6 States of matter

LEARNING SEQUENCE
6.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 354
6.2 States of matter .................................................................................................................................................... 356
6.3 Changing states ................................................................................................................................................... 362
6.4 The state of the weather ................................................................................................................................... 366
6.5 The particle model .............................................................................................................................................. 369
6.6 Energy matters ..................................................................................................................................................... 373
6.7 Thinking tools — Concept maps and mind maps .................................................................................. 382
6.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 384
6.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where you need them, at the point of learning, in your
learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered in this topic.

6.1.1 Introduction
Everything around you and in you is made
FIGURE 6.1 Water naturally occurs on Earth in three
of matter. Your desk, your mobile phone, the
states: solid (ice), liquid and gas (vapour). Water vapour is
clothes you are wearing, the food that you eat not visible. The clouds consist of liquid water (tiny droplets).
and the air that you breathe are substances
that are made of matter. Generally, anything
that has mass and takes up space is matter.
Different types of matter have different
properties. A precious and essential form of
matter is water — we cannot exist without it.
Most of the Earth is covered in water and it
is interesting to note that it exists naturally
on Earth in three states. The North and South
poles are covered in solid water. Between
the poles there are liquid oceans and seas,
and in the atmosphere immediately above
the Earth’s surface there is water vapour.
Water is an amazing substance and has some
unusual properties.
In this topic you will investigate the various properties of the solid, liquid and gas
mass the quantity of matter in an
states. In order to explain the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases, the particle model object (usually measured in grams
will be introduced. When heated or cooled the state of substances can be changed or kilograms)
and the particle model will be used to explain what is happening during this change matter everything that takes up
of state. space and has mass is matter
water vapour water in the
gaseous state

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Three states of water (eles-3524)

Water naturally occurs on Earth in three states: solid (ice), liquid and gas
(vapour). Watch this video to explore the properties of water as it
changes states.

6.1.2 Think about states of matter

1. Why does ice melt?
2. What is dry ice and why doesn’t it melt?
3. Why do car windows fog up in winter?
4. What are clouds made of?
5. What is the difference between hail and snow?
6. Why are there small gaps in railway lines?

354 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 6.1.3 Science inquiry
Bathroom science
1. Why does the mirror fog up in the bathroom after someone
has had a hot shower? FIGURE 6.2 Does the bathroom
2. On really hot days, you may have a cold shower to cool down. mirror fog up when you have
Does the bathroom mirror fog up when you do this? both hot and cold showers?
3. Some showers have shower curtains rather than glass shower
screens. When people have warm showers, the curtain tends to
move in towards the person and stick to them. Give possible
explanations for why this happens.
4. When you have a hot shower, the bathroom fills with water
vapour. Is this water vapour a gas or a liquid or both?
Explain your reasoning.
5. At what temperature does water become too hot to touch?
6. Does water vapour always rise?
7. Are water vapour and steam the same thing?
8. Can you see water vapour or steam?

INVESTIGATION 6.1
elog-0081
Investigating the properties of solids, liquids and gases
Aim
To compare the properties of solids, liquids and gases

Materials
• ice cube • beaker of water
• plastic syringe • balance
• spatula • 250 mL beaker (empty)
• balloon

Method
Copy the table in the results section of this investigation, and use your observations to complete it.

Ice
1. Weigh the ice cube and record the mass.
2. Pick up an ice cube and place it on the bench. Using a spatula, try to squash it or compress it to make
it smaller.

Water
3. Take the beaker of water and draw a small amount up into the syringe. Place your finger over the
opening at the end of the syringe and press down on the plunger.
4. Place the beaker on the balance and zero the balance, release the water back into the beaker and
record the mass.

Gas
5. Partially inflate a balloon with air and hold the opening tightly closed. Try to squeeze the balloon.
6. Release your hold on the opening of the balloon.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 355

 7. Place 250 mL beaker on the balance and zero the balance. Add the deflated balloon and record the
mass. Blow the balloon up and tie it, and sit it on the beaker to hold it still and record the mass again.

Results

TABLE Properties of solids, liquids and gases

State of Can the shape be Does it take up Can it be Does it have
Substance substance changed easily? space? compressed? mass?
Ice Solid
Water Liquid
Air Gas

Discussion
1. How do you know that air takes up space?
2. How do you know that air has mass?
3. Where did the air in the balloon go when you released the opening?
4. Which state(s) can be compressed?
5. Which state(s) can change its shape depending on the container?

Conclusion
Summarise your findings about the properties of solids, liquids and gases. Remember that you must only include
the findings of this experiment and not include any other properties that were not tested.

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbooks Topic 6 eWorkbook (ewbk-2976)
Student learning matrix (ewbk-0265)
Starter activity (ewbk-2977)
Practical investigation eLogbook Topic 6 Practical investigation eLogbook (elog-0082)
Access and answer an online Pre-test and receive immediate corrective feedback
and fully worked solutions for all questions.

6.2 States of matter

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to describe the three states of matter and the properties of each of
these states. You will also be able to measure the volume of an irregular object.

6.2.1 Solids, liquids and gases

Every substance in the universe is made up of matter that can exist in a number of
solid state of matter that has a
different forms called states. Almost all matter on Earth exists in three different states: fixed shape and volume
solid, liquid and gas. These states of matter have very different properties. That is, liquid state of matter that has a
they are different in the way they behave and appear. fixed volume, but no fixed shape
gas state of matter with no fixed
shape or volume
properties characteristics or
features of an object or substance

356 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 FIGURE 6.3 States of matter

States of matter
The condition or phase of a substance

Solid Liquid Gas

The state of matter that has The state of matter that The state of matter with no
a fixed shape and volume has a fixed volume, but fixed shape or volume
no fixed shape

Solids
Solids, such as ice, have a very definite shape that cannot easily be changed. They take up a fixed amount of
space and are generally not able to be compressed.
Most solids cannot be poured, but there are some, such as salt, sand and sugar, that can be.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Crystalline solids (int-5333)

Liquids
Liquids, such as water, do not have a fixed shape. The shape of a liquid changes to that of the container in which
it is kept. Like solids, liquids take up a fixed amount of space.
If a liquid is poured into a glass, it will take up the shape of the glass. If you continue to pour, it will eventually
overflow onto the bench or floor.

Gases
Gases spread out and will not stay in a container unless it has a lid. Gases move
around, taking up all of the available space; such as when a roast is cooking, the diffusion movement of one
substance through another due
smell can drift from the kitchen throughout the house. This movement is called to a movement of particles,
diffusion. In figure 6.4, iodine gas is being formed and is spreading, or diffusing, for example from a region of
throughout the gas jar. higher concentration to lower
concentration
Gases, unlike solids and liquids, can be compressed, making them take up less
space. An inflated balloon can be compressed by squeezing it.

DISCUSSION
Salt crystals are able to be poured and also take up the shape of their container.
Are salt crystals liquid or solid?

TOPIC 6 States of matter 357

 FIGURE 6.4 The purple iodine gas diffuses, FIGURE 6.5 Iodine diffusing in a fume cupboard
taking up all of the available space inside the
glass jar.

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Diffusion (eles-2035)

INVESTIGATION 6.2
elog-0083
Ranking substances
It is useful to refer to properties of substances to decide if substances are solids, liquids or gases. Examples of
properties include appearance, colour, shape, how they feel or smell, if they are heavy, if they can be poured,
melting point and boiling point.

Aim
To determine whether materials are solids, liquids or gases based on their properties

Materials
• a brick • tomato sauce
• Vegemite® • salt Green slime — is it solid or liquid? How
• playdough • sugar do you know?
• green slime • steam
• orange cordial • air

Method
1. Prepare a table as shown in the results section of this
investigation to fit all of the materials.
2. Working in small groups, make accurate and detailed
observations of the properties of each of the materials
and record them in the results table.

