MODULE 2 Selection of sources of data- selection of methods of data collection,

Administering the Tools of Data Collection, Analysis of Data

DATA-Inntroduction
Depending upon the source of the data, they can be of two types:
Primary data-Primary data is collected by the researcher directly from the field or subjects
of the research.It is the first hand information gathered by the researcher himself or herself.
Secondary data-The data that is collected by someone other than the researcher is called
secondary data. The second hand source could be a person or an agency.
Depending upon the nature of data, they can be of two types:
Quantitative data-When the data is expressed in the form of numbers like cost of goods, or
population numbers etc., it is called quantitative data. This data is analysed using statistical
methods. The researches, such as survey, census etc., that use quantitative data as the sole
means of data are called quantitative researches.
Qualitative data-When the data is expressed in the form of words like customs, rituals,
description of material or non-material culture etc., it is called qualitative data. This data is
analysed through qualitative methods. Researches that use such data, as in case studies, are
called qualitative researches.
It is not uncommon to find researches that use both qualitative and quantitative data, and
are called mixed research.
SELECTION OF SOURCES OF DATA- SELECTION OF METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION,
While selecting data collection methods, consider Reliability, Validity, Practicality and
Technology assistance, Context of the data, Quality of the data and Perspective of the data

CHOICE OF THE BEST DATA COLLECTION METHOD

Practically, there isn’t one single best data collection method or technique. Each method has
its advantages and disadvantages. Choice depends on the type of insights you need and which
pros/cons are important for research.

Some critical steps that can help you find your best fit.

1. Define what you want to learn and which questions you need to answer
Determining the goals of your data collection is the first step in successful research.

Make it clear to every one of the team members why you want to collect data. Once you
identify the particular need for information, identify the specific questions you need to
answer.

2. Consider the users of research

Who will use the results of the data collection? Stakeholders, managers, society, etc?

Consider how to align the research to the specific user needs and requirements.

3. Consider the respondents from whom you need to gather the data
Where can respondents be reached? Is a face-to-face interview or an online survey more
appropriate for certain target groups?
What are the costs of making respondents prone to participate in each of the data collection
methods? Do you need to offer them rewards?

Define which collection method would fit best in with the lifestyle or working style of the
respondents.

4. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method

Consider issues such as time of the respondents, required infrastructure, access to records,
sensitive topics, respondent feelings, etc.

For example, if your research has to do with depth and complex topics, you need to consider
an in-depth interview or focus group.

If the information you need requires standardized or quantifiable data then you need to think
about observations or surveys.

For sensitive topics, self-administered interviews are generally preferred to face-to-face

interviews as the first ones are seen as more private. Or, a face-to-face interview can include
a self-administered module for this reason.

5.Define the cost and your capacity to collect the data

Should take into consideration all types of involved resources – from financial costs and
employee time to software tools and infrastructure.Might need to provide funds for transport,
training, expert consultant, operations planning, data analysis etc.
Illustration of the Most Common Types of Primary Data Collection

Methods of Primary Data Collection

There are three main methods of primary data collection: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
approaches. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Qualitative Primary Data Collection This method gathers non-numeric data to gain deeper
insights into the behaviors, attitudes, and motivations of the target group. It is often used to
explore a topic from various perspectives and to capture participants’ opinions and feelings.

Quantitative Primary Data Collection This method focuses on collecting numeric data that
can be statistically analyzed. It is ideal for measuring the use and satisfaction with products or
services and identifying behavioral patterns.

Mixed Primary Data Collection:This method combines qualitative and quantitative

approaches to achieve comprehensive and meaningful results. It allows for capturing both the
depth and breadth of data.

 QUALITATIVE PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Qualitative primary data collection gathers information in an unstructured manner. This

method is helpful for gaining an in-depth understanding of a topic or phenomenon. It is often
used to understand the opinions and feelings of the target group and to explore a topic from
different perspectives.
Common methods of qualitative primary data collection include:

 Interviews: Personal conversations that provide detailed insights and qualitative data.

 Focus Groups: Discussion rounds with multiple participants that offer different
perspectives and opinions.

