Module No.

4
Nature and Properties of Sound Waves
Waves and Optics
SCI 117

This course discusses the fundamental concepts of mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
It describes the production and propagation of waves, its characteristics, types and properties. It
also deals with the simple harmonic motion. This course also gives emphasis on the nature and
duality of light with emphasis on physical and geometric optics. Concepts and principles on sound
propagation is also included. Learning waves and optics allows the students to gain insights on the
importance of waves on daily activities and applies the concepts and principles in problem solving.

Total Learning Time: 6 hours per week

Can you imagine what kind of world this would be if you could not hear sounds? Imagine
that you are asked to describe sound and hearing to someone who has been unable to hear since
birth. Probably, you will start by describing the sounds of voices, music, radio, television, animals
and machines. Additionally, you might describe the physical functions of the human ear.

You learn much about the world around you through sounds. You communicate with other
people by means of sound of speech. Some animals like monkeys and birds communicate with
each other through sound. Sometimes they are able to detect the presence of their enemies even at
far distances through sound. The explosion of a fire crackers or fireworks especially during New
Year’s Eve from a far place which be heard by a human ear can cause a dog to run and look for a
hiding place. Dogs and cats have the hearing abilities much keener than that of humans and reaches
into the ultrasound region.

Trivia: A sleeping cat can hear a mouse 45 m away while a cat that is awake can recognize
a mouse 60 m away. Cats can easily pinpoint a mouse location through sound because the
construction of their ears is such that they can listen in all directions without moving their heads.

Sounds can be interpreted by listener in different ways. To the old folks, rock music is
noise but to teenagers like you, it is something enjoyable and danceable. To some
environmentalists, the chirping of birds every morning is one indication of a healthy surroundings.

Sound waves form one of the major sensory link to the world. It is just and important that
we need to understand how is sound produced, transmitted and received. It is also empirical to
give focus on its properties and hearing.

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 In this module, the characteristics of sound waves, its properties and Doppler effect are the
focus of discussion.

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. explain how sound waves are produced, transmitted and received

2. compare and solve the speed of sound in different media
3. discuss the different properties of sound
4. explain Doppler effect
5. solve problems involving speed, wavelength, frequency of sound and Doppler effect
accurately

1. Nature of Sound Waves

2. Characteristics of Sound Waves
3. Properties of Sound Waves
4. Doppler Effect

The term sound means different things to different people. To a physiologist, sound is the
sensation produced when a pressure disturbance of proper frequency reaches the ear. To a
physicist, sound denotes a disturbances (waves) themselves, rather than sensation produced. You
learned previously that sound waves are compressional waves produced by longitudinal vibrations
of molecule sin gases and other media. Vibration of molecules refers to the to – and – fro
oscillations of molecules and a disturbance travels through a medium. This vibratory motion
produces a sensation that reaches our ears and is interpreted by our brain. Sound waves that travel
in air come in contact with our eardrums. The vibration of the air force our eardrums to vibrate.
The capacity of matter to transmit sound depends upon its property called elasticity. Elastic
solids are good media fro transmitting sound. Solids that do not possess much elastic like cloth,
rubber, plastics and sponge are poor media for sound transmission. Liquids in general are better
conductors of sound than gases. Between liquids and solids, the particles of solids are even closer
than in liquids, therefore, sounds are more easily transmitted in solids.
The human ear is sensitive to frequencies within the audible range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Longitudinal vibrations with frequencies higher than 20 kHz are referred to as ultrasonic while

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those below 20 Hz are infrasonic. Human ear is not sensitive to ultrasonic and infrasonic
vibrations. Bats can hear up to 50 kHz and sea lions up to 100 kHz.
Table 1: Frequencies of Commonly Heard Sounds
Source Frequency (Hz)
Lowest piano note 27.50
Male speaking voice (average) 120
Female speaking voice (average) 250
Middle C of piano 261.83
A above middle C 440
Highest piano note 4181.01