358 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 Results

TABLE Results of investigation 6.2

Substance Properties Solid, liquid or gas
Brick Hard
Feels rough
Heavy
Cannot be poured
Playdough

Discussion
1. Based on your observations decide whether to classify each material as solid, liquid or gas.
2. Rank the following substances in order from most solid-like to most liquid-like to most gas-like.
3. Compare your rankings with those of other groups. Comment on any differences between the rankings.
4. Which properties were most useful in classifying the materials?
5. Suggest further investigations that might assist you in relating properties to different states of matter.

Conclusion
Which substances were most difficult to classify as solid, liquid or gas? Explain why they were difficult to classify.

6.2.2 Measuring matter

The amount of matter in a substance, whether solid, liquid or
FIGURE 6.6 This cube has a volume of
gas, is called mass. The most commonly used unit of mass is
1 cm3 and can hold 1 mL of a fluid.
the kilogram (kg), which is equal to 1000 grams (g). Mass is
measured with an electronic scale or beam balance.
The amount of space taken up by a substance is called its volume.
The volume of solids is usually measured in cubic metres (m3 )
or cubic centimetres (cm3 ). The volume of fluids is measured
in millilitres (mL). One millilitre occupies the same volume as
1 cm3 . A fluid is a substance that can flow. All liquids and gases
1 cm
are fluids.

1 cm
1 cm
1 mL = 1 cm3
1 L = 1000 cm3
1000 L = 1 m3 volume the amount of space
taken up by an object or
substance
fluid a substance that flows and
has no fixed shape. Gases and
liquids are fluids.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Volume (int-3791)

TOPIC 6 States of matter 359

 INVESTIGATION 6.3
elog-0084
Measuring the volume of an irregular-shaped solid
Aim
To measure the volume of an irregular-shaped solid

Materials
• 100 mL beaker
• 100 mL measuring cylinder
• stone or pebble that will fit into the measuring cylinder

Method
1. Half fill (approximately) a 100 mL beaker with water.
2. Carefully pour the water into the measuring cylinder and accurately record the volume.
3. Carefully place the pebble into the measuring cylinder. Take care not to spill any water and accurately
record the new volume.

The curved upper surface of the liquid is called the meniscus. When you are reading the volume of a liquid in
a measuring cylinder, your eye should be level with the flat part in the centre of the meniscus.

Meniscus
Volume
is 52 mL

50

Results
1. Accurately record the volume of water in the measuring cylinder using the technique shown in
figure 6.8. Do not forget to include units.
2. Accurately record the new volume once the pebble has been added.

Discussion
1. What was the volume of the solid in mL?
2. What was the volume of the solid in cm3 ?
3. Suggest another way of measuring the volume of the solid object.
4. Which is the more accurate piece of equipment for measuring volume: a 100 mL beaker or a 100 mL
measuring cylinder? Explain why.

Conclusion
State the volume of the pebble including units.

Resources
Resourceseses
Additional automatically marked question sets

360 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

6.2 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 2, 3, 6, 11 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14 5, 10, 12, 15

Remember and understand

1. MC Identify the term for anything that has mass and takes up space.
A. Solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. Matter
2. MC Identify the state that cannot flow.
A. Solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. Matter
3. List as many solids, liquids and gases that you can remember coming into contact with before leaving
for school today. Organise them into a table under three headings: Solids, Liquids and Gases, or into a
cluster, mind or concept map. You can list items between columns if they displayed properties of both
states.
Solids Liquids Gases

4. a. Recall and write down three properties that most solids have in common.
b. Would liquids have the same three properties? If not, what differences might be expected?
5. a. What is the unit used to measure small volumes, such as for liquid medicines?
b. How could you measure such a volume?
Apply and analyse
6. Recall and write down which properties of gases are different from those of liquids.
7. Both steel and chalk are solids. What properties of steel make it more useful than chalk for building
bridges?
8. Are plasticine and playdough solids or liquids? Explain.
9. What is diffusion? Give two examples of this occurring around your house.
10. Is it possible for a solid to behave like a fluid? Explain your answer.
Evaluate and create
11. At the petrol station, the safety sign asks for the car engine to be switched off before you fill the petrol
tank. Use your knowledge of diffusion to explain why this is necessary.
12. SIS There is a fourth state of matter known as plasma, which is not very common on Earth. Research
and report on:
a. how plasma is different from solids, liquids and gases
b. where plasma can be found
c. how plasma can be used on Earth.
13. SIS Different liquids pour or flow in different ways. Test this by pouring honey, shampoo, cooking oil
and water from one container to another. Write your hypothesis first and make sure it is a fair test by
considering the variables. Record the time each liquid takes to pour. Record the results in a table and
write a conclusion based on your observations and results.
14. Make up a short poem about the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
15. SIS Olivia says that when a candle burns it is a solid that burns, Henry says that it is a liquid that
burns and Zahra says that it is a gas. Write a hypothesis about what you think is occurring and then
observe a candle burning (you could do it yourself or watch it on Youtube). Decide who is correct and
write a summary of your findings.

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 361

6.3 Changing states
LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to describe the relationship between change of state and temperature.
You will also be able to explain the difference between boiling and evaporation.

6.3.1 Changing states

Water is the only substance on Earth that exists naturally
FIGURE 6.7 Unfortunately, the ice sculpture in
in three different states at normal temperatures. It is in the this photograph won’t last for very long. Even
oceans, in the polar ice and in the air as water vapour. Water as the sculptor works, it is melting as heat
is constantly moving and changing states. You can observe moves into it from the warmer air around it.
water changing states in the kitchen.

To change the state of any substance, including water, it

must be heated or cooled, or the pressure changed.

FIGURE 6.8 The processes involved in changing states

Matter

Melting Boiling/Evaporation
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensation

Sublimation

Melting point and boiling point

The state of matter of any substance depends on pressure and its temperature. The
state of matter condition or
temperature at which a substance changes from a solid into a liquid (melts) is called phase of a substance. The three
its melting point. A liquid changes into a solid (freezes) at the same temperature. main states of matter are solid,
Water has a melting point of 0 °C, so to melt ice it has to be heated to a temperature liquid and gas.
of 0 °C. To freeze water it has to be cooled to a temperature of 0 °C. pressure the force exerted per
unit area
Melting and boiling points change with the height above sea level. This is because temperature a measure of how
hot or cold something is
the air gets thinner and the air pressure gets lower as you move away from the Earth’s
melting point the temperature at
surface. If you were climbing Mount Everest and made a cup of coffee near its peak, which a solid substance turns into
you would find that the water boiled at about 70 °C instead of 100 °C. a liquid (melts) or a liquid turns
into a solid (freezes)

362 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

The boiling point is the temperature at which a substance TABLE 6.1 Melting and boiling points of some
boils. At this temperature, the substance changes from liquid common substances at sea level
into gas (evaporates) quickly. At the same temperature, a gas Melting point Boiling point
changes into a liquid (condenses). The boiling point of water Substance (°C) (°C)
is 100 °C. The melting and boiling points of some common Water 0 100
substances are shown in table 6.1. Table salt 804 1413
Iron 1535 2750
Sublimation Aluminium 660 1800
At a concert or special event, you may have seen a thick Oxygen −218 −183
‘smoke’ used for effect. This smoke is produced when solid Nitrogen −210 −196
carbon dioxide, called ‘dry ice’, changes state from a solid
directly to a gas. This very unusual change of state is called sublimation. The ‘smoke’ is actually tiny droplets
of water that condense from the air as the cold dry ice sublimes. Dry ice sublimes at a temperature of −78.5 °C.
Iodine also sublimes. Diamonds sublime at a temperature of 3550 °C.

