GENERAL EDUCATION 1

Intellectual Competencies: Purposive Communication in English

Purposive Communication in English is about writing, speaking, and presenting to different audiences and for
various purposes (CMO 20, series of 2013).
Differences between written and spoken language:

Written English Spoken English

Flow of language permanent ephemeral

Organization highly structured less particular with structure

Register both formal and informal mostly informal

Language is a method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a
structured and conventional way.
Views of language:

1. Language is a system of systems.

It means that language is composed of multiple interrelated subsystems, each with its own rules and
structures. These subsystems include:
Phonology (sound system): Rules about how sounds are used and combined.
Morphology (word formation): Rules about how words are formed from smaller units like roots and affixes.
Syntax (sentence structure): Rules governing how words are arranged to form sentences.
Semantics (meaning): How meanings are conveyed by words and sentences.
Pragmatics (contextual use): How language is used in social and cultural contexts.

2. Language is arbitrary.
The statement "Language is arbitrary" means that there is no inherent or natural connection between the
words in a language (symbols or sounds) and the objects, actions, or ideas they represent. The meanings of words
are determined by social conventions and agreements within a linguistic community, not by any intrinsic qualities
of the words themselves. For example, the word "tree" in English and "árbol" in Spanish both refer to the same
concept, but there is nothing about the sounds of these words that inherently connects them to the object they
describe.

3. Language is primarily vocal.

The statement "Language is primarily vocal" means that language is mainly expressed and transmitted
through spoken sounds or speech. While language can also be conveyed through writing, gestures, or sign
systems, its most natural and fundamental form is vocal communication, where sounds are used to represent
words and convey meaning.

Acquisition is the subconscious process of knowing the language that occurs in a natural communication between
or among people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end in itself.
Learning is the conscious process of knowing a language that occurs in a formal situation where the properties or
rules of a language are taught.
Language Contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact and influence each
other.
Grammar refers to the rules for speaking or writing a particular language, or an analysis of the rules of a
particular aspect of language. (Check the other file for grammar.)

Language is dynamic.
Language barrows words (1. loan words) from other languages.
French terms in English:
a la carte, laissez faire, bon voyage, menu
Latin terms in law:
de facto, in pari delicto, de jure, prima facie
Other formation processes:
2. Acronyms are formed by taking the letters of some or all the words in a phrase or title and
reading them as word.
UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund),
NATO (North Atlantic Treat Orgnization), ACAS (Advisory, Coalition and Arbitration

3. Clipping is the shortening of a longer word, often reducing it to one syllable.

prof - professor, burger – hamburger, ref – refrigerator

4. Blending is usually formed from the first part of first word and the final part of a second one.
brunch (breakfast and lunch) smog (smoke and fog)
spam (spiced and ham) telethon (telephone and marathon)

5. Backformation occurs when the supposed affix is removed from the word.
housekeep (housekeeper), enthuse (enthusiasm), donate (donation)

6. Onomatopoeia refers to words whose sound represents an aspect of the thing that they name.
buzz, hiss, sizzle, and cuckoo.

7. Word manufacture/coinage/invention occurs when industry requires a new and attractive

name for product.
kleenex (facial tissue), or xerox (photocopy).

8. Conversion is a process that assigns an already existing word to anew syntactic category. It is
also called zero derivation.
The shirt is dirty. (adjective) Don’t dirty your shirt. (verb)

English and Tagalog Phonologies

Phonology is the study of the organization and function of speech sounds.

It is also defined as the study of the speech sounds used in a language.
Phonetics – is the study of the production (articulatory), transmission (acoustic) and perception (auditive) of
sounds.
Phoneme – is the smallest meaningful unit of sound
The word ‘man’ has three phonemes = m, a, n
Allophone - any of the various phonetic realizations of a phoneme in a language, which do not contribute
 to distinctions of meaning. For example, in English an aspirated p (as in pin) and unaspirated p (as
in spin) are allophones of the phoneme /p/,
Phonemic Awareness – is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds

There are 26 letters in the English alphabet, but we can possibly produce with as many as 44 phonemes.
There are English words with silent letters. This causes difficulties for English learners because the spelling
of words is very different from their pronunciation.
Stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to specific syllable in a word, or to a specific word in a
phrase or sentence.
1. Primary stress is marked with a raised vertical line [ˈ] at the beginning of the syllable.
[ˈfotə,ɡræf] photograph
2. Secondary stress is marked with a lowered vertical line [ˌ] at the beginning of the syllable.
[ˈfotə,ɡræf] photograph
3. Tertiary or weak stress (ʌ)
Pitch is the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness
4 levels of pitch:
4 extra high
3 high
2 normal
1 low
Intonation is the rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
3 types of intonation:
1. 231↓ falling intonation - This intonation contour occurs in declarative, commands, & wh-questions.
Example: We watched a movie. (statement or declarative sentence)
Read the announcement. (command)
What is your name? (question)
2. 233↑ rising intonation -This intonation contour occurs in yes-no question.
Example: He is an actor. (Yes-no question in statement form)
Are you coming? (Yes-no question in question form)
3. 232→ sustained intonation – This intonation occurs in incomplete sentence.
Example: If you will notice (initial grammatical unit)

Juncture is an interruption, break or pause made between words in utterances or between “breath groups
“in sentences.
Nitrate = night + rate
ice cream = I + scream

Vocabulary
Context clues are hints an author provides to help define a difficult or unusual word.
Types of Context Clues

Strategies for unlocking vocabulary:

1. Do the structural analysis.
2. Find clue that makes the vocabulary word positive or negative. Then, rule out all the positive or negative choices.
3. Find clues in the sentence that can be associated with the vocabulary word. Then, rule out all the unrelated
choices.
4. Rule out the answer choices that do NOT have the word classification or category of the given vocabulary word.
5. Rule out the answer choices that are unfamiliar. Pick the answer from any of those unfamiliar words once nothing
from the remaining familiar answer choices will be synonymous to the given vocabulary word.
6. Test your definition in place of the unfamiliar word (substitution).
Communication
- comes from the Latin word “communicare” “to share” or “to make common”
- the process of understanding and sharing meaning
Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, and feelings by one individual to another
Nature of Communication
- It is much more than words.
- It is a process.
- It is between two or more people.

Models of Communication Processes

1. Linear Model – one way process with no external feedback

A. Aristotle’s Model (300 B.C.) – It is a communication model which can be used to develop
public speaking skills or to create propaganda.
B. Lasswell’s Model (1948) – It is the “In which channel” as it describes an act of communication
by defining who said it, what was said, in what in what channel it was said, to whom, it was
said, and with what effect it was said.
C. Shannon-Weaver’s Model (1949) – It emphasizes the sender, message, medium, and
receiver, but its focus is on the technical aspects (like noise) that can disrupt communication. It
is more suited for scenarios where communication might face interference.
D. Berlo’s SMCR Model (1960) – It believes that for effective communication to take place, the
source and the receiver need to be on the same level.