Characteristics of Sound
How do sounds differ? The crack of a thunder may be very loud, a whisper may be soft
and low, a cicada sound is shrill, a dog’s growl is like a deep bass. Some voices have a pleasing
quality while others do not. This indicates that sounds differ. Each is distinct from the other.
Sounds may be regarded as “fingerprints” of the objects producing them. They differ from one
another due to:
1. Pitch
2. Loudness
3. Quality
The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency sound
wave. Amazingly, many people, especially those who have been musically trained, are capable of detecting
a difference in frequency between two separate sounds that is as little as 2 Hz. When two sounds with a
frequency difference of greater than 7 Hz are played simultaneously, most people are capable of detecting
the presence of a complex wave pattern resulting from the interference and superposition of the two sound
waves. Certain sound waves when played (and heard) simultaneously will produce a particularly pleasant
sensation when heard, are said to be consonant. Such sound waves form the basis of intervals in music.
Some sounds are low, others are high. Pitch is determined by our senses. The frequency of sound
on the other hand determines the pitch of a sound. The higher the frequency of a sound wave, the higher
the pitch. Pitch can be change through various ways. People change the pitch of their voice by adjusting the
opening of their vocal cords. When the opening is small, the pitch is high. When it is wide, the pitch is low.
Changing the shape of the mouth can also change the voice pitch. Musical notes have different frequencies.
Pitch is changed every time an instrument player needs a particular note. For example, it the musician needs
the note ti from his instrument, he has to change the pitch to locate ti in the musical scale.
Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object. For example, a vibrating
guitar string forces surrounding air molecules to be compressed and expanded, creating a pressure
disturbance consisting of an alternating pattern of compressions and
rarefactions. The disturbance then travels from particle to particle
through the medium, transporting energy as it moves. The energy
that is carried by the disturbance was originally imparted to the
medium by the vibrating string. The amount of energy that is
transferred to the medium is dependent upon the amplitude of
vibrations of the guitar string. If more energy is put into the plucking
of the string (that is, more work is done to displace the string a
greater amount from its rest position), then the string vibrates with
a greater amplitude. The greater amplitude of vibration of the guitar string thus imparts more energy to the
medium, causing air particles to be displaced a greater distance from their rest position. Subsequently, the
amplitude of vibration of the particles of the medium is increased, corresponding to an increased amount
of energy being carried by the particles.
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 If a small pebble were thrown with force into the water, the waves to be produced would have
greater amplitude than when the pebble were dropped into the water gently. When a bow is drawn lightly
across a violin string a small amount of energy is imparted to the string. The resulting sound is not very
intense. A more vigorous bowing increases the amplitude and the sound becomes more intense. A big drum
produces more waves than a smaller one and therefore creates a more intense sound. Thus, sound intensity
increases as the amplitude and the area of a vibrating body increases. Sometimes an intense sound may not
seem very loud. Its either you are too far from the source to hear it distinctly or the medium is a poor
transmitter. Loudness also depend on the listener. What may be loud to some may be soft to others.
Therefore, loudness is relative.

Loudness cannot be directly measured since it depends on the ear and subjective judgment
of the listener. Usually, a sound that seems to be very loud is described as very intense. This is a
qualitative way of describing sound on the part of the listener.
Sound intensity is closely related to intensity. Sound intensity is the rate at which the
energy of sound waves passed on through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of the wave
motion. The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the greater the rate
at which energy is transported through it, and the more intense that the sound wave is. Intensity is
the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent to the quantity power, intensity
is simply the power/area.
𝐸 1 𝑃
𝐼= . =
𝑡 𝐴 𝐴

The bel named after Alexander Graham Bell, is the unit of sound intensity. A smaller unit
decibel is often used. For decibel sound level,
𝐼
𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log ( ) = 10 (log 𝐼 − log 𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑜
where:
I = sound intensity
Io = a reference sound intensity equal to 1x10 10 -12 W / m2
Sound intensity may also be expressed as
𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 {log 𝐼 − log 1 𝑥 10 −12 )} 𝑏𝑢𝑡
log(1 𝑥 10 −12 ) = log 1 + log 10−12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 log 1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑔10−12
= - 12 (log of 10 raised to a certain exponent is equal to its exponent), so log (1x10 -12)
= -12. Substituting the value = -12 in the previous equation,
Sound level (dB) = 10 (log I + 12)
= 10 log I + 120
Loudness may be increased in three ways:
1. the energy of sound is increased
2. sound waves are prevented from spreading in different directions
3. sound waves are collected and focused at the receiving end