 Observations: Direct observation of behavior and interactions in a natural

environment.

QUANTITATIVE PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Quantitative primary data collection gathers measurable data. This method is ideal for
measuring human behavior in a natural environment, tracking changes over time, and
conducting large-scale studies.

Common methods of quantitative primary data collection include:

OFFLINE PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION-

Interviews,Focus Groups,Observations,Experimental Studies.

ONLINE PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Online Surveys:Surveys conducted over the internet that have a wide reach.

Web Scraping:Automated collection of data from public web sources.

Online Interviews:Conducting interviews via video conferencing tools like Zoom or Skype
to reach geographically dispersed participants.

Mobile Data Collection:Using apps and mobile platforms to collect real-time data directly
from users.

Quizzes:Interactive questionnaires used to test knowledge or gather feedback, often with

gamification elements.

 SELF-COLLECTION

 Social Media:
Using platforms like Facebook or Twitter to gather direct feedback and data from
users.

 Blogs and Forums:

Analyzing user comments and posts to gain insights into trends and opinions.

 Self-Reported Diaries:
Participants keep detailed records of their behavior and experiences over a period.
  Observational Studies: Measuring human behavior in a natural environment to
collect data on their actions and interactions.

Quantitative data collection offers several advantages, including the ability to measure
behavior on a large scale and statistically analyze it. However, disadvantages include low
response rates and difficulties in obtaining accurate data.

MIXED PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Mixed primary data collection combines elements of qualitative and quantitative methods.
This hybrid approach leverages the strengths of both methods to achieve comprehensive and
meaningful results.

Qualitative data provides deep insights into participants’ thoughts, feelings, and
motivations. This information helps you understand the “why” behind certain behaviors.
Examples of qualitative methods include interviews and focus groups, where detailed, often
narrative data is collected.

Quantitative data offers a broad perspective by providing measurable and statistically

analyzable information. It answers the “how much” and “how often” and is often collected
through surveys and observational studies.

By combining these two approaches in mixed primary data collection, you obtain:

 Comprehensive Insights: Deep insights from qualitative data and broad statistical
relevance from quantitative data.

 Multidimensional Analyses: Linking stories and numbers for a holistic view.

 Better Decision-Making: A well-rounded and diverse data base for strategic

decisions.

An example of mixed primary data collection might be a study that initially conducts
qualitative interviews to gain a deep understanding of user experiences. The insights gained
are then used to create a quantitative survey that measures these experiences on a larger scale
and validates them.

Data Collection Methods

There are generally five types of methods that are used:

1. Observation
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Schedules
5. Textual or Content Analysis

Observation
 Observations form a crucial part of anthropological research. Observation can be defined
as the precise viewing and recording of phenomenon as occurring in nature. Observation is of
two types:

1. Participant observation

Participant observation is the one in which the researcher participates actively with the group
under investigation. The researcher in some cases may conceal one’s identity (total
participant observation) while in other cases the identity of the researcher is revealed to the
group (quasi-participant observation).
In participant observation the observer is a part of the social events s/he is observing and
generally lives and participates in the everyday life of the group as a full-fledged member.
The observer ensures that the normal life of the group is not disturbed. The observer observes
the behavior of the members of the community, and tries to understand the interactions and
relationships between them. The researcher carries out a holistic study of the social group or
unit.
The observer needs to take certain precautions as well such as acting in a responsible
manner, seeking no special status, try to maintain as much objectivity as possible in spite of
being in close proximity of the observed group. The skills and expertise of the observer are of
utmost importance in the success of participant observations.