2. Interactive Model – is a two-way communication process.

A. Schramm’s Model (1949) – It emphasizes that effective communication occurs when both the
sender and receiver share common ground or experience.
B. Osgood-Schramm’s Model (1954) – It emphasizes the interaction and feedback between the
sender and receiver, but it focuses more on the cyclical process of encoding and decoding between
the two parties.

3. Transactional Model – two-way process and more simultaneous as it has direct and immediate
feedback.
A. Dance’s Helical Model (1967) – It disagrees with the concept of linearity and circularity
individually, and introduces the concept of time and continuous communication process.
B. Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970) – It emphasizes a multi-layered feedback system for
all parties involved and recognizes that anyone can be a sender and receiver anytime. Shared
field of experience is also its strength.
Types of Contexts in Communication
 1. Physical context
The physical context is the environment where the communication takes place.
2. Psychological context
Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter.
3. Relational context
The relational context is the relationship between the communicators that influences the other
aspects of communication.
4. Situational context
The situational context implies that a speaker and a listener share physically some common
knowledge in their present communication.
5. Cultural context
Cultural context is related to the society where individuals are raised in and at how the culture affects
behavior.
6. Social context
Social context is the sociocultural forces that shape people's day-to-day experiences and that directly
and indirectly affect health and behavior (Pasick & Burke, 2008).

Elements of Communication
Sender - one who crafts a message, idea, or information
Encoding - process of converting idea or thoughts of the information into symbols
Message - the information, idea, thought, etc. that the speaker wants to convey
Channel - means of transmission or distribution of the message
Interference - a hindrance that prevents effective communication
Decoding - receiver’s mental processing of interpreting message into meaning
Receiver - for whom the message was created and one who receives it
Feedback - the receiver’s response or reaction to the sender’s message
Environment - physical and psychological space where the communication happens
Context - common and shared understanding of the situation, social norms, etc.

Types of Noise/Barrier/Interference
1. Psychological refers to thoughts that hamper the message to be interpreted correctly by the receiver.
2. Physiological relates to person’s health and fitness.
3. Linguistic/Semantic refers to differences in word usage and meaning of words cause confusion.
4. Cultural refers to misunderstanding of meaning, caused by cultural differences between sender and
receiver.
5. Physical refers to environmental factors that limit the sending and receiving of messages.
6. Mechanical flaw in the machinery, instruments, or channel used to convey the message.
7. Organizational occurs when you are unaware of, or you ignore expected communication channels in
your organization.

Classification of Communication
1. According to Mode
- Verbal (Oral and Written)
- Non-Verbal (Body Language, Hand Gestures, Facial Expressions)
- Visual (Illustrations, Charts, Photo, Drawings, Maps)
2. According to Context
- Intrapersonal – within an individual
- Interpersonal (Dyadic and Small Group)
- Extended Communication – with the use of technological tools
- Organizational Communication – business environments
- Intercultural Communication – among people of diverse cultures
- Mass Communication – to large audience through different modes
3. According to Purpose and Style
- Formal – it is carefully thought to selected audience to inform, persuade, and entertain
- Informal – casual and takes place in ordinary conversation to socialize

Forms of Nonverbal Communication

1. Kinesics – body movement
Gestures: Movements of the hands or arms to emphasize or illustrate speech.
Posture: How someone positions their body, which can indicate confidence, openness, or defensiveness.
Facial Expressions: Movements of the face to express emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, or
surprise.
 Eye Contact: The use of eye movements to engage, signal interest, or convey emotions.
Body Orientation: The direction a person faces, which can indicate attention or engagement.

Types of Gestures
A. Illustrators
Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as illustrators.
e.g., To say no, take your first two fingers and tap them with your thumb, resembling a mouth saying no.
B. Emblems
Gestures that serve the same function as a word
e.g., the hand movement used when hitch-hiking.
C. Regulators
Gestures used to give feedback when conversing
e.g., head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm’
D. Adaptors
Gestures which satisfy some physical need.
e.g., scratching head, adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or biting fingernails (when nervous)

2. Oculesics
Oculesics refers to the study of eye movement, eye behavior, and eye-related communication in nonverbal
communication. It involves analyzing aspects such as eye contact, gaze, blinking, and pupil dilation to interpret
emotions, intentions, and social cues.

3. Haptics
Haptics refers to the science and technology of transmitting and understanding information through touch.
It involves using tactile feedback, vibrations, or forces to simulate the sense of touch, allowing users to feel virtual
or remote objects.

Dimensions of Touch
1. Intensity - how delicate or how strong the touch is
2. Duration- how short or prolonged the touch is
3. Location - the area where the person was touched
4. Frequency - the number of touches that happen
5. Instrument of Touch – the touch with other body parts like feet, lips, and other objects

4. Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive space in social interactions.
Distance in proxemics is categorized into four main zones:
Intimate Distance (0–18 inches): Reserved for close relationships like family, close friends, or romantic
partners.
Personal Distance (18 inches–4 feet): Used for interactions with friends or acquaintances.
Social Distance (4–12 feet): Common in professional or formal settings, such as meetings or interactions
with strangers.
Public Distance (12 feet or more): Maintained during public speaking or addressing large groups.

5. Chronemics – time
Chronemics is the study of how time is perceived, structured, and used in communication and social
interactions. It examines how people manage and value time, which can vary significantly across cultures and
contexts.

6. Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication that accompany spoken language,
such as tone, pitch, volume, speed, intonation, and vocal quality.

7. Olfactic (Olfactory) smell/odor

It refers to the sense of smell, which is mediated by the olfactory system. This system detects and
processes airborne chemical molecules (odors) through receptors located in the nose's olfactory epithelium.

Grapevine Communication (Organizational)

1. Single Strand Chain - passing information through a line of persons to the ultimate recipient
2. Gossip Chain – only one person seeks and tells the information to everyone
3. Probability Chain - random process in which someone transmits the information from person to
person
4. Cluster Chain - a person tells the information to the selected people who will pass the information to
other selected people
Communication Principles
1. Communication is integrated into all parts of our lives.
 2. Communication meets our needs.
3. Communication is a process.
4. Communication is guided by culture and context.
5. Communication is learned.
6. Communication has ethical considerations.

Functions of Communication
1. Socio-Psychological Tradition
Communication as interpersonal interaction and influence
2. Cybernetic Tradition
Communication as a system of information processing
3. Rhetorical Tradition
Communication as artful address
4. Semiotic Tradition
Communication as the Process of Sharing Meaning Through Signs
5. Socio-Cultural Tradition
Communication as the Creation and Enactment of Social Reality
6. Critical Tradition
Communication as a reflective challenge of unjust discourse

7 C’s of Communication

1. Clarity: Ensure the message is clear and easily understood.

2. Conciseness: Convey the message in as few words as necessary, without unnecessary details.
3. Concreteness: Use specific facts and figures to support the message, avoiding vague language.
4. Correctness: Use proper grammar, punctuation, and language that suits the audience.
5. Completeness: Provide all necessary information, leaving no questions unanswered.
6. Consideration: Understand the audience's perspective, background, and needs when crafting the
message.
7. Concreteness: Ensure the message is accurate, factual, and backed by solid evidence.