FIGURE 6.9 Smoke effects are produced when solid ‘dry ice’ changes state
from a solid directly to a gas.

boiling point the temperature at

which a liquid changes to a gas
evaporation changes state from
a liquid to a gas. Evaporation
occurs only from the surface of a
liquid.
condensation the change of
state by which a gas changes into
a liquid
sublimation the change in state
from a solid into a gas without
first becoming a liquid

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLessons Gold melting (eles-2075)
Sublimation (eles-2038)

DISCUSSION
When butter is melted in a frying pan before putting the food in to fry, why doesn’t the frying pan melt as well?

TOPIC 6 States of matter 363

 FIGURE 6.10 The changing states of water in the kitchen
ewbk-2978
Evaporating
int-7684 Evaporation occurs when a liquid changes to a gas. When water
evaporates at temperatures less than 100 °C, it forms water vapour.
Melting When it evaporates at temperatures greater than 100 °C, it forms steam.
The change of state from solid to Water vapour and steam cannot be seen.
liquid is called melting. A solid melts
when heat is transferred to it.

Condensing
Condensation is the opposite of
evaporation. If a gas comes into
contact with a cold surface, Boiling
Freezing it can turn into a liquid. During boiling, the change from liquid to gas
The change of state from a liquid (evaporation) happens quickly. The change is
to a solid is called freezing. A liquid so fast that bubbles form in the liquid as the gas
turns into a solid when heat is rises through it and escapes. During boiling, the
transferred away from it. entire substance is heated. A liquid remains at
its boiling point until it has all turned into a gas.

The state of an object depends on its temperature and the pressure surrounding the object.

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Changing the boiling point of water (ewbk-2979)
Additional automatically marked question sets

6.3 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 2, 6 3, 4, 8 5, 7, 9

364 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

Remember and understand
1. Complete the diagram shown, by labelling the changes of state.

Change of state

? ?

Solid Liquid Gas

? ?

2. State the name given to the change of state from liquid water to steam. What happens to make this
occur?
3. Describe what happens to liquid water when it is cooled below 0 °C? Has heat moved into or out of the
liquid?
4. MC At higher altitudes, water boils at a temperature less than 100 ºC because:
A. temperature of higher altitudes is low. B. atmospheric pressure is low.
C. temperature of higher altitudes is higher. D. atmospheric pressure is high.
5. When water evaporates it can change state from a liquid to a gas in the form of either steam or water
vapour. Explain the difference between steam and water vapour.

Apply and analyse

6. Why is dry ice useful to produce a ‘smoke’ effect? Name another use for dry ice.
7. Explain the difference between evaporation and boiling.

Evaluate and create

8. SIS Examine the data recorded in the table.

TABLE Melting and boiling points of some common substances at sea level
Substance Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C)
Water 0 100
Table salt 804 1413
Iron 1535 2750
Aluminium 660 1800
Oxygen −218 −183
Nitrogen −210 −196

a. At what temperature would you expect table salt to melt? At what temperature would it freeze?
b. Would you expect aluminium to be found as a solid, liquid or gas at:
i. 200 °C ii. 680 °C iii. 1900 °C?
c. Which substance — oxygen or nitrogen — would freeze first if the temperature were gradually
lowered?
9. SIS Dry the outside of a very cold can of soft drink or carton of milk and allow it to stand on a table or
bench for about ten minutes. (Don’t forget to put it back in the fridge afterwards.)
a. What change occurred on the outside of the can?
b. Where did the water come from?
c. What change of state has occurred?

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 365

6.4 The state of the weather
LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to describe the differences between different forms of precipitation
such as rain, hail, snow and sleet. You will also be able to recognise how scientists predict the weather.

6.4.1 Water and the weather

Rain, hail, snow and sleet are all types of precipitation. Precipitation is falling water, whether in solid or liquid
form. All precipitation occurs because energy from the Sun melts ice and causes liquid water to evaporate to
become water vapour in the atmosphere. When the temperature in the atmosphere gets low enough, the water
vapour condenses or freezes. That’s when we get rain, hail, snow or sleet.
precipitation falling water in
The type of precipitation we get depends mostly on the temperature in the clouds solid or liquid form. The type of
precipitation depends mostly on
and the air around them. It also depends on the amount of water vapour in the air
the temperature in the clouds and
and the air pressure. the air around them.

Rain
Rain forms when water vapour condenses in cold air,
FIGURE 6.11 Clouds are formed by tiny droplets of
forming tiny droplets of water. These droplets are so water, kept up by air currents.
small that they are kept up by moving air, forming
clouds.
As the droplets join together they become too heavy
to remain in the air. They fall to the ground as rain.
When air currents are low, very tiny drops of rain
may fall as a fine mist known as drizzle.

Hail

If drops of rain freeze, they may form hailstones. Air FIGURE 6.12 In summer, warm rising air helps to keep
currents within clouds move raindrops from the the hailstones in the clouds for longer, forming even
bottom of the cloud upwards to the top of the cloud. more layers of ice than usual. These hailstones can
The top of the cloud is much colder than the bottom reach masses of over one kilogram before they fall.
and the rising raindrops freeze very quickly. The
frozen raindrops fall back towards the bottom of the
cloud. If the air currents are strong enough, the
frozen raindrops rise again, adding a new layer of ice.
They fall again, then rise again to form another layer
of ice. This can happen over and over again, each
time adding a new layer of ice. When the ice has
built up many layers, it gets heavy enough to fall to
the ground as a hailstone. Hailstones can be
extremely large and cause extensive damage.

366 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

Snow
Snow consists of crystals of ice that have frozen slowly in clouds. Many
FIGURE 6.13 Snowflakes form
different shapes and patterns can be found in snowflakes. The shape and
many different shapes and
size depend on how cold the cloud is, its height and the amount of water patterns but always have six
vapour it holds. Crystals of ice form when clouds have temperatures ‘sides’.
below –20 °C. The crystals join together and fall. As they fall, they
become wet with moisture but then refreeze as snowflakes.
If the air between the cloud and the ground is colder than 0 °C, the
snowflakes fall as very powdery, dry snow. If the air is warmer, the ice
crystals melt and fall as rain or sleet.

Sleet
Sleet is snow that is melting or raindrops that are not completely frozen.
Sleet forms when the air between the clouds and the ground is warm
enough to melt ice.

6.4.2 Predicting the weather

SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR: Studying the weather
The scientists who predict, or forecast, the weather are
meteorologists. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere FIGURE 6.14 A meteorologist releases a
and includes the observation, explanation and prediction of weather balloon in Antarctica
weather and climate. Numerous observations of temperature,
precipitation, wind speed, air pressure, humidity and more are
needed to make weather forecasts. Humidity is a measure of
the amount of water vapour in the air.

Before the first weather balloon was launched in 1882,

observations with instruments such as thermometers,
barometers and rain gauges could be made only on land or
ships. Not long after the invention of the first ‘flying machine’
in 1903, weather instruments were attached to the wings of
planes, allowing them to be taken higher in the atmosphere.

