D IV IN E

Y D RO
H LORER FL UX
EXP S
BASIC SUBSURFACE
FLOW
(Steady State Condition)
 Contents
01 02
Groundwater Hydrology Law of Darcy

03 04
Radial Flow in Confined and Travel Time of Groundwater in a
Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer
GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY
is the scientific study of the quantity, quality,
mobility, and distribution of water beneath the
earth's surface. The field of groundwater hydrology
is sometimes known as geohydrology or
hydrogeology, with the former referring to
hydrologic practice and the latter to geological
practice. Ground water is an important source of
water supply for municipalities, agriculture, and
industry. It may be characterized according to
vertical distribution, indicating the main divisions of
subsurface water.
BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW
Subsurface flow is typically more slower than
surface drainage, allowing. Groundwater to give
perennial base-flow to streams far into a drought
season, long after surface storm runoff has been
released. In hydrology, the flow of water beneath the
earth's surface is part of The water cycle occurs
when precipitation falls on the earth's land. Water
travels across the surface, generating streams and
rivers.
 TYPES OF FLOW
01 02
In subsurface steady flow, the velocity of In subsurface unsteady (or transient) flow,
groundwater at any given point within the the velocity of groundwater and the pressure
aquifer does not change over time. This head at any given point within the aquifer
means that the rate at which water enters change over time. This variation can be due to
a portion of the subsurface equals the changes in recharge rates, groundwater
rate at which it exits, leading to a extraction, seasonal variations, or other
constant state of flow at every point. factors affecting the water balance.
 Main Divisions of Subsurface Water
Aeration or Unsaturated Zone Saturated Zone
refers to a portion of the Earth's
also known as the vadose zone, is the subsurface where all the spaces and
area of subsurface above the water table fractures within soil, sediment, or rock are
where the soil pores are not completely completely filled with water. This zone lies
filled with water. Instead, these pores beneath the unsaturated zone, where
contain a mixture of air and water. spaces might only be partially filled with
water, with the rest being occupied by air
or gases.
Subzones within Aeration Zone
01 Soil water zone
is also called the root zone, which extends from the
ground surface down through the major root zone,
varying with soil type and vegetation. This region
contains;

•the roots of surface vegetation,

•voids left by decayed roots of earlier vegetation,
•animal
•worm burrows.
Subzones within Aeration Zone
01 Soil water zone
Types of soil water:
Hygroscopic water remains adsorbed to the surface
of soil grains while
Gravitational water drains through the soil under
the influence of gravity.
The maximum moisture content in the soil-water
zone is called the field capacity, and the thickness of
the soil-water zone is typically on the order of 1–3 m
(3–10 ft).
Subzones within Aeration Zone
02 Intermediate Zone

also called as vadose zone or the

gravitational zone, extends from the bottom
of the root zone to the top of the capillary
zone. Water moves through this zone under
gravitational forces, with some water held in
place by hygroscopic and capillary forces.
Subzones within Aeration Zone
03 Capillary Zone

extends from the water table up to the limit

of the capillary rise of the water from the
saturation zone which varies inversely with
the pore size of the soil and directly with the
surface tension.
The schematic of the hydrologic cycle shows that some
of the surface water passes into the ground; this water
represents soil moisture in the unsaturated zone, and it
is called ground water once it enters the zone of
saturation. The terms suspended water or vadose
water are used to refer to water in the zone of aeration;
in practice, this water is simply referred to as soil
moisture.
 Capillary rise can range from a few cm for fine gravel to more than
200 cm for silt. The thickness of the capillary zone depends on the
pore sizes in the material above the water table, and can vary from
around 1 cm (0.4 in.) for gravels to several meters for clays.
Capillary forces control the water content of the capillary zone.
Capillary water exists because water can be pulled upward from the
water table by surface tension.

Water in the zone of aeration may exist as gravity water (that is,
water that can drain under the force of gravity), capillary water
(that is, water retained by capillary forces), and hygroscopic
moisture (that is, water that adheres to the surface of the soil
particles as a thin film).
 Water table
-the level to which water will rise in a well drilled into the
saturated zone. Thickness may vary from a few feet for
high water table conditions to several hundred feet in arid
regions of the country.