Aristotle’s Rhetorical triangle

The rhetorical triangle is a concept used to explain the relationship between three key elements of
communication: the speaker, the audience, and the message. These elements interact to influence how
effectively an argument or persuasion is made.

Ethos: The credibility or character of the speaker.

Pathos: The emotional appeal to the audience.
Logos: The logical argument or reasoning in the message.

Communication Ethics
1. Responsible Thinking: This refers to the ability to think critically and consider the consequences of one's
actions. It involves making decisions based on facts, ethical considerations, and long-term outcomes, while
avoiding impulsive or harmful choices.

2. Decision Making: This is the process of evaluating options and selecting the best course of action
based on available information, personal values, and desired goals. It involves assessing risks, benefits, and
potential outcomes.

3. Development of Relationship: This involves building and nurturing connections with others, which can
include communication, trust, emotional support, and mutual respect. Healthy relationships evolve over time
through shared experiences, open dialogue, and understanding.

Globalization refers to the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependency among countries and
societies across the world.

1. Interconnectedness: This describes the growing linkages between people, businesses, and
governments globally, driven by the flow of information, goods, services, and ideas. It reflects how events
or decisions in one part of the world can impact others.
 2. Interdependency: This refers to the reliance that nations and communities have on each other for
resources, trade, technology, and culture. As countries become more integrated, their economies,
societies, and environments become more dependent on one another.

Global village means the entire world becomes more interconnected as the result of the propagation of
media technologies throughout the world.
Global/World Citizen is a person whose identity transcends geography or political borders and that
responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class: "humanity".
Dimensions of Globalization
1. Social: This dimension focuses on the impact of globalization on society, including changes in social structures,
relationships, and interactions across borders.

2. Economic: Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of economies through trade,
investment, and the movement of labor and capital.

3. Political: This dimension involves the shift of political power and influence, with the rise of international
organizations (like the UN and WTO) and the impact of global policies on local governance.

4. Cultural: Cultural globalization involves the exchange and blending of cultural elements across borders.

Effects of Globalization in Communication

1. Virtual Communication
Globalization has made virtual communication essential. Tools like video conferencing, instant messaging,
and emails enable real-time communication across the globe, making physical distance irrelevant in fostering
collaboration and maintaining connections.

2. Time Differences
Communication now requires accommodating varying time zones. Teams often work asynchronously,
scheduling meetings and deadlines to respect time differences, which can sometimes challenge immediate
collaboration.

3. Cultural Awareness
Globalization encourages interactions among diverse cultures, necessitating cultural sensitivity and
understanding. Effective communication requires awareness of different cultural norms, values, and etiquette to
avoid misunderstandings and build stronger relationships.

Uses of Social Media

1. Communication
2. Cause Support
3. Competition
4. Communication Research
5. Connection
6. Client Service
7. Community Service
Cultural Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Language:
Differences in language or linguistic proficiency can lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations in
communication.
2. Stereotypes and Prejudices:
Preconceived notions about certain cultures can create biases that hinder open and effective
communication.
3. Behaviors and Beliefs:
Cultural variations in behaviors and belief systems may cause confusion or misalignment in expectations
during interactions.
4. Norms and Values:
Diverse cultural norms and values can lead to conflicting interpretations of appropriate or acceptable
communication styles.
5. Ethnocentrism:
Believing one’s own culture is superior can create resistance to understanding and accepting different
cultural perspectives.
6. Body Language and Gestures:
Nonverbal communication varies across cultures, and gestures or expressions may have different
meanings, leading to potential miscommunication.
Strategies to become an effective global communicator. (www.books forbetterliving.com):
1. Mindful Presence:
Be fully engaged and aware in the conversation, focusing on the present moment and the context of the
interaction.
2. Mindful Listening:
Pay close attention to what the other person is saying, without distractions, and understand both the
verbal and non-verbal cues.
3. Mindful Speech:
Choose your words carefully, ensuring they are clear, respectful, and culturally sensitive.
4. Unconditional Friendliness:
Approach all interactions with a warm and non-judgmental attitude, fostering openness and trust across
cultures.
5. Mindful Responsiveness:
Respond thoughtfully and with empathy, considering both the content and the emotional tone of the
conversation.

Communication in Multicultural Settings

Multicultural refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. People live alongside one
another, but each cultural group does not necessarily have engaging interactions with each other.
Socio-Cultural Aspects of Communication (Dapat, et al, 2016)
1. Cultural identity:
Refers to the shared beliefs, values, traditions, and practices that shape an individual’s communication
style and worldview within their cultural group.
2. Gender role:
Involves the expectations and norms for behavior and communication associated with masculinity,
femininity, or other gender identities in a given culture.
3. Age identity:
Relates to how age influences communication, with generational norms and expectations shaping
interactions and perceptions.
4. Social class:
Reflects the influence of economic and social status on communication styles, access to language, and
the interpretation of messages.
5. Religious identity:
Encompasses the role of beliefs, rituals, and values tied to religion in shaping communication preferences,
attitudes, and practices.

Intercultural/Cross-Cultural Communication
Cross-cultural communication occurs when people with differing cultural backgrounds communicate.
Forms of Intercultural Communication
a. Interracial communication – communicating with people from different races
b. Interethnic communication – interacting with people of different ethnic origin
c. International communication – communicating between representatives from different nations.
d. Intracultural communication – interacting with members of the same racial or ethnic group or co-culture

Language variety is a specific set of linguistic items which can be associated with external factors such as
geographical area or social group

Language register is the level of formality in the language as determined by context, purpose and audience.
1. Frozen or "Static" Register:
This is the most formal, unchanging language used in ritualistic or highly structured settings, such as
religious ceremonies, legal documents, or national anthems. It rarely changes over time.

2. Formal Register:
Used in professional or academic settings, this register involves clear, structured, and impersonal
language. It's common in speeches, lectures, and formal correspondence.

3. Consultative Register:
A semi-formal register used in discussions or when seeking advice. It maintains politeness and respect but
is conversational, often found in doctor-patient or teacher-student interactions.

4. Casual Register:
Informal and conversational language used among friends or peers. It includes slang, contractions, and
colloquialisms, often with relaxed grammar.

5. Intimate Register:
 The most personal and informal register, used between close family members or romantic partners. It may
include private jokes, non-verbal cues, and highly contextual language.

Concentric Circles of English

A. Inner Circle English as a native language

USA, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
B. Outer Circle English as a second language
Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Zambia
C. Expanding Circle English as a foreign language
China, Caribbean Countries, Egypt, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Saudi
Arabia, South Africa, South America, Taiwan, Zimbabwe

Text Types

A. Linguistic Landscape
This is the language in the environment, words and images displayed and exposed in public
spaces, that is the center of attention.

