ETHERNET FRAME FORMAT

Ethernet was originally developed to run on a long coaxial cable that connected all the computers on the network. This type of network topology is called a bus. When one station transmitted data, all the other stations heard it. Ethernet was designed assuming that all stations would hear these broadcasts to the segment of wire used to connect them. This is where the terms 'wire segment' and 'broadcast domain' come from. A broadcast domain includes all the wire and computers that can hear each other whenever one of the computers is transmitting. A wire segment is the piece of wire used to connect two devices. Because Ethernet networks are composed of broadcast domains and there is no clock signal on the wire, as serial connections often have. Instead, Ethernet systems must determine if the wire is in use, and if not, send enough data to enable the remote station to allow it to synchronize properly. This synchronization mechanism combined with the ability to detect other computers attempting to access the wire is a formalized protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access-Collision Detect (CSMA/CD).

IEEE 803.2 / 802.2

7 bytes Preamble PREAMBLE
This is a stream of bits used to allow the transmitter and reciever to synchronize their communication. The preamble is an alternating pattern of binary 56 ones and zeroes. The preamble is immediately followed by the Start Frame Delimter.

1 byte

2 or 6 bytes

2 or 6 bytes

2 bytes Length

4-1500 bytes (Data / Pad) DSAP SSAP CTRL NLI

4 bytes FCS

Start Dest. Source Frame Delimiter MAC address MAC address

START FRAME DELIMTER

This is always 10101011 and is used to indicate the beginning of the frame information.

DESTINATION MAC
This is the MAC address of the machine receiving data. When a network interface card (NIC) is listening to the wire is checking this field for it's own MAC address.

SOURCE MAC
This is the MAC address of the machine transmitting data.

LENGTH
This is the length of the entire Ethernet frame in bytes. Although this field can hold any value between 0 and 65,534, it is rarely larger than 1500 as that is usually the maximum transmission frame size for most serial connections. Ethernet networks tend to use serial devices to access the Internet.

DATA/PADDING (A.K.A. PAYLOAD)

The data is inserted here. This is where the IP header and data is placed if you are running IP over Ethernet. This field contains IPX information if you are running IPX/SPX (Novell). Contained within the data/padding section of an IEEE 803.2 frame are four specific fields:

DSAP Destination SSAP Source CTRL Control bits NLI - Network Layer Interface FCS

Service Service for

Access Point Access Poiont Ethernet communication

This field contains the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) which is calculated using a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The FCS allows Ethernet to detect errors in the Ethernet frame and reject the frame if it appears damaged.

FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE

INTRODUCTION
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-passing, dualring LAN using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently used as high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper. It should be noted that relatively recently, a related copper specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), has emerged to provide 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. This chapter focuses mainly on FDDI specifications and operations, but it also provides a high-level overview of CDDI. FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal operation, the primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. As will be discussed in detail later in this chapter, the primary purpose of the dual rings is to provide superior reliability and robustness. Figure 8-1 shows the counter-rotating primary and secondary FDDI rings. Figure 8-1: FDDI Uses Counter-Rotating Primary and Secondary Rings

FDDI TRANSMISSION MEDIA

FDDI uses optical fiber as the primary transmission medium, but it also can run over copper cabling. As mentioned earlier, FDDI over copper is referred to as CopperDistributed Data Interface (CDDI). Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In particular, security, reliability, and performance all are enhanced with optical fiber media because fiber does not emit electrical signals. A physical medium that does emit electrical signals (copper) can be tapped and therefore would permit unauthorized access to the data that is transiting the medium. In addition, fiber is immune to electrical interference from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fiber historically has supported much higher

bandwidth (throughput potential) than copper, although recent technological advances have made copper capable of transmitting at 100 Mbps. Finally, FDDI allows 2 km between stations using multimode fiber, and even longer distances using a single mode. FDDI defines two types of optical fiber: single-mode and multimode. A mode is a ray of light that enters the fiber at a particular angle. Multimode fiber uses LED as the light-generating device, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers. Multimode fiber allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the fiber. Because these modes of light enter the fiber at different angles, they will arrive at the end of the fiber at different times. This characteristic is known as modal dispersion. Modal dispersion limits the bandwidth and distances that can be accomplished using multimode fibers. For this reason, multimode fiber is generally used for connectivity within a building or a relatively geographically contained environment. Single-mode fiber allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber. Because only a single mode of light is used, modal dispersion is not present with single-mode fiber. Therefore, single-mode fiber is capable of delivering considerably higher performance connectivity over much larger distances, which is why it generally is used for connectivity between buildings and within environments that are more geographically dispersed.