As new technology becomes available, the number and quality of observations improve. Improved weather
balloons, together with radar, satellite images and computer modelling, allow meteorologists to make predictions
further ahead and more accurately than ever before.

meteorologist a scientist
DISCUSSION who uses observations of the
atmosphere to predict or explain
Why is it that in social situations people so frequently discuss the weather?
the weather

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Understanding a weather forecast (eles-0161)
Additional automatically marked question sets

TOPIC 6 States of matter 367

6.4 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10 5, 8, 11, 12 6, 9, 13, 14

Remember and understand

1. What are clouds made of?
2. Recall and describe what meteorology is concerned with.
3. What is humidity a measure of?
4. Using words and a labelled diagram, explain how hailstones are formed.
5. How can hailstones get as large as the one in figure 6.12 (the photograph in section 6.4.1)?
6. Suggest why extra-large hailstones are more common in summer than in winter.

Apply and analyse

7. Explain the difference between snow and sleet.
8. Make a list of leisure activities that rely on predictions about the weather.
9. Ski resort operators suffer when there is a shortage of snow in some years. What conditions would
they look for to predict coming snowfall?

Evaluate and create

10. In which occupations do each of the following types of weather prevent activity?
a. Extreme heat
b. Heavy rain
c. Thunderstorms
11. SIS Record the predictions of the maximum temperature of your nearest capital city made in a
7-day forecast. For each day of the 7-day period, also record the maximum temperature predicted
on the day before. These forecasts can be found online on the Bureau of Meteorology website
(www.bom.gov.au), on the TV news or in daily newspapers.
Then record the actual maximum temperature for each day as reported on the evening news or
www.bom.gov.au. Use a table like the one provided to record your data.

TABLE Daily maximum temperatures (°C)

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
Prediction in
7-day forecast
Forecast the
day before
Actual
maximum
temperature

a. How does the accuracy of the 7-day forecast compare with the accuracy of the previous day’s
forecast?
b. State your opinion about the accuracy of the forecast made on the day before.
c. Apart from temperature, what other aspects of the weather forecast are reported in newspapers and
on the TV news?

368 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 d. Graphs make it easier to read and interpret information, find trends and draw conclusions.
Examine the data in the table, and reference subtopic 1.10. Decide which type of graph would
best suit this data. Then construct a graph representing the different temperatures over the week,
ensuring you use a different colour for the three temperature measurements.
12. SIS Find out what relative humidity is, and with which instrument it is measured.
13. SIS Research and report on what a hydrologist does.
14. SIS Find out and describe the difference between weather and climate.

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

6.5 The particle model

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to describe the particle model and explain the properties of the three
states of matter using this model.

6.5.1 The particle model

How do you explain why ice has properties that are different from those of water particle model a description of
or steam? Scientists use a model to explain the different properties of solids, the moving particles that make up
all matter and how they behave.
liquids and gases. A model is a way of representing something that is like the The model explains the properties
object or idea but not exactly the same as the object or idea. This model is called of solids, liquids and gases.
the particle model.

According to the particle model:

• all substances are made up of tiny particles
• the particles in liquids and solids are attracted towards other surrounding particles
• the particles are always moving
• the hotter the substance is, the faster the particles move.

FIGURE 6.15 A particle model for different states — solid, liquid and gas

Solid Liquid Gas

Temperature

TOPIC 6 States of matter 369

 WHAT DOES IT MEAN?
The word particle comes from the Latin word particula, meaning ‘part’.

6.5.2 Particles in a solid FIGURE 6.16 Particles in a

In solids the particles are very close together, so they cannot be compressed. solid
The attraction between neighbouring particles in a solid is usually strong.
Because there are such strong bonds between the particles, solids usually
have a fixed shape and a constant volume. The particles in solids cannot
move freely; instead they vibrate in a fixed position.

6.5.3 Particles in a liquid

In liquids the particles are held together by attraction, but the bonds between
FIGURE 6.17 Particles in a
them are not as strong as those in solids. The weak particle attraction allows
liquid
the particles to roll over each other, but they can’t ‘escape’. For this reason,
liquids have a fixed volume but the rolling motion of the particles allows
them to take up the shape of their container. As in solids, the particles in
liquids are still very close together. Liquids cannot be compressed into
smaller spaces.

6.5.4 Particles in a gas

The particles in a gas have much more energy than those in solids or liquids,
and they are in constant motion. The attraction between the particles in a gas
is so weak that they are able to move freely in all directions. They spread out
to take up any space that is available. This means that gases have no fixed
shape or volume. Because of the large spaces between particles, gases can
be compressed.
FIGURE 6.18 Particles in a
Spreading out gas
The spreading of one substance through another is called diffusion. This can
happen only when the particles of one substance can spread through the
particles of another substance. Diffusion is possible in liquids and gases
because the particles move around. You would expect diffusion to happen
faster in gases than in liquids because the particles move faster. Particles in a
solid vibrate in a fixed position, so diffusion can’t occur.

FIGURE 6.19 The particles of two gases spread through each other, over time (from 1 through to 3), until they are
evenly mixed.

1 2 3

370 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 The particle model and balloons
The particle model can be used to explain what happens to a balloon when you inflate it. Particles of air inside
the balloon constantly move in all directions. They collide with each other and with the inside wall of the
balloon. But the wall is not rigid. It can stretch as more particles are added. The balloon expands until it can’t
stretch any more. When you let some of the air out of the balloon, fewer particles collide with the inside wall of
the balloon. It gets smaller or contracts.

INVESTIGATION 6.4
elog-0085
Investigating diffusion
Aim
To compare diffusion of liquids and gases

Materials
• 250 mL beaker
• food colouring
• fragrant spray
• water
• eye-dropper

Method
1. Your teacher will release some fragrant spray in one corner of the classroom. Put your hand up when
you can notice the smell. Record the time it takes for the smell to get to the students at the back of
the room.
2. Place a drop of food colouring into a beaker of water and record your observations for several minutes,
making sure the beaker is not moved.

Results
1. Using the recorded times, describe how the fragrant spray travelled across the classroom.
2. Draw a diagram to show the movement of the food colouring through the water.

Discussion
1. What is diffusion?
2. Describe how the fragrant spray moved through the air using the particle model.
3. This investigation shows diffusion in a liquid (water) and in a gas (air).
a. In which state does diffusion occur faster? Explain why this occurs.
b. Is it a fair test to compare the two observations? Explain.
c. How could you make dispersion in water occur faster? Describe an investigation that you could do
to test this.
d. Explain whether you think diffusion occurs in solids.

Conclusion
Describe how diffusion happens in gases and liquids.

6.5.5 Gases under pressure

The fire extinguishers used to put out electrical fires are filled with carbon dioxide expand increase in size due to
gas. Carbon dioxide can be used in this way only because huge amounts of it can particles moving apart
be compressed, or squeezed, into a container. Gases can be compressed because contract shorten or become
smaller in size
there is a lot of space between the particles. Gases compressed into cylinders are
used for barbecues, scuba diving, natural gas in cars and aerosol cans.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 371

 CASE STUDY: How fire extinguishers use compressed gas
1. Gases, including carbon dioxide, have lots of space between their particles.
2. Carbon dioxide is compressed into a cylinder. The particles are squashed closer together.
3. The carbon dioxide particles are now under increased pressure. This means that the particles in the
gas collide frequently with the walls of the cylinder and push outwards. The particles are trying to
escape, but are held in by the container.
4. When the nozzle is opened, the pressure forces the carbon dioxide gas out very quickly through the
opening.
5. The particles of gas quickly spread out over the fire. The gas smothers the fire, stopping oxygen from
the air getting to it. Fires cannot burn without oxygen, so the fire goes out.

FIGURE 6.20 Carbon dioxide gas under pressure is used to extinguish fires.

int-5334

4
1

2 3

DISCUSSION
1. How is the particle model different from real particles of solids, liquids and gases?
2. a. Explain why this statement is incorrect: ‘The particles of a liquid expand when heated’.
b. Write the statement correctly.