The area above the water table is called the unsaturated

zone or zone of aeration, while the zone of saturation is
the area below the water table.
Four types of aquifer systems or saturated formations
An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient An aquitard is a saturated, low permeability stratum,
permeable material to yield significant quantities of such as a silty clay, that may leak water from one
water to wells and springs. It is generally areally aquifer to another. It is a formation through which only
extensive and may be overlain or underlain by seepage is possible and thus the yield is insignificant
confining beds. It transmits water relatively easily due compared to an aquifer. It is is partly permeable.
to its high permeability. i.e. unconsolidated deposits i.e. sandy clay
of sand and grave

An aquiclude is saturated and is a relatively An aquifuge is a geological formation that is

impermeable confining unit that might act as a neither porous nor permeable. It has no
confining layer above or below an aquifer interconnected openings and hence it cannot
system. It may be considered as closed to water transmit water. i.e. massive compact rock without
movement even though it may contain large any fractures
amounts of water due to its high porosity.
i.e. clay
 Confined aquifer/ Unconfined/ water
2 Types of Aquifer artesian well table aquifer

Confined between
A free water surface
two impervious
exists.
layers (aquitards/
Recharge takes
aquifuges)
place through
Recharge takes
infiltration of
place only in areas
precipitation on the
exposed to the
ground surface.
ground surface.
A well driven into an
Water is under
unconfined aquifer
pressure
will indicate a static
therefore its
water level
piezometric level
corresponding to
is much higher
the water table at
than the top level
that location.
of the aquifer.
 In essence, the main distinction lies in their
confinement and the way they are recharged, which
affects water availability, pressure, and quality. Both
unconfined and confined aquifers can be bounded by
semipervious formations called aquitards such as
sandy clay, which are significantly less permeable
than the aquifer but are not impervious.
LAW OF DARCY
Henri Darcy investigated the flow of water
through beds of permeable sand and
established the hydraulic principles of the
movement of ground water. Darcy’s law states
that “the flow rate through porous media is
proportional to the head loss and inversely
proportional to the length of the flow path.”
This forms the basis for the governing ground
water flow equations applied to well
hydraulics and ground water hydrology.
LAW OF DARCY
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock depends on a variety of
physical factors and is an indication of an aquifer’s ability to
transmit water. Thus, sand aquifers have K values many orders of
magnitude larger than clay units.
it can be defined as the ability of the fluid to pass through the
pores and fractured rocks
hydraulics conductivity and transmissivity are the measures of
how well the porous medium can transmit water.
it defines how easily pore fluid escapes from the compacted
pore space.
refers to the coefficient of proportionality in Darcy's law
describing liquid flow through porous media.
Hydraulic conductivity K is usually expressed in m/day (ft/day)
The geologic factors that primarily influence
streambed hydraulic conductivity are:
sediment particle size bed material depth
substratum channel geometry
heterogeneity variations in hydraulic
longitudinal variations radius
in impervious surfaces roughness due to
such as bedrock and natural.
sills
 K=Q/iA
or
K=q/dh/dx
Sample Problem
the property of the soil to transmit water
and air and is one of the most important
qualities to consider for fish culture. A
pond built in impermeable soil will lose
little water through seepage. The more
permeable the soil, the greater the
seepage.
 Transmissivity, T is a term often used in ground water
hydraulics as applied to confined aquifers. It is defined as the
product of K and the average saturated thickness of the
aquifer, B.