Features of Linguistic Landscape

- top-down (public signs, created by the state and local government bodies)
- bottom-up (created by shop owners, private businesses, etc.)
B. Geosemiotics
It is the study of social meaning of the material placements of signs and discourses and of our
actions in the material world

Principles of Geosemiotics
Indexicality - The meaning was given to a sign by a place the sign was put in
Dialogicality - Signs have double meaning and they correspond to each other
Selection - One does not see all signs
Kinds of Signs
Regulatory Signs - These are used to indicate or reinforce traffic laws,
regulations or requirements which apply either at all times
or at specified times or places
Infrastructural Signs - It is defined as the basic physical systems of a business,
region, or nation and often involves the production of
public goods or production processes.
Commercial Signs- These are signs, displays, or devices designed,
intended or used to encourage or promote purchase or
use of goods or services.
Transgressive Signs- These are signs which violate (intentionally or
accidentally) the conventional semiotics at that place
C. Online Landscape
mode used to display wide-screen content, such as a Web page, image, document or text

Key Concepts of Media Literacy

Media refers to all electronic or digital means and print or artistic visuals used to transmit messages.
Literacy is the ability to encode and decode symbols and synthesize and analyze messages.
Media literacy is the ability to encode and decode the symbols transmitted via media and the ability to
synthesize, analyze and produce mediated messages.
Media education is the study of media, including ‘hands-on’ experiences and media production.
Media literacy education is the educational field dedicated to teaching the skills associated with media
literacy.
Multimedia Presentation is a dynamic way to share information, stories, or ideas. It uses a combination of
different media forms, such as text, images, sound, and video, to create a more engaging and informative
experience than traditional, single-medium presentations.
PowerPoint presentation is similar to a poster presentation, only the information is on computer slides rather
than actual posters. They are usually used to accompany an oral presentation; they should enhance the
oral presentation instead of serving as speaking notes. You can incorporate audio and visual media.

Pecha Kucha is a presentation method that calls for telling a story using images rather than reading text from
slides during a PowerPoint presentation. Pecha Kucha presentations use 20 slides and allow only 20
seconds of commentary per slide. That keeps a total presentation to just 6 minutes and 40 seconds.

Steps on how to make a Pecha Kucha Presentation

1. Topic in a Sentence
2. Keep Slide text to a Minimum
3. Find the story in your topic
4. Tell story with images
5. Use just few points
6. Timing
7. Visual Cues

Blog is an online journal or informational website displaying information in reverse chronological order, with the
latest posts appearing first, at the top. It is a platform where a writer or a group of writers share their views
on an individual subject.

Vlog is a personal website or social media account where a person regularly posts short videos which can be
streamed.

Informative, Persuasive, and Argumentative Communication

Informative Communication Persuasive Communication Argumentative Communication

focuses on talking about people, act of presenting arguments used to settle disputes and
events, processes, places, or things; to move, motivate, or change discover truth
however, informing an audience your audience
about one of these subjects without
being persuasive is often a difficult
task to complete.

Public Speaking is an oral presentation or speech delivered to a live audience.

Types of Speech Delivery:
1. Reading from a Manuscript - word-for-word iteration of a written message
2. Memorized - rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.
3. Extemporaneous Speaking - carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational manner
using brief notes
4. Impromptu - presentation of a short message without advance preparation.

Inquiry Letter
A letter of inquiry is mainly about requesting, asking, or obtaining a specific information to another party
whom it addresses. This letter intended to pose a request or question to the reader and persuading it to respond.
Types of inquiry letter:
1. Solicited letter is a letter used when a business is advertising its product or services.
2. Unsolicited letter is a letter that enquires regarding something; thus it is a formal letter.

Context and Organization of Letter of Inquiry

1. Write the sender’s name and address, you may also include phone number and email if it is required.
2. Leave one space below the address then write the date.
3. Include the receiver’s address.
4. Subject of the letter; state what is your main reason in writing this letter.
5. Below the subject, write a salutation to address the person being written to. If not sure on the gender of
the recipient, you may write Sir/Madam.
6. The body of the letter, it is divided into three paragraphs; First Paragraph - Introduce yourself and include
the purpose of the letter; Second Paragraph - Inform the recipient about the details of your inquiry and the
other information you wanted to know; Third Paragraph - Conclusion and end of the paragraph, you may
include here that you are expecting or waiting to have their response. And don’t forget to include gratitude
in the letter.
 7. Below the body of the letter, write the sender’s name and signature, include also the designation of the
sender.

Email (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages from one user to one or more recipients via
the internet.

Types of email

1. Welcome Email: A message sent to new subscribers or customers to introduce them to a brand, provide a
warm greeting, and offer initial information or benefits.

2. Promotional Email: An email designed to promote a product, service, or offer. These typically include discounts,
special deals, or limited-time offers to drive sales or engagement.

3. Lead-Nurturing Email: Emails aimed at building relationships with potential customers (leads) by providing
valuable content, updates, and encouragement to move them closer to making a purchase.

4. Newsletter Email: A regular email sent to subscribers that contains updates, news, tips, or other valuable
content. It is meant to keep subscribers informed and engaged with the brand.

5. Onboarding Email: A series of emails designed to guide new users or customers through the initial steps of
using a product or service, helping them get started and understand its value.

Parts of a Business Letter

A business letter typically follows a standard format and includes several key parts. Here’s a breakdown of the
main sections:

1. Sender's Address (Top of the letter):

- This includes the sender’s address (name, street address, city, state, and ZIP code) and sometimes the phone
number or email address.
- If the sender's address is pre-printed on letterhead, it may be omitted here.

2. Date:
- The date the letter is written, placed below the sender’s address.
- It is usually written in full (e.g., December 19, 2024).

3. Inside Address:
- The recipient's name, title (if applicable), company name, street address, city, state, and ZIP code.
- Make sure to address the person by their proper title (Mr., Ms., Dr., etc.) and include their job title if relevant.

4. Salutation/Greeting:
- A formal greeting to the recipient (e.g., "Dear Mr. Smith," "Dear Dr. Johnson").
- If the recipient’s name is unknown, “To Whom It May Concern” may be used, although this is becoming less
common.

5. Body of the Letter:

- The main content of the letter, typically broken down into paragraphs.
- The body should start with a brief introduction, followed by the purpose of the letter, and end with a closing
statement.
- The tone should be professional and concise.

6. Closing:
- A polite closing phrase, such as "Sincerely," "Best regards," or "Yours faithfully."
- It should be followed by a comma.

7. Signature:
 - The sender’s handwritten signature (if a physical letter) placed above the typed name.
- If it's an email or digital letter, this can be a typed name or a digital signature.

8. Enclosures (if any):

- If there are any attachments or documents included with the letter, mention them here (e.g., “Enclosure:
Resume”).
- This section may be omitted if there are no enclosures.

9. CC (Carbon Copy):
- If you are sending copies of the letter to others, include "CC:" followed by the names of the recipients.
- This is placed at the bottom of the letter after the signature and enclosures.

Business Letter Format

1. Full block is a type of business letter format where all lines begin on the left margin. This means that no
components of the letter appear in the center of a line, are indented, or start from the right margin.