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Under pressure (eles-0058)

eWorkbooks Fire! Fire! (ewbk-2980)

Particles in our lives (ewbk-2982)
Additional automatically marked question sets

372 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

6.5 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 2, 3, 6, 7 4, 8, 10 5, 9, 11, 12

Remember and understand

1. List the states of matter in order from the one with the smallest space between the particles to the one
with the most space between the molecules particles.
2. What is diffusion? Explain which states of matter can diffuse.
3. SIS Explain why a model is needed to explain the properties and behaviour of different states of
matter.
4. List the four main ideas of the particle model.
5. Use the particle model to explain why gases are compressible.
Apply and analyse
6. Describe an everyday example of diffusion.
7. Compare the motion of particles in a liquid with the motion in a gas. Include a diagram.
8. What happens to the particles in carbon dioxide gas when they are compressed into a fire extinguisher?
9. Use the particle model to explain what keeps car or bicycle tyres in the right shape when they are
pumped up to a high air pressure.

Evaluate and create

10. Use the particle model to explain why:
a. perfume can be smelled from a few metres away
b. steam can be compressed, but ice cannot
c. water vapour takes up more space than the same amount of liquid
d. solids do not mix well, but gases and liquids mix easily in most cases.
11. a. Draw labelled diagrams of three containers with solid particles in the first, liquid in the second and
gas in the third.
b. How does this model of particles compare with the particles in an actual container?
12. Use the internet to investigate the safe storage of gas cylinders. Make a list of requirements and state
the reason for each of them.

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

6.6 Energy matters

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to describe the effect of heating or cooling on particles of a
substance. You will also be able to provide examples of heating and cooling.

6.6.1 Energy in and energy out

A change of state involves the heating or cooling of matter. As a substance is heated, energy is transferred to it.
When a substance cools, energy moves away from it to another substance or to the environment. The change in
energy causes the particles in the substance to move at different speeds.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 373

 An increase in the energy of the particles of a substance results in an increase in the temperature of the
substance. A decrease in the energy of particles results in a decrease in the temperature of the substance.

FIGURE 6.21 This flowchart shows what happens to the particles that make up a substance when it changes
from a solid state into a gas state. When a gas is cooled, the direction of the flowchart can be reversed as the
substance changes from a gas state into a solid state.

Solid Melting Liquid

When a solid is heated, its particles As more heat is transferred to As a liquid is
start to move more quickly. As they the solid, its particles vibrate heated, its
move more quickly, the temperature more violently. Eventually particles move
increases. The increased movement the particles move so much that and roll over
of its particles also makes the the bonds holding them in each other faster
solid expand. their fixed positions break. The and faster. The
particles start to roll over each temperature of
other. Melting continues until the the liquid
entire solid becomes a liquid. increases and
it expands.

Gas Evaporating
As in solids and liquids, the particles in gases If the liquid continues to be heated, the particles
move faster and faster when they are heated will eventually have enough energy to break the
and the temperature of the gas increases. The bonds holding them together. The particles can
increased movement of the particles means that break away from the liquid and begin to move
they take up more space and the gas expands. around freely. This process is called evaporation.
If the gas is heated in a closed container, the The liquid boils until the entire liquid has evaporated
increased movement of the particles means that to become a gas.
they collide more often with the sides of the
container and with each other.

INVESTIGATION 6.5
elog-0086
Explaining gases
Aim
To observe and explain the expansion and contraction of a gas

Materials
• balloon
• ruler

374 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 • 2 large beakers
• hot and cold water
• piece of string
• small conical flask
• ice cubes

Method
1. Ensure you have a copy of the results table to fill in for this task.
2. Inflate the balloon to its maximum size. Then deflate it. This
makes it easier to stretch.
• Inflate the balloon again, to a size slightly larger than
an orange. Fit the neck of the balloon over the conical
flask to seal it.
• Wrap the string once around the widest part of the Balloon (partially inflated)
balloon to find its circumference. With a ruler, measure
the length of the string that encircled the balloon.
• Record your measurement in your table. Conical flask
3. Half fill one of the beakers with ice cubes and a small amount
of cold water.
• Place the conical flask in the ice-water beaker and
observe the balloon. After a few minutes, use the
string to measure the circumference of the balloon
again.
• Record your measurement in your table. Beaker of cold water
4. Put some hot water into the second beaker. Take the conical with ice cubes
flask from the ice-water and place it into the hot water.
• Leave for a few minutes, then measure and record the
balloon’s circumference.

Results

TABLE Effect of temperature on air

Temperature of surroundings Circumference of balloon (cm)
Room temperature
Cold (ice water)
Hot (hot water)

Discussion
1. Was any air added to or removed from the balloon after it was placed over the conical flask?
2. After being in ice-water and hot water, were there any changes in the size of the balloon?
3. Using the particle model, try to explain what might have made the balloon contract and expand.
4. Identify which quantity was varied or changed in this experiment? What things were kept the same?
5. Describe what happens to the air in the balloon when it gets cold.

Conclusion
Describe what you observed. Provide an explanation for your results.

6.6.2 Examples of heating and cooling

When a substance is heated, the particles gain energy, move faster, become further apart and take up more
space, and a substance expands as the temperature increases.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 375

The tyres on a moving car get quite hot. This makes the air inside
expand and may even cause a blowout in extreme circumstances. FIGURE 6.22 These hot air balloons rise
Heating usually causes gases to expand much more than solids or when the air inside them expands. How
liquids. Gases expand easily because the particles are spread out do they get back down to the ground?
and not attracted to each other strongly. Solids, liquids and gases
contract when they are cooled because the particles lose energy,
slow down, need less space to move in and become more strongly
attracted to each other.
Hot air balloons rise when the air inside them expands. The
particles in the heated air move faster and take up more space.
This makes each cubic centimetre of air inside the balloon lighter
than each cubic centimetre of air outside the balloon, so the air
inside the balloon rises, taking the balloon with it.

FIGURE 6.23 The volume of a substance changes when it

is heated or cooled.

Removing Adding
heat heat

Contraction Expansion
• Particles move more slowly. • Particles move faster.
• Distance between particles • Distance between
gets smaller. particles increases.
• The attraction between the • The attraction between
particles increases. the particles decreases.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Heating and cooling (int-3413)

Architects and engineers allow for expansion and contraction of materials when designing bridges and buildings.
Bridges have gaps at each end of large sections so that in hot weather, when the metal and concrete expand,
they will not buckle. Railway lines also have gaps to allow for expansion. Electrical wires are hung from poles
loosely so that when the weather cools, they will not become too tight and break as they contract. The amount by
which a structure will expand or contract depends on the material it is made from; so when choosing a material,
it is important to find out how much that material will expand or contract. The table Expansion of materials
in 6.6 Exercise, question 9 shows how much some commonly used materials expand when the temperature
increases by 10 °C.
An exception to the model
According to the particle model, the spaces between the
FIGURE 6.24 Oops! The reason why you shouldn’t
particles in a liquid get smaller as the liquid is cooled, put a bottle full of water in the freezer
and the particles are closest once the liquid has become
a solid. However, water is one of the few substances that
does not behave exactly as the particle model predicts.

376 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 While the temperature of water is cooled from 100 °C to 4 °C, the particles behave as expected, with the spaces
between them growing smaller. As water temperature drops below 4 °C; however, something strange happens —
the spaces between the particles start to get larger again. By the time water freezes at 0 °C, the particles are
further apart than they were at 4 °C! In general, the volume taken up by water particles increases by nearly
10 per cent when it becomes ice; you may have noticed this if you have ever put a full bottle of water in the
freezer.