T=KB
It is usually expressed in m^2/day (ft^2 /day).
RADIAL FLOW IN CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Steady-state Well Hydraulics
The case of steady flow to a well implies that the
variation of the head occurs only in space and not in
time. The governing equations can be solved for
pumping wells in unconfined or confined aquifers
under steady or unsteady conditions. Boundary
conditions must be kept relatively simple, and
aquifers must be assumed to be homogeneous and
isotropic in each layer.
 Steady Radial Flow to a Well—Confined
The drawdown curve, or
cone of depression, varies
with distance from a
pumping well in a confined
aquifer. The flow is assumed
two dimensional for a
completely penetrating well
in a homogeneous, isotropic
aquifer of unlimited extent.
For horizontal flow, the
assumptions apply 𝑄 at any 𝑟
equals, from Darcy’s law,
 Sample Problem
Determination of K AND T in a Confined Aquifer
A well is constructed to pump water from a confined
aquifer. Two observation wells, MW1 and MW2, are
constructed at distances of 100 m and 1000 m,
respectively. Water is pumped from the pumping well
at a rate of 0.2𝑚^3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛. At steady state, drawdown is
observed as 2 m in MW2 and 8 m in MW1. Note that
drawdown is greater (8 m) for well MW1 located
closest to the pumping well. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity 𝐾 and transmissivity 𝑇 if the aquifer is 20
m thick.
 Sample Problem
Determination of K AND T in a Confined Aquifer
Solution:
Given:
𝑄 = 0.2𝑚^3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑟2 = 1000𝑚
𝑟1 = 100𝑚
𝑠′2 = 2𝑚
𝑠′1 = 8𝑚
𝑏 = 20𝑚
Steady Radial Flow to a Well—Unconfined
 Sample Problem
Determination of K in an Unconfined Aquifer
A fully penetrating well discharges 75 gpm from
an unconfined aquifer. The original water table
was recorded as 35 ft. After a long time period
the water table was recorded as 20 ft MSL in an
observation well located 75 ft away and 34 ft
MSL at an observation well located 2000 ft
away. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of
this aquifer in ft/s.
 Sample Problem
Determination of K in an Unconfined Aquifer

Given: Solution:
Q = 75 gpm
r2 = 2000 ft
r1 = 75 ft
h2 = 34 ft
h1 = 20 ft
TRAVEL TIME IN CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
How does Groundwater move?
Groundwater moves more slowly than water
flowing down a river or stream. It moves mainly
under gravity from areas of high groundwater levels
or pressure to areas of low groundwater levels or
pressure – in other words it flows downhill. It is also
possible for groundwater to move horizontally
across an aquitard and even upwards when it is
under very high pressure known as artesian
pressure.
TRAVEL TIME IN CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED AQUIFER

How quickly does it move?

This depends on the aquifer material. For example
in aquifers made up of porous material it moves
faster than in aquifers made up of material that is
more tightly compacted. Groundwater moves
slowly compared with the faster flowing water of
rivers and streams.
TRAVEL TIME IN CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Flow systems
Groundwater moves as part of local, intermediate
or regional flow systems. Local flow systems are
short and groundwater moves through them
quickly. Regional flows systems are very long and
groundwater can take decades, hundreds or
thousands of years to move from recharge point to
discharge point.
Characteristics of Local, Intermediate,
and Regional flow system
Q=K/iA
V=Q/A=Ki
V=kγi/μ
Vs=V/P
 Sample Problem
A confined aquifer that is 2.4 mi wide and 65
ft thick. The hydraulic conductivity for the
sandy soil is 0.035 ft/sec, and the porosity is
0.35. The water surface elevation in two
observation wells, which are located 800 ft
apart is 7.2 ft therefore, the hydraulic
gradient is 0.009 ft/ft. The rate of flow is.
 Sample Problem
Given:
K= 0.035 ft/sec
Solution:
i= 0.009 ft/ft
width = 2.4 mi
length = 65 ft
800 ft to ft/mi=5,279.8 ft/mi
or 5280 ft/mi Darcy Velocity,

Seepage Velocity, V= Q/A =Ki

V= (0.035 ft/sec)(0.009 ft/ft)
Vs= V/P
V= 0.000315 ft/sec
Vs= 0.000315 ft/sec /(0.35)
Vs= 0.0009 ft/sec
 Sample Problem
Solution:
Therefore the travel time from the recharge area to
a point of interest (6mi from the recharge area) is:
Tt= L/V
Tt= 6mi (5280 ft/mi)/(0.0009 ft/sec)(3600sec/hr)
Tt= 6mi (5280 ft/mi)/(0.0009 ft)(3600sec/hr)(24 hr/day)
Tt= 407.41 days or 407 days
Questions
THANK
OU
Y !
 Team leader:
Camil Joyce Pialane
Group Members:
Michelle Morales
Ellen Mae Pormanes
Christian Vian Omas-as
Leamor Monilar
Julhani Fernando
Nicole Allen Iremedio
Fidelito Fernandez