DEFLECTION OF BEAMS SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:

Compute the midspan value of EIy for the simply supported beam carrying a uniformly
Deflection is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer distributed load over part of its span.
to an angle or a distance. The deformed axis of the beam is called its elastic curve.

METHODS TO CALCULATE BEAM DEFLECTIONS:

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

The differential equation for the elastic curve derived to calculate the deflection at any
point is given by:
; Where: EI = flexural rigidity

Integrating the equation twice gives

where C1 and C2 are constants of integration to be determined from the prescribed constraints
(for example, the boundary conditions) on the deformation of the beam. Because this equation
gives the deflection y as a function of x, it is called the equation of the elastic curve. Common
examples of boundary conditions are zero deflection at a pin or roller support, and zero slope
and zero deflection at a built-in (cantilever) support.

If either the bending moment or flexural rigidity is not a smooth function of x, a separate
differential equation must be written for each beam segment that lies between the
discontinuities. The equations for the elastic curves for two adjacent segments must satisfy two
continuity conditions at the junction between segments:

1. The deflection for the left-hand segment must equal the deflection for the right-hand
segment, and
2. The slope for the left-hand segment must equal the slope for the right hand segment.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #2: DOUBLE INTEGRATION USING BRACKET FUNCTIONS
For the overhanging beam, compute the value of EIy under the 15-kN load. Evaluating the constants of integration that arise in the double-integration method can become
very involved if more than two beam segments must be analyzed. We can simplify the
calculations by expressing the bending moment in terms of discontinuity functions, also known
as Macaulay bracket functions.

As an example, consider the simply supported beam ABCD loaded as shown in the figure.

The free-body diagrams of the three segments of the beam are shown in the following figures:

AB: BC: CD:

Using the equilibrium equation ∑ 𝑀 = 0 for each segment, we obtain the following bending
moments:

Note that in each successive segment an extra term is added to M, while the rest of the
expression remains unchanged. This pattern suggests using the expression

for the entire beam, with the understanding that the term (x – 2) disappears when x≤2; and
(x – 3)2 disappears when x≤3. This idea is formalized by using the Macaulay bracket functions
described below.
A Macaulay bracket function, often referred to as a ‘‘bracket function,’’ is defined as
where n is a nonnegative integer. The brackets ⟨…. ⟩ identify the expression as a bracket SAMPLE PROBLEM #4:
function. Note that a bracket function is zero by definition if the expression in the brackets— Compute the value of EIy at the right end of the cantilever beam.
namely, (x-a) —is negative; otherwise, it is evaluated as written.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #3:

For the simply supported beam, compute the value of EIy at midspan.
MOMENT AREA METHOD SIGN CONVENTION:
The moment-area method is useful for determining the slope or deflection of a beam at a The tangential deviation tB/A is positive if B lies above the tangent line drawn to the elastic curve
specified location. It is a semi-graphical method in which the integration of the bending moment at A, and negative if B lies below the tangent line.
is carried out indirectly, using the geometric properties of the area under the bending moment
diagram.

MOMENT AREA THEOREMS

The initial ideas for the two moment-area theorems were developed by Otto Mohr and later
stated formally by Charles E. Greene in 1873. These theorems provide a semi-graphical
technique for determining the slope of the elastic curve and its deflection due to bending. They BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS BY PARTS
are particularly advantageous when used to solve problems involving beams, especially those Application of the moment-area theorems is practical only if the area under the bending moment
subjected to a series of concentrated loadings or having segments with different moments of diagram and its first moment can be calculated without difficulty. The key to simplifying the
inertia. computation is to divide the bending moment diagram into simple geometric shapes (rectangles,
triangles, and parabolas) that have known areas and centroidal coordinates. Construction of
THEOREM 1: the bending moment diagram by parts for simply supported beams proceeds as follows:
The change in slope between any two points on the elastic curve equals the area of the M/EI • Calculate the simple support reactions and consider them to be applied loads.
diagram between these two points. • Introduce a fixed support at a convenient location. A simple support of the original beam
𝟏 is usually a good choice, but sometimes another point is more convenient. The beam
𝜽𝑩/𝑨 = [𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝑫]𝑨−𝑩 is now cantilevered from this support.
𝑬𝑰
• Draw a bending moment diagram for each load (including the support reactions). If all
𝜽𝑩/𝑨 = 𝜽𝑩 − 𝜽𝑨 the diagrams can be fitted on a single plot, do so.

SIGN CONVENTION: ILLUSTRATION:

Positive B/A has a counterclockwise direction, whereas negative B/A has a clockwise direction.

THEOREM 2:
The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the elastic curve with respect to the tangent
extended from another point (B) equals the “moment” of the area under the M/EI diagram
between the two points (A and B). This moment is computed about point A (the point on the
elastic curve), where the deviation is to be determined.
𝟏
𝒕𝑩/𝑨 = [𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝑫]𝑨−𝑩 ∙ ̅̅̅̅
𝒙𝑩
𝑬𝑰
𝟏
𝒕𝑨/𝑩 = [𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝑫]𝑨−𝑩 ∙ ̅̅̅
𝒙𝑨
𝑬𝑰
When we construct the bending moment diagram by parts, each part is invariably of the form M SAMPLE PROBLEM #5:
= kxn, where n is a nonnegative integer that represents the degree of the moment equation. The For the simply supported beam, compute the slope and deflection at midspan.
table below shows the properties of areas under the M-diagram for n = 0, 1, 2, and 3. This table
is useful in computations required by the moment-area method.