2. Modified Block Form is the same as the full block form, except the sender's address is right-aligned. This format
is slightly less formal than the full block format. This format is most appropriate when addressing the letter to
someone with whom you have a working relationship.

3. Semi-Block Form is the same as the full block format, except the paragraphs have indentations.

Interview
A job interview is a conversation which occurs between a potential employer and a job applicant. During the
job interview, the employer has the opportunity to appraise applicant’s qualifications, appearance and general
fitness for the job opening.
Tips in Conducting an Interview
1. Display sense of responsibility by coming to the scheduled interview on time and prepared.
2. Exhibit research skills by conducting a study about the employer, hiring manager and job opportunities.
3. Suggest sense of loyalty by verbalizing intention to stay longer with the company.
4. Insinuate leadership skills by articulating that you can work with less supervision.
5. Show creativity by answering difficult questions with style and ease,
6. Demonstrate professionalism and proper work ethic by dressing up corporately during the interview.
7. Be natural, optimistic, focused, confident, candid, and precise.
8. Flaunt your sensibility by asking insightful questions.
9. Illustrate confidence by positively selling yourself.
10. Exemplify social graces by thanking the interviewer for his or her time.

Communication for Work Purposes

Nurses: Writing Basic Patient Notes
A patient note is the primary communication tool to other clinicians treating the patient, and a statement of
the quality of care.
Types of Patient Notes
Initial notes: refer to the first or earliest assessment
Interim or progress note: refer to the assessment reports done in order to monitor the condition of the
patient
Discharge notes: are the reports given once medication is discontinued or the patient is release from the
hospital
Way of Organizing Patient Notes
Subjective (assessment given by the family member or patient himself)
Objective (assessment seen by you or reflected in laboratory or other medical reports)
Assessment (diagnosis)
Plan (procedures to be done to address the diagnosis)

Communication for Journalists: writing a lead

Lead is an opening paragraph that gives the audience the most important information of the news story in
a concise and clear manner, while still maintaining the readers' interest.
The Five W’s and H: News writing strives to answer “The Five W’s and H:” that is, Who, What, When, Where,
Why and How. Good leads answer as many of these questions as possible in a single sentence. When writing a
lead, it helps to think about which of these facts is the most vital for readers to know.

Types of Lead
Summary Lead or Straight Lead - brief summary, containing most of the Five W’s and H in one sentence.
Question Lead - ask a question. Although they are effective in sparking interest, use them sparingly because they
 generally do not provide the main points of a story as concisely.
Quotation Lead - use direct quotation used in first paragraph
Funny Lead - lead written in a funny way
Anecdotal Lead - quick, relevant story to draw in the reader. The anecdote must help enhance the article’s
broader point, and you must explain the connection to that point in the first few sentences following the
lead.
Descriptive Lead - describe how an event happened rather than simply telling what the event is about

Communication for Tour Guides

Tour Guiding is taking people on trips through an area and explains the interesting details about it.
- Tourism: to inform, remind and advise
- Communication Tasks for Tour Guides
giving directions and commentaries;
explaining procedures and itineraries;
providing advice on safety and security; and describing tourist attractions.
Communication Techniques in Dealing with Complaints
1. Set a complaints handling policy
2. Respond quickly to complaints
3. Be patient, empathetic, and fair with customers
4. Research the customer’s situation
5. Involve customers in the solution
6. Keep customers updated
7. Touch base with the customer afterward

Communication for Teachers: Storytelling

Storytelling - interactive art of using words and actions to reveal the elements and images of a story while
encouraging the listener’s imagination.
Image Description - a detailed explanation of an image that provides textual access to visual content; most often
used for digital graphics online and in digital files; can be used as alt text in coding to provide access to more
complete information.

Communication for Business and Trade

A SWOT analysis is a compilation of your company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
The primary objective of a SWOT analysis is to help organizations develop a full awareness of all the factors
involved in making a business decision.

Strengths (Internal)
Financial resources
Technical resources and capabilities
Human resources
Product lines
Threats (External)
Technology innovations and changes
Competition
Economic trends
Government policies and legislation
Legal judgments
Social trends

A SWOT analysis pulls information internal sources (strengths of weaknesses of the specific company) as
well as external forces that may have uncontrollable impacts to decisions (opportunities and threats).

Benefits of SWOT Analysis (managementstudyguide.com)

1. It is a source of information for strategic planning.
2. Builds organization’s strengths.
3. Reverse its weaknesses.
4. Maximize its response to opportunities.
5. Overcome organization’s threats.
6. It helps in identifying core competencies of the firm.
7. It helps in setting of objectives for strategic planning.
8. It helps in knowing past, present and future so that by using past and current data, future plans can be chalked
out.

How to make SWOT Analysis (business.qld.gov.au/)

1. Decide on the objective of your SWOT analysis
 2. Research your business, industry and market
3. List your business's strengths
4. List your business's weaknesses
5. List potential opportunities for your business
6. List potential threats to your business
7. Establish priorities from the SWOT
8. Develop a strategy to address issues in the SWOT
Writing Business and Technical Reports
A report is a specific form of writing that is organized around concisely identifying and examining issues,
events, or findings that have happened in a physical sense, such as events that have occurred within an
organization, or findings from a research investigation. (owll.massey.ac.nz/)
Characteristics of a Report (University of Lucknow)
- An ideal report should be Clear, concise, accurate and well organized with clear section headings.
- Easy for the audience to understand.
- Presentation is a key element in successful report writing. Formatting, revising and proof reading are
important process for good report writing.
- All reports should have an executive summary that presents the essential elements of the report from the
introduction through to the recommendations and outcomes.
- Reports should be visually appealing and easy to read. Diagrams, figures, charts, tables and graphs can
all add interest to a report.

Report Categories (qsstudy.com)

Formal Report – is a report that is prepared in prescribed forms.

Informal report – is prepared not by following any prescribed rule or formality.

MEETING - is gathering of two or more people for the purpose of making decisions or discussing objectives and
operations.

Meetings are set and conducted in different ways by different companies and organizations to discuss
different agendas and matters that affect the surrounding area and the people involved. Being in a meeting, one
must keep record of the meeting’s agendas, suggestions, and actions requested by the group; a list of what
happened during the meeting, the Minutes of the Meeting.
Before the meeting:
Choose your recording tool. One may choose to use it in recording the meeting, from a pen and paper to a
laptop or a recorder. Always check your tools as one will need it for future references. Reading the meeting’s agenda
may also help your outlining of the meeting where one can easily pinpoint what are the important points within the
meeting.
During the meeting:
Passing the attendance is a sign that the meeting is starting, know who is involved within the meeting to
know who they are and what their main point is. One may not include all comments instead the important notes are
enough. Write all motion and who made them, and its results. Always remember to keep your own biases.
After the meeting:
Encode the notes you have taken during the meeting. Include the participants and the different key points
they added. Add to your final record the organization, the title of the committee, the type of meeting, and the purpose
of it. Always proofread your record and avoid lapses of important discussion within the meeting, if needed second
opinion do not hesitate to ask to fully verify your work. Submit it to the person who ran the meeting unless instructed
to do another way or otherwise.
Business Writing
Basic Parts of a Business Letter
- Letterhead
- Dateline
- Inside Address
- Salutation
- Body of the Letter
- Complimentary Close
- Signature

Format of a Business Letter

Full-block Style
All parts of the letter flushed on the left margin. This is considered the most popular, most
formal, and easiest of all the styles or formats of business letter.
Modified Block Style
In this type format of the business letter, the body of the letter is left justified. The Dateline
and Complimentary Close begin near the center going to the right margin
Semi-Block Style
It is much like the modified block style except that each paragraph is indented instead of left
justified. It is the most balanced of all formats of business letters.