INVESTIGATION 6.6
elog-0087
Expansion of solids
Aim
To observe and explain the expansion of a solid

Materials A ball and ring set

• metal ball and ring set
• Bunsen burner and heatproof mat
• tongs
Metal ball
Method
1. Try to put the ball through the ring. Record your
observations.
2. Use the Bunsen burner to heat the ring and use
tongs to try to put the ball through it. Take care not
to touch the hot metal. Metal ring
3. Let the ring cool and try to put the ball through the
ring again.

Results
Record your observations of the ball and ring before heating and after heating.

Discussion
1. Describe what happened to change the size of the ring.
2. Use the particle model to explain the change that took place in the ring.

Conclusion
Describe what happened when you heated the ring. Provide an explanation for your observations.

6.6.3 Thermometers
Bulb thermometers, like the one pictured in figure 6.27, use the expansion of liquids when they are heated to
measure temperature. Most bulb thermometers consist of thin tubes and a bulb that contains a liquid. As the
temperature rises, the liquid expands, moving up the tube, which is sealed at the top.
The two most commonly used liquids in thermometers are mercury and alcohol. Mercury has a low freezing
point (−39 °C) and a high boiling point (357 °C). Alcohol, however, is much more useful in very cold conditions
because it does not freeze until the temperature drops to −117 °C. On the other hand, alcohol boils at 79 °C, so it
cannot be used for measuring higher temperatures.
The temperature of the human body ranges between 34 °C and 42 °C; it is normally about 37 °C. A clinical
thermometer is designed to measure this range.
Look at the clinical thermometer in figure 6.25. The tube narrows near the bulb.
freezing the change of state by
Once the mercury has expanded, this narrowing prevents the mercury contracting which a liquid changes to a solid
and moving back into the bulb before the temperature can be read. Once a reading
has been taken, the mercury has to be shaken back into the bulb before the
thermometer can be reused.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 377

 FIGURE 6.25 a. A clinical thermometer and b. a digital thermometer. Digital thermometers are easier to read than
bulb thermometers.
a. b.

Bulb thermometers are gradually being replaced by digital thermometers, which don’t rely on expansion and
contraction of mercury or any other liquid. Digital thermometers contain a thermostat, which is a sealed solid,
embedded inside. The thermostat’s resistance to electric current depends on temperature. A tiny computer
measures the thermostat’s resistance and calculates the temperature, which is displayed on a small screen
(making them easier to read).

INVESTIGATION 6.7
elog-0088
Expansion of liquids
Aim
To observe and explain the expansion of a liquid

Materials
• 500 mL conical flask
• tripod and gauze mat
• eye-dropper
• narrow glass tube
• food colouring Glass tube
• marking pen
• rubber stopper with one hole to fit the tube
• Bunsen burner, heatproof mat and matches Stopper

Method Coloured water

1. Use an eye-dropper to place two or three drops of food
colouring in the flask, then fill it with water right to the top. Gauze mat
2. Place the stopper in the flask with the glass tube fitted. Some
coloured water should rise into the tube. Mark the level of the
liquid in the tube with the marking pen. Tripod
3. Place the flask on the tripod and gauze mat, light the Bunsen
burner and gently heat the liquid. Bunsen
4. After about five minutes of heating, turn off the Bunsen burner
burner and watch what happens to the liquid level in the
tube. Measure and record the change in height.

378 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 Results
TABLE Results of investigation 6.7
Change in height of water level when heated from initial height (cm)
Change in height of water level after cooling (cm)

Discussion
1. Describe what happened to the level of the liquid while it was being heated.
2. Describe what happened to the level of the liquid while it was cooling down.
3. Use the particle model to explain your responses to questions 1 and 2.

Conclusion
Describe what you observed when the liquid was heated.

6.6.4 Foggy mirrors

Have you noticed how the mirror in the bathroom ‘fogs up’ after a hot shower? The ‘fog’ is actually formed by
invisible water vapour in the air cooling down when it contacts the cold glass. It condenses to become water.

FIGURE 6.26 Different states of water found in your bathroom

Fog in the air

Some of the energy of the particles in the water vapour is transferred away from the vapour to
the air. The transfer of energy leaves the water vapour with less energy — so much less energy
that its particles slow down. The transfer of energy away from the water vapour means it
cools down and turns into tiny droplets of water. These tiny droplets form clouds. This
process is called condensation.

Invisible gas
Water vapour forms when Fog on the mirror
particles in the hot water The energy from
gain enough energy to some of the particles
escape from each other and in the water vapour
become a gas. You can’t see is transferred to the
water vapour. The particles cold mirror. This causes
in the water vapour move the water vapour to
around freely. They have condense on the mirror.
more energy than the
particles in the liquid water.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 379

 DISCUSSION
In movies, you sometimes see a mirror being held up to the mouth and nose of someone who is unconscious to
check whether they are breathing. Explain why this would work.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Changes of state (int-0222)

eWorkbooks Changes of state (ewbk-2983)

Expansion of liquids (ewbk-2981)
Additional automatically marked question sets

6.6 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 4, 7, 10 2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 16 3, 6, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18

Remember and understand

1. Describe what happens to the movement of particles as a substance changes its state from a gas to a
liquid.
2. Describe two changes in the properties of a substance when its particles move faster.
3. When a substance changes state from a solid to a liquid:
a. describe what happens to the bonds
between the particles
b. explain how the motion of the
particles change.
4. Explain why solids generally expand when
they are heated.
5. The following statements are incorrect.
Rewrite them correctly.
a. Heating a liquid might make its particles
stick closer together.
b. Solids have a definite shape because their
particles are free to move around.
c. You can compress a gas because its
particles are close together.
d. When you heat a liquid, the particles
expand.
6. a. Describe what change you expect to see when hot metal objects are cooling.
b. Why does this happen? Explain, using the particle model.

380 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

Apply and analyse
7. List two examples of structures that contain gaps to prevent them buckling in hot weather.
8. Give one reason overhead electric power lines are not hung tightly.
9. SIS Use the table to answer the following questions.

TABLE Expansion of materials

Expansion (mm) of 100 m length when temperature
Substance increases by 10 °C
Steel 11
Platinum 9
Concrete 11
Glass — soda 9
Glass — Pyrex 3
Lead 29
Tin 21
Aluminium 23

a. If a steel rod of 10 metres in length was heated so that its temperature rose by 10 °C, how long
would the rod become?
b. Explain why Pyrex, rather than soda glass, is used in cooking glassware such as casserole dishes
and saucepans.
c. Concrete is often reinforced with steel bars or mesh to make it stronger. Why is steel a better choice
than another metal, such as aluminium or lead?
10. For each of the following changes of state of a substance, identify whether it involves adding energy to
the particles or transferring energy away from the particles.
a. Melting
b. Condensation
c. Boiling
d. Freezing
e. Sublimation
f. Evaporation
11. Construct a flowchart like the one in section 6.6.1 to show how a gas changes state to become a
liquid and then a solid. Include the names and descriptions of the two changes of state that take
place.
12. Use the particle model to predict what will happen to the length and width of a solid substance if it is
heated (without melting).
13. Hot air balloons have a gas heater connected to them.
a. Describe what happens to the particles inside the balloon when the heater is turned on.
b. Explain why the balloon rises.
Evaluate and create
14. SIS Suggest why icebergs float in Arctic and Antarctic waters. Do you think much of the iceberg
is under the water, or is it mostly above? How could you test your hypothesis? Design a suitable
experiment.
15. A jar with the lid jammed on tightly can be hard to open. If hot water is run over the lid, it becomes
easier to open. Explain why.
16. The mercury thermometer was invented by a German named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736).
A different set of markings is used to scale Fahrenheit thermometers. At what temperatures does
water boil and freeze on this scale?
17. Under what conditions might you use an alcohol thermometer rather than a mercury thermometer?
18. SIS List the advantages of digital thermometers over mercury bulb thermometers for measuring
human body temperature.