MOMENT DIAGRAM OF A CANTILVER BEAM WITH DIFFERENT LOADS

SAMPLE PROBLEM #6: CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
For the overhanging beam, determine the magnitude and sense of EI over the support at C. The conjugate-beam method generally provides a more convenient means of computing slopes
and deflections of beams than the moment-area method. This method is preferred by many
engineers because of its systematic sign convention and straightforward application, which
does not require sketching the elastic curve of the structure. The method is based on the
analogy between the relationships among load, shear, and bending moment and the
relationships among M/EI, slope, and deflection. Therefore, if the M/EI diagram is applied as
the load on a fictitious beam, then the shear and bending moment at any point on the fictitious
beam will be equal to the slope and deflection, respectively, at the corresponding point on the
original real beam. The fictitious beam is referred to as the conjugate beam, and it is defined as
follows:

A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same length as the
real beam, and if it is loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and deflection
at the corresponding point on the real beam.

Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.

Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment
at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE BEAM

1) The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual beam.
2) The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual beam.
3) A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate beam.
4) A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
5) The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero slope for the
real beam.
6) The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of maximum
deflection for the real beam.
SUPPORTS OF CONJUGATE BEAM EXAMPLES OF REAL AND CONJUGATE BEAMS
When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and moment developed at the
supports of the conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and displacement of the
real beam at its supports,

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Conjugate Beam
 Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam. This beam has the same length as the real
beam and has corresponding supports.
 The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beam’s M/EI diagram. This loading is
assumed to be distributed over the conjugate beam and is directed upward when M/EI
is positive and downward when M/EI is negative. In other words, the loading always
acts away from the beam.
Equilibrium
 Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the reactions at the conjugate beam’s
supports.
 Section the conjugate beam at the point where the slope  and displacement  of the
real beam are to be determined. At the section show the unknown shear V’ and moment
M’ acting in their positive sense.
 Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium. V’ and M’ equal
 and , respectively, for the real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the
slope is counterclockwise and the displacement is upward.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #7: SAMPLE PROBLEM #8:
Compute the midspan value of EIy for the simply supported beam carrying a uniformly Compute the value of EIy at the right end of the cantilever beam.
distributed load over part of its span.
VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

BEAMS AND FRAMES:

The method of virtual work can also be applied to deflection problems involving beams and
frames.

Virtual-Work Equation:
L L
mM m M
1  

0
EI
dx (deflection) 1  

0
EI
dx (slope)

Where: Where:
1 = external virtual load acting on the beam or m = internal virtual moment in a beam or
frame in the direction of . frame, expresses as a function of x and
m = internal virtual moment in a beam or frame, caused by the external virtual unit
expresses as a function of x and caused by moment.
the external virtual unit load.
 = external displacement of the point caused by
the real loads acting on the beam or frame.
M = internal moment in the beam or frame,
expressed as a function of x and caused by
the real loads.
E = modulus of elasticity of a member.
I = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area,
computed about the neutral axis.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #9:

For the overhanging beam, compute the value of slope and deflection under the 15-kN load.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #10:
Determine the slope at A. Take The moment of inertia of each segment of the frame is indicated
in the figure. Assume D is a pin support. Use the method of virtual work.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #11:

Use the method of virtual work and determine the horizontal deflection at C. EI is constant.
There is a pin at A. Assume C is a roller and B is a fixed joint.
TRUSSES:
We can use the method of virtual work to determine the displacement of a truss joint when the
truss is subjected to an external loading, temperature change, or fabrication errors.

VIRTUAL-WORK EQUATION:


nNL
1  
AE
Where:
1 = external virtual load acting on the truss joint in the
stated direction of .
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused
by the external virtual unit load.
 = external joint displacement caused by the real loads
on the truss.
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the
real loads.
L = length of a member.
A = cross=sectional area of a member.
E = modulus of elasticity of a member.

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS:

Virtual Forces n
• Place the unit load on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to be determined.
The load should be in the same direction as the specified displacement, e.g., horizontal or
vertical.
• With the unit load so placed, and all the real loads removed from the truss, use the method of
joints or the method of sections and calculate the internal n force in each truss member. Assume
that tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.
Real Forces N
• Use the method of sections or the method of joints to determine the N force in each member.
These forces are caused only by the real loads acting on the truss. Again, assume tensile forces
are positive and compressive forces are negative.
Virtual-Work Equation
• Apply the equation of virtual work, to determine the desired displacement. It is important to
retain the algebraic sign for each of the corresponding n and N forces when substituting these
terms into the equation.
• If the resultant sum  nNL / AE is positive, the displacement  is in the same direction as
the unit load. If a negative value results,  is opposite to the unit load.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #11: SAMPLE PROBLEM #12:
Determine the vertical displacement of joint D. Use the method of virtual work. AE is constant. Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss. Each member has a cross-sectional
Assume the members are pin connected at their ends. area of A = 300 mm2. E = 200 GPa. Use the method of virtual work.