2. Non-participant Observation

Non-participant observation is the one in which the observer does not actively participate in
the activities of the group and observes the social unit as an outsider. The identity of the
observer can be hidden or revealed as per the circumstances; however the non-participant
observer remains totally passive and detached from the group under study.
Non-participant observation gives an opportunity of enhanced objectivity to the observer
as being at a distance from the community giving him or her considerable space for viewing
and evaluation of the interactions of the group in a better way.
However the shortcoming of non-participant observation is that the group members might
consider the researcher as a stranger and may not reveal their true attitudes, feelings etc. to
him.
Observation tools and methods
Collecting data through observation can be done in several ways.The observer can simply
write down what they observe or use a video camera.The researcher may perform continuous
monitoring (CM), observing people and recording (manually, electronically, or both) as much
of their behavior as possible.Or the researcher may not observe a process while it’s
happening. Instead, just find things people leave behind an action or process (e.g. examine
the trash leftover after workers’ lunches to learn about food waste behavior)

QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire is considered to be the main technique of data collection in the survey
method. It is an instrument that helps a researcher obtain information about personal life,
feelings, and expectations etc. of the respondent. A questionnaire consists of a set of
questions in a particular form and order and the respondent is expected to fill up the form
him/herself.
Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 There are two types of questions generally included in a questionnaire. They are open-
ended and closed-ended questions.
Open-ended Questions
These questions are not followed by any specific answer. The respondent is free to write
any response he or she wants. Example: Which method do you think helps develop reflective
teachers in the best way?
Closed-ended Questions
These questions are followed by specific answers and the respondents are expected to
choose any one of the answers.
Example: Tick any one. Scientists are always objective and they never let their personal
opinions affect their research in anyway -Strongly Agree,Agree,Neutral,Disagree,Strongly
DisagreeClosed ended questions can also be in the form of yes and no.

A researcher may develop a questionnaire with either of the two types of the questions or a
mixture of both.

Types of Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, unstructured, or pictorial.

– Structured questionnaires are those where the questions are prepared in advance and the
wordings and order of the questions remain the same irrespective of the respondents.
– Unstructured questionnaires are those where questions are modified and adjusted
according to the need of the situation with the aim to collect as much information as possible.
– Semi-structured questionnaires are those where there is a mixture of structured and
unstructured questions.
– Pictorial questionnaire are those where the alternatives to the questions are in the form
of pictures.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

The development of a good questionnaire is a tough task. The questionnaire should be self-
explanatory. The print and layout should be good. The items should be analytical, clear, short
and understandable. Questions that are threatening or embarrassing should be avoided. The
questions should be according the respondents level. Method of administration and the
sample for the respondents should be selected thoughtfully.

Limitations of a Questionnaire

The use of questionnaire also has some drawbacks. It is not possible to collect information
of less educated or illiterate people. The response rate may be low leading to a limited
amount of data for analysis. Misinterpretation of questions is also possible in the absence of
the researcher him/herself. The reliability of a questionnaire is of great importance for the
quality of data collected.

InterviewAn interview can be defined as a conversation with a purpose. It is a process of

social interaction. Interview is a useful procedure for collecting data through a face-to-face
interaction between the researcher (or the interviewer) and the interviewee. Just as in the case
of the questionnaire, the interviewer asks certain questions; but unlike in questionnaire, in the
interview there is a space for developing new questions to probe a matter further.
 An interview is a direct method of data collection. However it is also a very time taking
one. It is done usually when the sample is less or to find out about information that could not
be collected from the questionnaire or on individuals selected after the use of a questionnaire
to understand the responses in-depth. An interview can be used for all segments of
population. It is used to study the events that are not open to observation such as past events.
Interview provides an interesting way to find out the reactions of the individuals in different
situations.

Types of Interview Interviews are categorized into two types based on the people involved.

1. Individual Interview

An interview done with a single person to get information or find out their views and
opinions is called a personal interview or individual interview. Individual interviews use
open-ended questions and aim to apprehend the mental and experiential world of the
interviewee. Participants in such an interview are able to tell their stories uninterrupted, in a
coherent manner and without any peer-pressure. The interview is generally semi-structured to
provide for flexibility for follow-up questions and also for changes according to situation.

2. Group Interview (Focus Group Interview)

An interview done with a group of people is called a group interview. This type of interview
is good for studying a full range of relevant ideas in a previously unknown or little known
domain. It is also useful when data collection will be better through a group discussion than
an individual interview. For instance, adolescents share similar experiences more openly in
the presence of peers as against the presence of only an adult (interviewer). Focus groups are
also used to study the interaction among the group members. For instance, how children talk
among themselves, what are the colloquial ways in which group members speak with one
another.