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 381

6.7 Thinking tools — Concept maps and mind maps
6.7.1 Tell me
What is a concept map?
A concept map is a useful
FIGURE 6.27 Concept map
thinking tool that can assist you
to show what you understand
Topic
about a particular topic. They Link Link
graphically demonstrate the
hierarchical structure of concepts Link

related to a topic, and they also Main idea Main idea Main idea
explain the links or relationships
between the concepts and Link Link Link Link
Link
subtopics. They are sometimes First-level idea First-level idea First-level idea First-level idea
called a knowledge map or Link Link Link Link
Link
concept web. Second-level idea Second-level idea Second-level idea Second-level idea

Link
Third-level idea

Why use a concept map instead of a mind map?

Concept maps graphically show the FIGURE 6.28 Mind map
structure of a topic in a hierarchical
way and can explain the relationship Fe
Fe ure

F re
ature

atu
at

between the parts or elements with Fea

ea re Feature

Fe
Feature tu
tur Featu
statements on the links. Mind maps break Fe
Feature e re
Feature

ature
at

down a topic into sections or groups of Fe

ure

Featur
Id
Feature

Idea
e ea
Idea

Fea
ideas, all curving out from the central Fe
at
tu
Id

re
Featu
topic in the middle. In a mind map, ea ea
ur

re
Con t
e

e Id e a ce cep Id re
ture
atur on

F tu
there are no straight lines, horizontal
Fea
Fe ea
C

Feature
pt

organisation or ordering like you will

Feature

see in a concept map. ept

Conc Topic Conc e
ea

Idea ept atur

FeFeatu
Id

ture re
Fea re Id e a Fea
tu ea t

ur
a

Id
Id
Idea

e
Fe

ea
Feature Featur
Fea e
ure
at tu
Fe
e

re
Fe

Featur

atu e
re
atu

Fe r
tu

re
Fea

6.7.2 Show me
To create a concept map:
1. On small pieces of paper, write down all the ideas you can think of about a particular topic. You could also
use software or an app to create your concept or mind map.
2. Select the most important ideas and arrange them under your topic. Link these main ideas to your topic and
write the relationship along the link.
3. Choose ideas related to your main ideas and arrange them in order of importance under your main ideas,
adding links and relationships.
4. When you have placed all your ideas, try to find links between the branches and write in the relationships.

382 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 FIGURE 6.29 An incomplete concept map about the three states of water

is made up of
Water
is m whic
ade h are
up o

of
f
up
e
ad
m

whi
ch a
is

to
re

m
ov
e
whic

an
h ar o

d
e ds
r o un an
a c
you
a

is known as
up
ke
ma is k
and no
wn
melt as evaporate
is kno
wn a
s

freeze condense

6.7.3 Let me do it
6.7 ACTIVITIES
1. Complete figure 6.29 to represent your knowledge
about the three states of water. FIGURE 6.30 A concept map of precipitation could
2. Create a concept map of your own to represent begin like this.
your knowledge of how water in the atmosphere
affects precipitation. Figure 6.30 shows one way of Clouds
starting your concept map. You’ll need to write in
suitable link words yourself. (Hint: Start by writing
down all of the important words or terms related to
Precipitation
precipitation that you can think of and use as many
of them as you can in your concept map.)
3. A mind map is similar to a concept map, but the
topic is placed in the centre instead of at the top.
There are no other boxes — just branches on
Rain Hail Snow
which the keywords and terms are listed. Complete
figure 6.31 to represent your knowledge of the
states of matter. FIGURE 6.31 A mind map begins with the topic in
4. The states of matter can be represented by a the centre.
concept map or a mind map. Which map do you
find easier to construct? Explain why. lids
So

es
Gas

Matter
Liq
uid
s

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 383

6.8 Review
Access your topic review eWorkbooks
Topic review Level 1 Topic review Level 2 Topic review Level 3
ewbk-2988 ewbk-2989 ewbk-2990

Resources

6.8.1 Summary
Matter
• Matter is anything that has mass and volume.
• Matter can be found as solids, liquids or gases.

Solids, liquids and gases

• Physical properties of solids:
• Fixed volume and shape
• Not compressible
• Does not flow easily
• Physical properties of liquids:
• Takes the shape of the container
• Not compressible
• Flows easily
• Physical properties of gases:
• Fills the container
• Compressible
• Flows easily
• A fluid is a substance that flows, for example gases and liquids.
• The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring cylinder.
• The volume of an irregular solid can be measured by seeing how much water is displaced by it.
• The mass of an object can be measured using a balance.
Changes of state
• Melting requires heating matter and is a change of state from solid to liquid.
• Freezing requires cooling matter and is a change of state from liquid to solid.
• Evaporation requires heating matter and is a change of state from liquid to gas at different temperatures.
• Boiling requires heating matter and is a change of state from liquid to gas at the liquid’s boiling point.
• Condensation requires cooling matter and is a change of state from gas to liquid.
• Sublimation requires heating matter and is a change of state from solid to gas.
• Melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance turns into a liquid (melts) or a liquid turns into a
solid (freezes).
• Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas.
• Rain, hail, snow and sleet are forms of precipitation. The type of precipitation depends on the temperature.

The particle model of matter

• The four major assumptions of the particle model of matter are:
•all substances are made up of tiny particles
•the particles of liquids and solids are attracted towards other surrounding particles
• the particles are always moving
• the hotter the substance is, the faster the particles move.
• The particles of a solid are closely packed in a fixed shape and have strong bonds between them; they
vibrate in a fixed position.

384 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 • The particles of a liquid are less strongly held together than solids but still relatively close together, so they
cannot be compressed. They can roll over each other so liquids can take the shape of their container.
• The particles of a gas have more energy than those in liquids and solids; they move constantly and spread
out to fill any container, so they do not have a fixed shape. The large space between the particles means that
they can be compressed.
• Diffusion is the spreading of one substance through another due to the movement of their particles.
Diffusion can occur in gases and liquids.
• When matter is heated, energy is transferred into the object causing the speed of the particles to increase.
• When a solid is heated, its particles start to move quickly and the temperature rises. The particles spread
out making the solid start to expand.
• As the heating continues, the particles vibrate more strongly and the bonds holding them in position start to
break until the solid becomes a liquid.
• With further heating, the particles gain enough energy to completely break the bonds holding them together
and the particles continue to spread out even further to become a gas.
• If the temperature continues to increase, the particles move faster and faster taking up more space and the
gas expands. If the gas is in a closed container, the particles collide more often with each other and with the
sides of the container, increasing the pressure.
Science as a human endeavour
• Meteorologists are scientists who observe, explain and predict the weather.
• Engineers and architects design structures with allowances for expansion and contraction of materials.