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Example 1
Table 2: Sound Intensities (Approximate) at Different
What is the intensity level of the noise Sound Levels in dB
created by children playing in the
playground? The sound intensity of the
noise is 10 -5 W/m2.
Given: I = 10 -5 W/m2
Intensity level I= ?
I = 10 log I + 120
= 10 log (10 -5) + 120
= 10 (-5) + 120
= 70 dB
Sound quality (timbre)
distinguishes sounds form one another.
Two sounds of the same pitch may not
sound the same. Sound quality also
allows you to tell your friend’s voice
from that of the other. It can also be
used to distinguish the voice of a singer
from that of another. For example,
versions of “Jingle Bells” by Michael
Buble and Madonna will sound
remarkably different because of
differences in the timbres of their voices. The same note emitted by two violins may sound the
same to the untrained ear, but others may detect variations in timbre, which are due to geometry
and physical attributes of the violin itself as well as a violin note depends on which modes of
vibration of the violin string are dominant.
Speed of Sound
Table 3: speed of Sound in Various Media
An observer standing at a distance from a gun will
see the flash of light before hearing the sound of the gunshot.
Similarly, thunder is heard a few seconds after the flash of
lightning is seen. These facts are proofs that sound travels
more slowly than light. It has been found that the velocity of
sound varies in different media. Velocity depends upon the
elasticity and density of the medium. The more elastic the
medium, the higher the sounds’ velocity. The velocity of
sound is greater in solid medium than in a liquid or gas
because the elasticity of solids is much greater than that of
liquids and gases.
Accurate measurements of the speed of sound in air
has been made at various temperatures and air pressures. At
normal atmospheric pressure and 00C, the speed of sound in
air is 331 m/s (some books have 332 m/s). If the air pressure
remains constant, the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases. The speed of sound
depends on the properties of the medium. Sound travels markedly fast in solids and liquids.
For every rise in temperature of 10C, the speed of sound in air increases by 0.6 m/s. The
speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

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 𝑚/𝑠 𝑚
𝑣 = 331 + (0.6 ) 𝑇
⁰C 𝑠
where T = air temperature in 0C.
Example 2
Calculate the speed of sound in air when the temperature is 16 0C.
T = 160C v=?
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 331 𝑠 + (0.6 ) 𝑇 = 331 𝑠 + (0.6 ) (160 C)
⁰C 𝑠 ⁰𝐶 𝑠
= 340.6 𝑚/𝑠
The speed of sound can be calculated using the same equations used to find the speed of a
longitudinal wave in a medium.
Example 3
Calculate the speed of sound through copper. The Young’s modulus of copper is 11 x 10 10 N/m2;
its density is 8.9 x 10 3 kg/m3.
Given:
Y = 11 x 10 10 N/m2 ρ = 8.9 x 10 3 kg/m3 v=?

𝑁
ϒ 11 x 10 10 2
𝑣=√ = √ 𝑚 = 3500 𝑚/𝑠
ρ 𝑘𝑔
8.9 x 10 3 3
𝑚
Doppler Effect
If you live near a railroad track, you have probably observed that the pitch of the noise of
a train increases as it comes nearer and decreases a sit recedes away. When the sound source, or
the listener or both are in motion, the frequency heard by the listener is not the same when the
source or the listener or both are at rest. The source of the sun and the listener can either move
toward or away from each other. The phenomenon involved in these situations is called Doppler
effect.
Doppler effect was
named after its discoverer,
Christian Doppler, an
Austrian mathematician and
physicist. It is the apparent
change in frequency heard
from a sound source that is
in motion relative to the
listener. When the source is
coming closer, the frequency
seems to increase. When the
source is moving away, the When the source of sound and the listener are moving toward each other,
frequency seems to an even higher frequency is heard by the listener. When both are moving
decrease. Note that this away from each other, the listener hears a lower frequency.
change in frequency is
perceived only by the listener.