It is important that the focus group interview is carried out by a person who is good at
facilitating open and dynamic dialogues within a group. The presence of an observer who
either writes or records what goes on is significant. The group should not have more than 6-
12 individuals.
On the basis of nature of questions asked in an interview, they are of two types.

1. Structured Interviews Interviews where the questions are pre-determined, and the nature of
questions, sequence, wordings, etc. are standardized are called structured interviews. The
questions are mostly closed-ended. Since the emphasis is put on the specificity of form these
interviews are also called Formal Interviews. These interviews are easy to administer and
provide greater uniformity and precision.

2. Unstructured Interviews Interviews where flexibility is provided in the number and order of
questions are called unstructured interviews. The aim of the interview is to collect maximum
information. There is freedom to adjust the questions according to the level of the
respondents and the situation at hand. Since these interviews do not insist on a particular
form, they are also called Informal Interviews.It is important to note that whatever interview-
type the researcher may choose he or she needs to bear in mind that rapport building with the
participants should always precede the interview.
3. Schedule A schedule is a set of questions that are asked by the researcher and filled-in by
themselves. Unlike a questionnaire, a schedule provides an opportunity for the researcher to
build a rapport with the respondents before asking them questions. Generally, researchers talk
about schedule with reference to an interview schedule or observation schedule; but there are
other types of schedules too.

Types of Schedules

– Observation ScheduleThese are designed to observe specific aspects of the situation under
study, for instance, to reveal patterns of either teacher or student behavior in promoting
learning. They are generally used by a non-participant observer.

 – Rating SchedulesAlso called a rating scale it is used to find information about a set of pre-
determined attributes. It is sometimes used by the researcher and at times given to the
respondents directly.

 – Evaluation SchedulesThis is generally used to collect data about institutions and agencies.
There are predetermined categories on which the institute is evaluated.

 – Interview SchedulesThis contains questions that the researcher frames to ask during the
interview. Space may be provided for writing down the responses of the interviewee or the
researcher may simply record the responses electronically. They help in gathering of
demographic data in research.
 TEXTUAL ANALYSIS (CONTENT ANALYSIS)
 A number of documents are found in the field which when studied provide to valuable
information. Underlying themes and patterns can be ascertained through the study of
documents like mission statements, brochures of information, and manuals. Narratives or
diary entries written by people working in a particular field can be reviewed. Textual analysis
helps in providing rich insights into the beliefs, motivations and dreams of a particular person
or a group of persons. Linguistic analysis of texts can be used to decipher how meanings
change over time. Analysis of curriculum frameworks and textbooks can be performed to see
how the curriculum and meanings ascribed to a certain portions have changed with change in
regimes. There are a number of ways by which content analysis can be done. Some computer
software have been developed that ease the process of content analysis of large amount of
data.

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective techniques are a data collection method used in qualitative research to gather rich
and comprehensive data. They are often used in market research and in-depth interviews or
focus groups. Projective techniques are open-ended and allow participants to express
themselves in their own way, which can help researchers gain a deeper understanding of their
beliefs, values, and experiences.
Word Association Test

Word association tests can be applied in a variety of contexts:

 Respondents can be given a set of words or phrases in a random order, then asked to
state or write the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
  Respondents are asked what word or phrase instantly comes to mind when hearing
specific brand names.
 Respondents can also be questioned regarding slogans and what they imply;
 Respondents are asked to provide a “human attribute” or pair a descriptive term with
an inanimate object or product to characterize it.

Completion Test

The sentence completion method asks responders to finish sentences that have been left
unfinished. These statements are typically written in the third person and have a propensity
for ambiguity.

Depending on the respondent’s personality, the sentences would be completed in a variety

of striking ways:In general, sentence completion tests are simpler to comprehend than word
association tests since the offered answers are more thorough. However, the respondent can
more easily tell what they’re trying to do, which can lead to less sincere answers.