A curriculum vitae presents a full history of your academic accomplishments, while a resume presents a
concise summary of your qualifications. While both are tailored for the specific position you are applying to, they
are used for different purposes with CVs being required for academic positions and resumes being needed
otherwise.
The application letter is a clear link between the position the applicant is searching for and the qualifications
mentioned in the resume. To put it another way, the letter fits those credentials with the specifications of the position,
illustrating how correct an applicant is for that role. It addresses details in the resume selectively, as needed.

A Memorandum, or commonly known as a memo, is a short concise message or record that is used for
internal communication in a business, administration, or an institution. A
- a note, document or a form of communication intended to issue a directive, execute a policy, present an
information report, provide convey information, rebuke errors, give warnings, solve problems or make
requests. This communication can be between or among administrators, and subordinates or may suffice
subordinates coordinating with co-employees to carry out a task or activity. This communication is an
interoffice tool.
Basic Principles and Characteristics of Memorandum according to Sharma, 2014:
Necessary and Sufficient Information
Do not Assume that Everyone knows Everything related to the issue discussed in the Memo
Be Clear, Concrete and Specific
Easy-to-Understand
Explain with Ease and Co-operation
NO Emotional Appeal
The following are the uses of Memorandum according to Sharma, 2014:
To Provide Information
To Issue Instruction
To Convey Policy Decision
To Offer/Invite Suggestion
To Record/Report an Agreement
To Establish Accountability
Helps you to avoid meeting personally, when necessary
These are the guidelines in making Memorandums:
Short as possible and concise.
Use simple English.
Avoid using jargons.
Use a captivating Heading by bolding or using different colors for the heading.
Be aware of the important information that needs to be included in the memorandum.
Be aware of the grammars and spelling.
Anticipate any questions your readers might have.

Communication for Academic Purposes

Plagiarism: The act of using someone else's work, ideas, or words without proper acknowledgment, which is
considered unethical and dishonest.

To avoid plagiarism, do the following:

1. Quoting: Use the exact words from a source, enclosed in quotation marks, and properly cite the source. This
shows that the words are not your own.

2. Paraphrasing: Restate someone else's ideas or information in your own words while still giving credit to the
original source. This shows you understand the material.

3. Summarizing: Condense the main points of a longer text in your own words, providing an overview while citing
the original source to avoid misrepresentation.
Research involves a scientific method which uses logical and systematic procedure for the acquisition of
new knowledge or for the verification or confirmation of previews and existing knowledge to answer problems and
to apply in practical life.
Take note that research approach is the overall theoretical or philosophical foundation (underpinning) of
the study.

Research design is the framework or guide used for planning, implementation, and analysis of the study.
so, it is a systematic plan of what will to be done, and how it will be done.

Research technique is a method/process/tool used to collect, analyze, and interpret data to answer
research questions or test the hypotheses.

When conducting qualitative research, you are conducting exploratory research.

When conducting quantitative research, you are actually doing a descriptive or causal research
Mixed method research combines elements of quantitative research and qualitative research in order to
answer the research questions and test the hypotheses.

Types of qualitative research designs

Here’s a brief explanation of each type of research study:

1. Case Study: A detailed examination of a single case or a small number of cases within a real-
world context, often to explore complex issues or phenomena in-depth.

2. Historical Study: Focuses on understanding past events, situations, or trends, often using
primary sources like documents or artifacts to gather insights and analyze patterns over time.

3. Phenomenological Study: Investigates individuals' lived experiences and perceptions of a

particular phenomenon, seeking to understand the essence of those experiences through qualitative
methods like interviews.
 4. Ethnographic Study: Involves the researcher immersing themselves in a cultural or social setting
to observe and understand the behaviors, interactions, and social dynamics of a group over an extended
period.

5. Narrative Research Study: Focuses on collecting and analyzing stories or personal accounts
from individuals to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct meaning in their
lives.
6. Grounded Theory Study: Aims to develop a theory grounded in data collected from participants,
using qualitative methods to identify patterns and relationships that inform the development of a theoretical
framework.
Types of quantitative research designs

1. Descriptive: This research type aims to describe characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena without manipulating
variables. It provides a detailed account of the subject but does not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Pre-experimental: This type of research involves basic testing or observations without full experimental
controls. It typically lacks random assignment and control groups, making the results less conclusive about
causality.

3. Experimental: Experimental research involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their
effect on dependent variables. It includes control groups, random assignment, and is designed to establish cause-
and-effect relationships.

4. Non-experimental: Non-experimental research does not involve manipulation of variables. Instead, it observes
relationships or patterns between variables as they naturally occur, often using surveys, case studies, or
observational methods.

Whether your research is quantitative, qualitative, or mixed, it must consist of those following parts:

Abstract which is a short summary of your completed research.

Chapter I: The Problem and its Background

The background provides the context of the study and the research topic of a study.

Chapter II: Review of related literature

It is a comprehensive summary of previous studies on the topic of your research.
In the body of a paper, the in-text citation acknowledges the original source of the information you used.

Chapter III: Research Methodology

It contains the specific procedure or technique used to identify, process, and analyze information about a
topic.

Chapter IV: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of data

In the analysis there will be cross-referencing to justify or provide support for the findings and those that are
actually are in conflict with them.

Chapter V: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

The results (also sometimes called findings) section in a research paper describes what the researcher(s)
found when they analyzed their data.
Its primary purpose is to use the data collected to answer the research question(s) posed in the introduction,
even if the findings challenge the hypothesis.
A recommendation is a suggestion or proposal for something that should be done, as derived from the
findings.

Reference is a list of the works or materials that researchers have used.

In DepEd, the most common type of research is called action research.
Action Research aims to improve educational practice or resolve problem in school.
The policy and guidelines of action research are stated in DepEd Order no. 13, s. 2015 titled “Research
Management Guidelines”.
Action Research Cyle:
It involves the following steps:
1. Identifying the problem;
2. Devising a plan
3. Acting to implement the plan
 4. Observing to collect and analyze the data; and
5. Reflecting and sharing.
To provide financial support to the conduct of research in the field, DepEd Order no. 42, s. 2015 and DepEd
Order no. 4, s. 2016 set guidelines on the use of Basic Education Research Fund (BERF). This policy outlined a
clear framework for the implementation of a grant-awarding facility.
DO No. 39, s. 2016 promulgated the Basic Education Research Agenda, which identifies the research
priorities of DepEd which are:
1. teaching and learning;
2. child protection;
3. human resource development;
4. governance themes; (and 3 cross-cutting themes which are:
a. disaster risk reduction management;
b. gender and development; and
c. inclusive education.