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 Doppler derived the equation to give the apparent frequency fʹ of a sound coming from a
moving source:
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿
𝑓ʹ = 𝑓 { }
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆
where f = actual frequency v = velocity of the sound
𝑣𝐿 = velocity of the listener 𝑣𝑆 = velocity of the source

𝑣
The waves of a stationary source have a wavelength equal to 𝜆= 𝑓𝑠
where v is the speed of sound and fs is the frequency of the waves. To a listener moving
towards the source, the frequency of the wave reaching the listener, 𝑓𝑙 𝑖𝑠
𝑓𝐿= 𝑣+𝑣𝐿
𝜆

𝑓𝐿= 𝑣+𝑣𝐿
𝑣
𝑓𝑆

𝑓𝑙=[𝑣+ 𝑣𝐿 ]
𝑣

where 𝑣𝐿 = is the speed of the listener. Relative to the listener, the speed of the waves is
[𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿 ]. If both source of the sound and the listener are moving, the wavelength is no longer
𝑣
𝜆 = 𝑓 . The speed of sound is still equal to v and is not changed by the motion of the source. If the
𝑠
𝑣
source is moving, the wavelength is also not equal to 𝜆 = . When the source is moving towards
𝑓𝑠
the listener, the waves in front of the source have a wavelength of
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑆
𝜆=
𝑓𝑆
while when moving away from the listener, the wavelength of the waves behind the source is
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆
𝜆=
𝑓𝑆
Thus, when the source is moving away, the frequency of the wave reaching the listener can be
derived as follows:
𝑣+ 𝑣𝑆 𝑣+ 𝑣𝐿
𝑓𝐿= [𝑣+ 𝑣𝐿] where 𝜆= = [𝑣+ 𝑣𝑆 ] / 𝑓𝑆
𝜆 𝑓𝑆

𝑓 𝑓
𝑓 𝑣+ 𝑣𝐿 or 𝑣+𝐿𝑣 = 𝑣+𝑆𝑣
𝑆= [ ] 𝐿 𝑆
𝑣+ 𝑣𝑆

This equation expresses the frequency heard by the listener in terms of the frequency of the source.
If the listener is at rest, 𝑣𝐿 is 0. When the source and the listener are at rest, or have the same
velocity, then 𝑣𝐿 = 𝑣𝑆 and 𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓𝑆 . If the listener is moving away from the source, 𝑣𝐿 is negative.
If the source is approaching the listener, 𝑣𝑆 is negative, if receding, 𝑣𝑆 is positive.
Example 4
a. With what speed is the boy moving away from a school bell if the observed frequency of the
bell is lowered by 10%, the speed of the sound being 335 m/s?
b. With what speed is a boy approaching the school bell if the observed frequency is increased by
12%?

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Given:
V sound = 335 m/s
a. f = fs = - 10% vL = ?
b. f = fs = +12% vL = ?

a. 𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑆 [ 𝑆 𝐿]
𝑣𝑆
𝑓𝑠−0.10𝑓𝑆= 𝑓 335
𝑚
− 𝑣𝐿 ; 0.90 𝑓𝑆= 𝑓 𝑚
; 335 m/s (0.90) = 335 m/s - 𝑣𝐿 ;
𝑆[ 𝑠 ] 335 − 𝑣𝐿
335 𝑚/𝑠 𝑆[ 𝑠 ]
335 𝑚/𝑠

301.5 m/s = 335 m/s - 𝑣𝐿 ; 𝑣𝐿 = 335 m/s – 301.5 m/s = 33.5 m/s
𝑚
𝑣𝑠+𝑣𝐿 335 +𝑣𝐿
𝑠
b. 𝑓𝑆 [ ] ; 𝑓𝑠+0.12𝑓𝑆 = 𝑓𝑠 [ ] ; 1.12𝑓𝑆 = 𝑓 𝑚
335 + 𝑣𝐿 ;
𝑣𝑆 335 𝑚/𝑠 𝑆[ 𝑠 ]
335 𝑚/𝑠

1.12 (335m/s) = 335 m/s + 𝑣𝐿 𝑣𝐿 = 40.2 𝑚/𝑠

1. A mosquito's buzz is often rated with a decibel rating of 40 dB. Normal conversation is often
rated at 60 dB. How many times more intense is normal conversation compared to a
mosquito's buzz?

2. In air, the speed of sound can be computed based on the formula

of a longitudinal wave in a
gas. Use the following data to calculate the speed of sound in air:
ϒ = 1.40 M = 28.8 x 10 -3 kg/mol T = 25 0C
R = 8.315 J/mol.K

3. Two students with vibrating 440 Hz tuning forks walk away from each
other with equal speed. How fast must they walk so that they each hear
a frequency of 438 Hz from the other fork? Use the value of 347 m/s
for the speed of sound.

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