The tale completion test is a variation of this technique. The respondent is given a story in
words or visuals and is then asked to finish it in his or her own words.

Thematic Apperception

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) asks participants to describe a scene, potential
character dialogue, and/or how the “narrative” might develop after viewing one or more
photos. The photo interpretation technique is another name for TAT because of this.

Expression Techniques

The expression technique is more frequently employed than any other projective technique to
obtain respondents’ deeply held beliefs and attitudes that can be interpreted as reflecting
poorly on the person. People often identify themselves as “virtues” that they perceive in
others as “vices.”

The third-person approach

The third-person approach can be more dynamic by including role-playing or practice. In

this scenario, the respondent is instructed to mimic the actions or voice the feelings of a third
party. This strategy can be quite beneficial, especially when working with kids who “know”
how others would behave but may not always be able to articulate it verbally.

The Rorschach inkblot test

Hermann Rorschach developed the test in 1921. The Rorschach inkblot test is a psychological
assessment that analyzes a person's personality and thought disorders by showing them 10
inkblots and asking them to describe what they see: The subject looks at the inkblots and
 describes what they see in each one. The therapist then interprets the subject's answer.It's a
widely used tool in mental health assessments. It's used to examine a person's personality and
detect thought disorders. It's often portrayed in popular culture as a way of revealing a
person's unconscious thoughts, motives, or desires.

However, the Rorschach inkblot test has some concerns and controversies, including:

 Self-reported data: The person being tested may misrepresent or incorrectly verbalize what
they see.

 Individuality: People can exhibit different behaviors and symptoms in their individual
diagnoses.

 Predicting behaviors: Predicting behaviors isn't always possible.

The Rorschach inkblot test differs from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in that the
Rorschach uses symmetrical inkblot images, while the TAT uses a detailed scene with
characters and locations.
Pros of projective techniques:

 Access to unconscious thoughts and emotions.

 Enhanced self-expression.
 Qualitative insights.
 Stimulates creativity and imagination.

Cons of projective techniques:

 Subjectivity and interpretation.

 Limited standardization and norms.
 Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
 Limited empirical support.
 Limited diagnostic utility.

SECONDARY METHOD
It involves checking and examining the existing data from reports, financial records,
newspaper, website articles, Government publications, etc.

There are 2 main sources of these data:

Internal sources of data: information gathered within the researcher’s organization

External sources of data: information gathered outside the researcher’s organization

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data Collection Method Advantages Disadvantages

Accurate screening. The

interviewee can’t provide false
information such as gender, age, or
race. – High costs as this method
require a staff of people to perform
– The interviewer can capture the interview.
1. Interview raw emotions, tone, voice, and
The interview is a meeting word choices to gain a deeper – The quality of the collected
between an interviewer and understanding. data depends on the ability of the
interviewee. Interviews can be – Interviewers can ask follow-up interviewer to gather data well.
done face-to-face or via video questions and require additional – A time-consuming process that
conferencing tools. information to understand attitudes, involves transcription,
motivations, etc. organization, reporting, etc.

– Ease of data collection – an

online survey with a hundred or
more respondents can be conducted
fast. – Survey fraud. Answers may not
be honest. There are people who
– Online surveys are easily answer online surveys just to
accessible and can be deployed via receive a promised reward.
2. Surveys And Questionnaires many online channels like web,
mobile, email, etc. – Many questions might be left
They are used to ask respondents – Low price compared to other unanswered and participants may
a set of questions (both types – methods not stay fully engaged to the end.
open- and closed-ended – Easy to analyze and present with – Without someone to explain,
questions). Over the past decade, different data visualization types participants may have different
the use of online surveys has – A wide range of data types can interpretations of your questions.
skyrocketed. be collected such as attitudes, – Cannot fully capture
opinions, values, etc. emotions and feelings.
3. Focus Groups – Easy measure the reaction of – High costs – focus groups are
customers to your brand, products, much more expensive compared to
A focus group includes dialogue or marketing campaigns. surveys.
with a group of deliberately
selected participants who discuss – The moderator can ask – Moderator Bias. Moderators
a particular topic. Participants’ questions to gain a deeper can have a significant impact on
answers influence each other understanding of the respondents’ the outcome of the discussion.
during the discussion. The focus emotions. – For sensitive
Data Collection Method Advantages Disadvantages

– The moderator can observe topics, participants can not give

non-verbal responses, such as honest answers.
body language or facial expressions. – The extrovert members can
group is led by a person called a – Provide brainstorming dominate the conversation with a
moderator. opportunities and participants can more aggressive approach to
create new ideas. giving feedback.