A good research paper banks on the good paragraphs.

A good paragraph has 3 parts:
1. a topic sentence
2. supporting details
3. a conclusion

My hometown is famous for its amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide
and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can
move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on
the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill
is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees around
this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old
Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly
amazing and make my hometown a famous place.

TOPIC SENTENCE is a sentence that captures the meaning of the entire paragraph

Topic Sentence has 3 positions in a paragraph:

1. Initial Position

2. Final Position

3. Medial Position

A topic sentence has important two parts:

1. topic (key word or phrase)
2. controlling idea
Types of paragraphs:
1. Narrative paragraph
…tells a story. it is usually written in the 1st person point of view. The “I or we” pronouns give the readers a
feeling of being part of the story.
It has a plot.

2. Descriptive paragraph
The writer writes using colorful words and sensory details.
Often times descriptive and narrative are mixed together because in a narrative you can actually incorporate
a lot of descriptive details

3. Expository paragraph
…is all about facts.
The characteristics of expository paragraphs are: clear, accurate, meaningful and interesting.

4. Persuasive paragraph convinces the reader to accept the writer’s opinion or recommendation.

5. Argumentative paragraph is where you have a stand or claim and you defend that stand whether you are pro
or anti whether you want to change the status quo or not whether you want to propose something or not.
words that signal warrant or conclusion in an essay:
after all, in essence, as a result, consequently, hence, in other words, in summary, therefore, thus…
A good paragraph has:
1. Unity 2. Cohesion 3. Coherence 4. Brevity 5. Emphasis

Political analysis paper aims at answering a given question concerning a certain political process, event, as well
as at predicting future developments.
Political Analysis provides an accessible and engaging yet original introduction and distinctive contribution,
to the analysis of political structures, institutions, ideas and behaviors, and above all, to the political processes
through which they are constantly made and remade.
Requirements for a decent political analysis paper
1. Topic and research question.
2. Preliminary research
3. Substantial research
4. Thesis
5. Impartiality
6. Quotations and references
Concept paper is a preliminary document that sets out to explain what a proposed study is about, why it is being
undertaken, and how it will be carried out. It scrutinizes a concept or idea and provides an overview of the
project a researcher wants to embark on.
Concept papers are typically prepared by entrepreneurs working on a business proposal or product, or by
students and researchers in academia. Such documents are aimed at securing feedback on a research idea and
seeking potential investors or funders. In fact, such a document might even help determine whether a project idea
is feasible in the first place.

Common Writing Mistakes

1. Faulty Coordination 6. Run-On Sentence
2. Faulty Parallelism a. Fused Sentence
3. Misplaced Modifier b. Comma Splice
4. Dangling Modifier 7. Redundancy
5. Squinting Modifier 8. Verbosity
9. Inconsistency

LITERATURE refers to written works, especially those considered of superior or lasting artistic merit.
 A. Prose is written or spoken language in its ordinary form, without metrical structure.
1. Fiction is any form of prose that describes imaginary events and people.
2. Non-fiction is prose writing that is based on facts, real events, and real people, such as biography or
history.

B. Poetry is literary work in which special intensity is given to the expression of feelings and ideas by the use
of distinctive style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of literature.
1. Lyric refers to a short poem, often with songlike qualities, that expresses the speaker's personal
emotions and feelings.
2. Narrative is a spoken or written account of connected events; a story.
3. Dramatic refers to drama or play performed on the stage.

Genres of Literature

1. MYTHOLOGY - is a sacred story about the origins of the world or how the world and the creatures in it came to
be their present form. The active beings in myths are generally gods and goddesses or heroes.

TABLE OF GREEK AND ROMAN GODS AND GODDESSES

Greek Roman Title

Aphrodite Venus Goddess of love and beauty
Apollo Apollo God of music, poetry, & the sun
Ares Mars God of war
Artemis Diana Goddess of the moon
Athena Minerva Goddess of wisdom
Cronus Saturn God of the sky and agriculture
Demeter Ceres Goddess of fertility and crops
Dionysus Bacchus God of wine, ecstasy
Eros Cupid God of love
Gaea Terra Mother Earth
Hades Dis God of the underworld
Hephaestus Vulcan God of fire; craftsman for the gods
Hera Juno Queen of the gods; goddess of marriage
Hermes Mercury Messenger of the gods, travel
Persephone Proserpina Queen of the underworld
Poseidon Neptune God of the sea
Zeus Jupiter Ruler of the gods

2. FABLE is a short story that usually is about animals and that is intended to teach a lesson.
The most famous are fables of Aesop.

3. PARABLE is a short story that teaches a moral or spiritual lesson. The Bible is the best source of parables.
The Good Samaritan, Parable of the Prodigal Son, Parable of a Mustard Seed

4. NOVEL is a long, written story usually about imaginary characters and events. It is usually divided into chapters.
Horry Potter, Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights

5. NURSERY RHYME is a traditional song or poem taught to young children, originally in the nursery.
Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

 Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;
All the king's horses and all the king's men
Couldn't put Humpty together again.

6. FOLKTALE is characteristically anonymous, timeless, & placeless circulated orally among

people.
Juan Tamad (Lazy Juan), The Money& the Turtle, Why the Fish Has Scales, Sleeping Beauty, Rapunzel,
Little Red Riding Hood, Jack & the Beanstalk, Hansel & Gretel, The Pied Piper

7. FAIRY TALE is a story for children involving fantastic and beings (like fairies, wizards, & goblins).
Cinderella, Snow White, Cinderella, Rip Van Winkle, The Twelve Dancing Princesses, Rumpelstiltskin,
Thumbelina

8. SHORT STORY is a prose narrative shorter than a novel usually dealing with a few characters and aiming at
unity of effect & aims to create mood rather than plot.
Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories
"The Black Cat" (1845) Horror story about a cat
"The Cask of Amontillado" (1846) A story of revenge

9. BIOGRAPHY is the story of a real person’s life written by someone other than that person.
“The Untold Story of Imelda Marcos” by Carmen Navarro Pedrosa

10. DIARY is a record of personal experiences, and thoughts each day.

“Anne Frank’s Diary”

11. DOCUMENTARY is a movie or TV program presenting facts and information, especially about a political,
historical, or social issue.
“Noy”

12. SONNET is a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure.
Shakespeare’s Sonnets (154)

13. COUPLET is usually consisted of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter. It rarely stands by itself as a
complete poem. Rather, they are the building blocks of much
longer works.
Nature’s Shows
Nature puts on little shows
Every time it rains or snows.

14. LIMERICK is humorous five-line verse with a rhyming scheme of AABBA. It is thought to have originated in the
city of Limerick, Ireland, and was first popularized in print by Edward Lear in a Book of Nonsense (1846). Limerick
is highly structured, typically with a syllable count of 8-8-6-6-8.
There once was an ape in a zoo
We looked out through the bars at you!
Do you think it’s fair
To give poor apes a scare?
I think it’s a mean thing to do.

