuit.

Activity 6:

Calculation Practice: Solve problems where voltage and current are provided, and resistance
needs to be calculated.

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Lesson 3: Ohm’s Law

Specific Objective:

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 State and explain Ohm’s Law.
 Solve problems using Ohm’s Law.
 Analyze the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance.

Content

Ohm’s law is one of the basic principles of electricity. It relates the basic parameters of
electricity, current and voltage, to each other.

Georg Ohm, after whom the law was named, conduct a few experiments on circuits containing
different lengths of wires and found that the voltage applied and current are directly proportional.
He derived a complex equation and published it along with his results in the book Die galvanische
Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet in 1827.

Ohm’s law statement:

Ohm’s Law states that current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage applied (V) across it, i.e.

VαI

Simply, V = IR

Where R is a constant of proportionality called resistance, which defines the resistance offered by
the material of the conductor to the flow of current through it.

Total Resistance offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current depends on its length, area
of cross-section and resistivity of the conductor.

R = ρl/A

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor, l is the length and A is the area of cross-section.

Ohm’s Law for AC Circuits

In the case of AC circuits, voltage is related to current by a constant of proportionality Z

(impedance) and constant of proportionality R for purely resistive circuits where (Z=R).

V = IZ and V=IR (for purely resistive circuits)

Where Z = √[R2+X2]

Impedance Z is the total opposition offered by the circuits to AC current. It consists of a real part
(resistance) and an imaginary part (Reactance).

Circuit Analysis

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This Law serves as the basic principle in circuit analysis. It is applicable only for linear circuits in
which voltage is directly proportional to it. From the relation given by Ohm, three equations can
be derived:

V = IR, I = V/R, R = V/I

These relations can be illustrated in a triangular form as below:

From this, we can find the third parameter if any two are known.

Unit of resistance

Unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω). One ohm is equal to the resistance offered by a material when a
current of one ampere flows through it with a potential difference of one volt applied across it.

Examples

Let us work out the following example.

The current flowing through the circuit is I = 2A and the resistance offered by the circuit to the
flow of current is R = 5ohms.

Then the voltage drop across the circuit shall be 2A X 5 ohms = 10V

Similarly,
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If the voltage across the resistor is V = 20V and the current flowing through it is I = 10A, then the
value of resistance is 20V/10A = 2ohms.

Hence, it can be noted that current flow through a circuit depends on its resistance and the
voltage applied across it.

Learning Activity

Activity 7:

Equation Derivation: Derive other forms of Ohm’s Law (“” and “”) through problem-solving.

Activity 8:

Problem-Solving Worksheet: Solve circuit problems involving single and multiple resistors to
find unknown values.

Activity 9:

Simulation Activity: Use online circuit simulation tools to test Ohm’s Law in various scenarios.

Lesson 4: Power and Energy in Electrical

Circuits

Specific Objective:

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define electrical power and energy.
 Calculate power using voltage and current.
 Analyze energy consumption in electrical devices.

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Content

Power and energy are important concepts in electric circuits that are related to the flow of
electricity and the work done by the circuit.

Energy is the ability to do work, and in electric circuits, it is measured in joules (J). When a
current flows through a circuit, it does work on the circuit elements, such as resistors or motors.
The amount of work done is equal to the energy consumed by the circuit. The energy consumed
by the circuit can be calculated by multiplying the voltage across the circuit by the current flowing
through it and the time the current is flowing, using the formula:

Energy (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)

where Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (A) is the rate at which energy is consumed by the
circuit.

Power is the rate at which energy is consumed or produced, and in electric circuits, it is
measured in watts (W). Power can be calculated by multiplying the voltage across the circuit by
the current flowing through it, using the formula:

Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (A)

Power is important in electric circuits because it determines how much work can be done by the
circuit. For example, a high-power motor can do more work than a low-power motor, and a high-
power light bulb can produce more light than a low-power light bulb.

In summary, energy is the ability to do work, and in electric circuits, it is calculated by multiplying
the power consumed by the circuit by the time the current is flowing. Power is the rate at which
energy is consumed or produced, and it is calculated by multiplying the voltage across the circuit
by the current flowing through it. Both energy and power are important concepts in electric
circuits that determine how much work can be done by the circuit.

Example of Calculation

here’s an example calculation involving power and energy in an electric circuit:

Suppose you have a circuit that consists of a 12-volt battery connected to a resistor with a resistance of 10
ohms. If a current of 1 ampere flows through the resistor for 5 seconds, what is the energy consumed by
the circuit, and what is the power consumed by the resistor?

Using the formula for energy:

Energy (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)

We can calculate the energy consumed by the circuit as:

Energy = Power x Time Energy = (Voltage x Current) x Time Energy = (12 V) x (1 A) x (5 s)

Energy = 60 J

So the energy consumed by the circuit is 60 joules.

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Using the formula for power:

Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (A)

We can calculate the power consumed by the resistor as:

Power = Voltage x Current Power = (12 V) x (1 A) Power = 12 W

So the power consumed by the resistor is 12 watts.

In summary, the circuit in this example consumed 60 joules of energy and had a power consumption of 12
watts.

Learning Activity

Activity 10:

Device Analysis: Identify and calculate the power consumption of common household devices
like fans, light bulbs, and TVs.

Activity 11:

Energy Cost Calculation: Use local electricity rates to calculate the cost of operating a device
for a given time.

Activity 12:

Circuit Analysis: Measure and calculate power and energy in a simple circuit with a given
resistor and voltage source.

You did a great job! You may now take the

assessment. If you have not completed the task, or you
have difficulty in accomplishing the activity, please send
me a message to our google class or you may ask
clarifications through a text message or phone calls on
the contact number included in your course guide.

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Assessment

Instructions: Answer the following questions. Show your solutions where

applicable.

1. Define electric charge and current.

2. Explain the relationship between voltage and current in a circuit.
3. Using Ohm’s Law, calculate the resistance in a circuit where the voltage is 12V and the
current is 2A.
4. A 60W light bulb operates on a 120V supply. Calculate the current drawn by the bulb.
5. If a device consumes 500W for 4 hours, calculate the total energy consumed in kWh.
6. Explain the difference between conventional current and electron flow.
7. A circuit has a 24V battery and a 12Ω resistor. Calculate the current.
8. How much energy is consumed by a 100W device running for 5 hours?
9. Differentiate between power and energy in electrical circuits.
10. A circuit has a total resistance of 8Ω and a current of 3A. Find the total voltage. 11-20.
Additional multi-step problems involving circuit analysis, power, and energy calculations.

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