6.8.2 Key terms

boiling point the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas
condensation the change of state by which a gas changes into a liquid
contract shorten or become smaller in size
diffusion movement of one substance through another due to a movement of particles, for example from a
region of higher concentration to lower concentration
evaporation changes state from a liquid to a gas. Evaporation occurs only from the surface of a liquid.
expand increase in size due to particles moving apart
fluid a substance that flows and has no fixed shape. Gases and liquids are fluids.
freezing the change of state by which a liquid changes to a solid
gas state of matter with no fixed shape or volume
liquid state of matter that has a fixed volume, but no fixed shape
mass the quantity of matter in an object (usually measured in grams or kilograms)
matter everything that takes up space and has mass is matter
melting the change of state by which a solid changes to a liquid
melting point the temperature at which a solid substance turns into a liquid (melts) or a liquid turns into a solid
(freezes)
meteorologist a scientist who uses observations of the atmosphere to predict or explain the weather
particle model a description of the moving particles that make up all matter and how they behave. The model
explains the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
physical property property that you can either observe using your five senses — seeing, hearing, touching,
smelling and tasting — or measure directly
precipitation falling water in solid or liquid form. The type of precipitation depends mostly on the temperature in
the clouds and the air around them.
pressure the force exerted per unit area
properties characteristics or features of an object or substance
solid state of matter that has a fixed shape and volume
state of matter condition or phase of a substance. The three main states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
sublimation the change in state from a solid into a gas without first becoming a liquid
temperature a measure of how hot or cold something is
volume the amount of space taken up by an object or substance
water vapour water in the gaseous state

TOPIC 6 States of matter 385

 Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document Key terms glossary (doc-34704)

eWorkbooks Study checklist (ewbk-2987)

Literacy builder (ewbk-2984)
Crossword (ewbk-2985)
Word search (ewbk-2986)

Practical investigation eLogbook Topic 6 Practical investigation eLogbook (elog-0082)

6.8 Exercise
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

Select your pathway

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Questions Questions Questions
1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12 3, 4, 8, 10, 13, 14 5, 11, 15, 16

Remember and understand

1. Copy and complete the diagram shown, labelling the missing state and changes of state.

Melting ?

Solid Gas

Freezing ?

2. MC During a change of state:

A. heat energy is always absorbed.
B. the temperature remains constant until the change is complete.
C. the temperature increases at a constant rate as the heat energy is absorbed.
D. heat energy is neither absorbed nor lost.
3. MC When a substance sublimes it:
A. changes from a liquid to a solid on cooling.
B. changes from a liquid to a gas on heating.
C. changes from a liquid to a solid on cooling.
D. changes from a solid to a gas on heating.
4. In which state — solid, liquid or gas — do the particles have:
a. the most energy
b. the least energy?
5. In which state are the forces of attraction between the particles likely to be greatest?
6. Describe the changes of state involved in the formation of rain and hail.

386 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

 7. Which of the diagrams shown (A, B or C) best represents the particles of a solid after heating?

Original solid A B C

8. Use the particle model to explain why steam takes up more space than liquid water.
Apply and analyse
9. Copy and label the three diagrams to show which represents a solid, liquid or gas. Label each image
and say whether energy is added or removed on the black arrows. Which properties are shown by
each of these diagrams?

10. Copy and complete the table provided to summarise the properties of solids, liquids and gases. Use a
tick to indicate which properties each state usually has.

TABLE Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Property Solid Liquid Gas
Has a definite shape that is difficult to change
Takes up a fixed amount of space
Can be poured
Takes up all of the space available
Can be compressed
Is made of particles that are strongly attracted to each other
and can’t move past each other
Is made of particles that are not held together by attraction

11. Explain why perfume or aftershave lotion evaporates more quickly than water.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 387

 12. a. State the temperature shown on this thermometer.
b. Explain how mercury and alcohol thermometers are able to provide a measure of
temperature. 100 ˚C
13. Name the process that is taking place in the following diagram and explain why it occurs
only in liquids and gases.
90 ˚C

80 ˚C

70 ˚C

60 ˚C

50 ˚C
14. Snow and hail are water in a solid state. Describe the difference between snow and hail,
and explain how each of them is formed.
40 ˚C
Evaluate and create
15. SIS Beatrice and Sam performed an investigation to find the volume of a cork stopper. 30 ˚C
The measuring cylinder was filled to the 80.0 mL level. A cork stopper was dropped into the
measuring cylinder and the volume rose to 83.5 mL as the cork floated on the surface.
20 ˚C
a. Describe how to accurately read the initial measure of the volume on a measuring cylinder.
b. Explain if this is a fair test to find the volume of the cork.
c. What could you suggest to these students to improve the design of the experiment? 10 ˚C

16. SIS Julia and Chris did an investigation about the rate of evaporation of ethanol in three
different pieces of equipment. The containers used were a flat Petri dish, 100 mL beaker 0 ˚C
and 100 mL conical flask, and 10.0 mL of ethanol was used in each.
The volume in each container after 45 minutes was as follows: Petri dish 9.3 mL,
beaker 9.8 mL, and conical flask 9.6 mL.
a. State the variables that would need to be controlled.
b. State the independent variable.
c. State the dependent variable.
d. Propose a hypothesis for this investigation.
e. State the aim.
f. List the equipment and chemical required.
g. List the steps of the method.
h. Prepare a table to place the results showing initial and final volumes.
i. In the discussion, suggest an explanation of your results.
j. Suggest a way to improve this investigation.
k. Write a conclusion.

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Reflection (ewbk-3038)

Test maker
Create customised assessments from our extensive range of questions, including teacher-quarantined questions.
Access the assignments section in learnON to begin creating and assigning assessments to students.

388 Jacaranda Science Quest 8 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

RESOURCE SUMMARY Resources

Below is a full list of rich resources available online for this this topic. These resources are designed to bring ideas to
life, to promote deep and lasting learning and to support the different learning needs of each individual.

6.1 Overview 6.5 The particle model

eWorkbooks eWorkbooks
• Topic 6 eWorkbook (ewbk-2976) • Fire! Fire! (ewbk-2980)
• Student learning matrix (ewbk-0265) • Particles in our lives (ewbk-2982)
• Starter activity (ewbk-2977)
Practical investigation eLogbook
Practical investigation eLogbooks • Investigation 6.4: Investigating diffusion (elog-0085)
• Topic 6 Practical investigation eLogbook (elog-0082)
• Investigation 6.1: Investigating the properties of Video eLesson
solids, liquids and gases (elog-0081) • Under pressure (eles-0058)

Video eLesson Interactivity

• Three states of water (eles-3524) • Fire extinguisher (int-5334)

6.2 States of matter 6.6 Energy matters

Video eLesson eWorkbooks
• Diffusion (eles-2035) • Changes of state (ewbk-2983)
• Expansion of liquids (ewbk-2981)
Practical investigation eLogbooks
• Investigation 6.2 Ranking substances (elog-0083)
Practical investigation eLogbooks
• Investigation 6.3: Measuring the volume of an • Investigation 6.5: Explaining gases (elog-0086)
irregular-shaped solid (elog-0084) • Investigation 6.6: Expansion of solids (elog-0087)
• Investigation 6.7 Expansion of liquids: (elog-0088)
Interactivities
• Crystalline solids (int-5333)
Interactivities
• Volume (int-3791) • Heating and cooling (int-3413)
• Changes of state (int-0222)
6.3 Changing states
eWorkbooks
6.8 Review
• Changing the boiling point of water (ewbk-2979) eWorkbooks
• Labelling the changing states of water in the kitchen • Topic review Level 1 (ewbk-2988)
(ewbk-2978) • Topic review Level 2 (ewbk-2989)
• Topic review Level 3 (ewbk-2990)
Video eLessons • Study checklist (ewbk-2987)
• Gold melting (eles-2075) • Literacy builder (ewbk-2984)
• Sublimation (eles-2038) • Crossword (ewbk-2985)
• Word search (ewbk-2986)
Interactivity
• Reflection (ewbk-3038)
• The changing states of water in the kitchen (int-7684)

Practical investigation eLogbook

6.4 The state of the weather • Topic 6 Practical investigation eLogbook (elog-0082)
Video eLesson
• Understanding a weather forecast (eles-0161) Digital document
• Key terms glossary (doc-34704)

To access these online resources, log on to www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 6 States of matter 389