15. HAIKU is a form of Japanese poetry with 17 syllables in three unrhymed lined of five, seven,
and five syllables, often describing nature or season.
Fireflies at twilight
In search of one another
Twinkle off and on

Butterflies are cool

In the big, huge, green forest.
They fly up so high!

16. EPIC is a lengthy narrative poem, concerning a serious subject that contains details of heroic
deeds and events significant to a culture or nation.
LUZON
Hudhud – Ifugao
Biag ni Lam-ang – Ilocos region
Ulalim – Kalinga, Apayao
Ibalon – Bicol

WESTERN VISAYAS
 Hinilawod – the oldest and longest epic of Hiligaynon

MINDANAO
Darangan – Maranao (recognized by UNESCO as the masterpiece of the oral and
intangible heritage of humanity

17. FREE VERSE can be either rhymed or unrhymed. It is called “free verse” because it has irregular rhythmic
patterns and line lengths. Poet who writes in this style aim to recreate the rhythms of natural speech.
Fog
Carl Sandburg
The fog comes
On little cat feet.
It sits looking
Over harbor and city
On silent haunches
And then moves on.

18. BLANK VERSE is a poem with no rhyme but does have iambic pentameter.
This means it consists of lines of 5 feet, each foot being iambic, meaning 2 syllables long, one stressed
followed by an unstressed.
The New Colossus
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
Is the imprisoned lighting, and her name
Mother of exiles. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.
“Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she
With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost, to me.
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!”
-Emma Lazarus

Levels/Kinds of Meaning in Literature

1. Literal level - the meaning is created when the writer literally means what he says.
Literal meaning, therefore, is a dictionary meaning or standard meaning of word.
e.g. “Yesterday, I saw a snake in the woods”?
Literal meaning can also be referred to as denotative meaning.

2. Figurative level - the writer strives for meaning beyond the standard or literal meaning by using
figurative language like simile and metaphor.
e.g. “My neighbor is a real snake”?

Figurative can also be referred to as connotative meaning.

Home suggests comfort, security and family.
Dove implies peace.

3. Allegorical level, particularly in narrative works, each person, object, place and event represent something
else.
An entire literary work may be allegorical like John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.
The story of “The Ant and the Grasshopper” is also an allegory because each character, object, place or
event represents something else.

4. Symbolic level - words and phrases have “dual meanings”, 1) the Literal meaning, and 2) the representative
meaning.
e.g. Spring a symbol of life and purity.

CHARACTER is a person (or a “being” given the characteristics of a person) who appears in, speaks in,
acts, narrates, or is referred to in a literary work.

Types of characters:
1. MAJOR characters are sometimes called “round” characters because the readers see them fully developed.
2. MINOR characters are called “flat” characters because they have a little or no personality.

Characters are further classified as:

1. Hero or heroine or PROTAGONIST

…is the leading male or female character who exhibits superior qualities.

2. Villain or villainess or ANTAGONIST

…is a character who is often characterized as evil and in opposition to protagonist.

3. Antihero or antiheroine or tragic hero/heroine

…is the central character or protagonist in a story who is not a traditionally brave or good hero.

4. Foil…is a contrasting character.

FIGURES OF SPEECH
..is a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense for rhetorical or vivid effect.

1. SIMILE is a figure of speech that draws a comparison between two different things, especially a phrase containing
the word like or as.
She is as sweet as a candy.

2. METAPHOR is a comparison of two things without using “like” or “as.”

Example:
Her heart is stone.

3. PERSONIFICATION is a figure of speech that attributes human traits to objects and ideas or concepts.
The sun was beating down on me.

4. HYPERBOLE is a far-fetched, over exaggerated description or sentence.

I will love you forever.
My house is a million miles away.

5. ALLITERATION IS a poetic or literary effect achieved by using several words that begin with the same or similar
consonants.
"Whither wilt thou wander, wayfarer?

6. OXYMORON is a phrase in which two words of contradictory meaning are used together for special effect.
wise fool, legal murder, jumbo shrimp, exact estimate, tragic comedy

7. ONOMATOPOEIA is a word or phrase that imitates the sound it represents.

The cat meowed.
Bang, went the door!

8. METONYMY is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for something closely
associated with it.
Shakespeare substituted “crown” for “king”.
“The crown will find an heir.”

9. SYNECDOCHE resembles metonymy so closely that differentiating them is akin to splitting hairs.
Two types:
A. Microcosm is the phrase for synecdoche in which a smaller part signifies a larger whole.
B. Macrocosm, on the other hand, is the phrase for synecdoche in which a larger whole
signifies a smaller collection of parts.

10. LITOTES is a form of understatement which uses a negative to convey the opposite meaning.
She is not ugly. (She is pretty).

11. APOSTROPHE is an address to someone absent, dead, or non-human as if that person or thing were
present.
Oh nature, thou art my goddess.
Little lamb, who made thee?

12. IRONY is a figure of speech of which the literal meaning of the word is the opposite of its intended meaning.
 VERBAL IRONY
It’s very kind of you to remind me of my failures.
Thanks a lot! (When the implication is “You have let me down.”)
SITUATIONAL IRONY
The fire station burned down.
The police station was robbed
DRAMATIC IRONY
The main character in the movie walks into the house, and the audience know that
the killer is in the house.

13. PARADOX is a statement, proposition, or situation that seems to be absurd or contradictory, but in fact is or
Let us go to war for peace.
(War brings peace.)

“I must be cruel only to be kind.”

-Shakespeare, Hamlet

14. EUPHEMISM is a mild or agreeable expression substituted for realistic description of something disagreeable.
She passed away peacefully yesterday. (died)
Correctional facility (jail)
Differently-abled (handicapped, disabled)
Ethnic cleansing (genocide)
Relocation center (prison camp)
Put to sleep (euthanize)

15. ALLUSION is a historical, literary, or cultural reference to a person, a place, or event.

He is a real Romeo with the ladies.
Chocolate is her Achilles’ heel.

16. ANTITHESIS is a figure of speech which refers to the juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas.
His body is active, but his mind is sluggish.
Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under it.

Elements of fiction

Plot is the series of events that take place. It's the action of the story that drives the narrative forward.

Point of View is the writer's way of deciding who is telling the story to whom. Establishing a clear point of view is
important because it dictates how your reader interprets characters, events, and other important details.

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.
Literary theory is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature.
Academic Presentation
1. Determine the purpose for presenting your research at the forum.
2. Focus on Forecasting what you want to share with the audience about your research; on Explaining the key
findings of your study; Synthesizing your research in relation to the statement of the problem
3. Know your audience in terms of their background knowledge, research interests or experience.
4. Get ready with your outline and cue cards.

The Three P’s of an Academic Presentation

1. Prepare
Organize one’s content. Relevant to audience’s needs
2. Practice
Great delivery of the presentation
3. Present
Well thought speech
Must be comfortable when presenting