TOKEN RING/IEEE 802.5

The Token Ring network was originally developed by IBM in the 1970s. It is still IBM's primary local-area network (LAN) technology. The related IEEE 802.5 specification is almost identical to and completely compatible with IBM's Token Ring network. In fact, the IEEE 802.5 specification was modeled after IBM Token Ring, and it continues to shadow IBM's Token Ring development. The term Token Ring generally is used to refer to both IBM's Token Ring network and IEEE 802.5 networks. This chapter addresses both Token Ring and IEEE 802.5. Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 networks are basically compatible, although the specifications differ in minor ways. IBM's Token Ring network specifies a star, with all end stations attached to a device called a multistation access unit (MSAU). In contrast, IEEE 802.5 does not specify a topology, although virtually all IEEE 802.5 implementations are based on a star. Other differences exist, including media type (IEEE 802.5 does not specify a media type, although IBM Token Ring networks use twisted-pair wire) and routing information field size. Figure 9-1 summarizes IBM Token Ring network and IEEE 802.5 specifications. Figure 9-1: Although Dissimilar in Some Respects, IBM's Token Ring Network and IEEE 802.5 Are

PHYSICAL CONNECTIONS
IBM Token Ring network stations are directly connected to MSAUs, which can be wired together to form one large ring (see Figure 9-2). Patch cables connect MSAUs to adjacent MSAUs, while lobe cables connect MSAUs to stations. MSAUs include bypass relays for removing stations from the ring. Figure 9-2: MSAUs Can Be Wired Together to Form One Large Ring in an IBM Token Ring Network

TOKEN RING OPERATION

Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 are two principal examples of token-passing networks (FDDI is the other). Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token, around the network. Possession of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token has no information to send, it passes the token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token for a maximum period of time. If a station possessing the token does have information to transmit, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the token into a start-of-frame sequence), appends the information that it wants to transmit, and sends this information to the next station on the ring. While the information frame is circling the ring, no token is on the network (unless the ring supports early token release), which means that other stations wanting to transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring networks. If early token release is supported, a new token can be released when frame transmission is complete. The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station, which copies the information for further processing. The information frame continues to circle the ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The sending station can check the returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by the destination.

Unlike CSMA/CD networks (such as Ethernet), token-passing networks are deterministic, which means that it is possible to calculate the maximum time that will pass before any end station will be capable of transmitting. This feature and several reliability features, which are discussed in the section "Fault-Management Mechanisms," later in this chapter, make Token Ring networks ideal for applications in which delay must be predictable and robust network operation is important. Factory automation environments are examples of such applications.

PRIORITY SYSTEM
Token Ring networks use a sophisticated priority system that permits certain userdesignated, high-priority stations to use the network more frequently. Token Ring frames have two fields that control priority: the priority field and the reservation field. Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority value contained in a token can seize that token. After the token is seized and changed to an information frame, only stations with a priority value higher than that of the transmitting station can reserve the token for the next pass around the network. When the next token is generated, it includes the higher priority of the reserving station. Stations that raise a token's priority level must reinstate the previous priority after their transmission is complete.

FAULT-MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS
Token Ring networks employ several mechanisms for detecting and compensating for network faults. For example, one station in the Token Ring network is selected to be the active monitor. This station, which potentially can be any station on the network, acts as a centralized source of timing information for other ring stations and performs a variety of ring-maintenance functions. One of these functions is the removal of continuously circulating frames from the ring. When a sending device fails, its frame may continue to circle the ring. This can prevent other stations from transmitting their own frames and essentially can lock up the network. The active monitor can detect such frames, remove them from the ring, and generate a new token. The IBM Token Ring network's star topology also contributes to overall network reliability. Because all information in a Token Ring network is seen by active MSAUs, these devices can be programmed to check for problems and selectively remove stations from the ring, if necessary. A Token Ring algorithm called beaconing detects and tries to repair certain network faults. Whenever a station detects a serious problem with the network (such as a cable break), it sends a beacon frame, which defines a failure domain. This domain includes the station reporting the failure, its nearest active upstream neighbor (NAUN), and everything in between. Beaconing initiates a process called autoreconfiguration, in which nodes within the failure domain automatically perform diagnostics in an attempt to reconfigure the network around the failed areas. Physically, the MSAU can accomplish this through electrical reconfiguration.

FRAME FORMAT
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens and data/command frames. Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the Information field. Data frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command frames contain control information and have no data for upper-layer protocols. Both formats are shown in Figure 9-3. Figure 9-3: IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring Specify Tokens and Data/Command Frames

Token Frame Fields

The three token frame fields illustrated in Figure 9-3 are summarized in the descriptions that follow:

Start delimiterAlerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame). This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access-control byteContains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly). End delimiterSignals the end of the token or data/command frame. This field also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence.

Data/Command Frame Fields

Data/command frames have the same three fields as Token Frames, plus several others. The Data/command frame fields illustrated in Figure 9-3 are described in the following summaries:

Start delimiterAlerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame). This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access-control byteContains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly). Frame-control bytesIndicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information. Destination and source addressesConsists of two 6-byte address fields that identify the destination and source station addresses. DataIndicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token holding time, which defines the maximum time a station can hold the token. Frame-check sequence (FCS)Is filed by the source station with a calculated value dependent on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. End DelimiterSignals the end of the token or data/command frame. The end delimiter also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence. Frame StatusIs a 1-byte field terminating a command/data frame. The Frame Status field includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.

Wi-fi/IEEE-802.11
802.11 refers to a family of specifications developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN technology. 802.11 specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients. The IEEE accepted the specification in 1997. There are several specifications in the 802.11 family:

802.11 -- applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission in the 2.4 GHz band using either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). 802.11a -- an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provides up to 54 Mbps in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing encoding scheme rather than FHSS or DSSS. 802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) -- an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANS and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1 Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS. 802.11b was a 1999 ratification to the original 802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to Ethernet. 802.11g -- applies to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band