Simple to collect data. Observation

does not require tech skills of the
researcher. – Cannot study attitudes and
opinions by observing.
– Allows for a detailed
4. Observation description of behaviors, – Can take a lot of time if the
intentions, and events. observer has to wait for a
Observation involves a person – Greater accuracy and data particular event to happen.
who observes events, people, and quality. The observer can view – A high potential for observer’s
interactions around a topic to participants in their natural subjective bias. The personal view
provide a rich description of environment and directly check of the observer can be an obstacle
them. Observation happens in the their behavior. to making valid conclusions.
natural setting of the participant. – Doesn’t depend on people’s – Expensive method. It requires a
Ethnographic research, for willingness to report. Some high cost, effort, and plenty of
example, relies primarily on respondents don’t want to speak time.
observation. about themselves or don’t have time – Situations of the past cannot be
for that. studied.

5. Records And Documents – Ease of data collection – the data – Information may be out of
already exists and no additional date or inapplicable.
This method involves extracting
effort is needed.
and analyzing data from existing – The process of evaluating
documents. The documents can – No need of searching and documents and records can
be internal to an organization motivating respondents to be time-consuming.
(such as emails, sales reports, participate. – Can be an incomplete data
records of customer feedback, – Allows you to track collection method because
activity logs, purchase orders, progress. Helps you understand the the researcher has less control
etc.) or can be external (such as history behind an event and track over the results.
Government reports). changes over a period of time. For – Some documents may be not
example, you may want to find out publicly available.
Data Collection Method Advantages Disadvantages

why there are lots of negative

reviews from your customers about
your products. In this case, you can
look at recorded customers’
feedback.

DATA ANALYSIS
Quantitative research
Quantitative research can be construed as a research strategy that emphasizes
quantification in the collection and analysis of data. It entails a deductive approach to the
relationship between theory and research in which the accent is placed on testing the theories.
The data, after collection, have to be processed in order to ensure their proper analysis and
interpretation. According to Kothari (2004), technically, processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. These
endeavours help us to search for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups
Data Processing

Data reduction or processing mainly involves various steps necessary for preparing the
data for analysis. These steps involve editing, categorising the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables (Ahuja 2007: 304). The processing of data is an
essential step before analysis because it enables us to overcome the errors at the stage of data
collection.
Editing
Error can come in at any stage of social research especially in the stage of data collection.
These errors have to be kept at a minimum level to avoid errors in the results of the research.
Editing or checking for errors in the completed questionnaires is a laborious exercise and
needs to be done meticulously. Interviewers tend to commit mistakes like some questions are
missed out; some answers remain unrecorded or are recorded at the wrong places. The
questionnaires therefore need to be checked for completeness, accuracy and uniformity
Coding
Coding implicates the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so that
they can be categorized into specific classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration (Kothari 2004: 123). Careful consideration should be
made so as not to leave out any response uncoded. According to Majumdar, a set of
categories is referred to as “coding frame” or “code book”. Code book explains how to assign
numerical codes for response categories received in the questionnaire/schedule. It also
indicates the location of a variable on computer cards.
An example to illustrate how variables can be coded. In a question regarding the religion of
the respondent the answer categories of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, and Christian can be coded as
1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. In such cases, the counting of frequencies will not be according to
Hindus, Muslims etc., but as 1, 2 and so on. Coding can be done manually or with the help of
computers.
Classification
 Besides editing and coding of data, classification is another important method to process
data. Classification has been defined as the process of arranging data into groups and classes
on the basis of some common characteristics
Classification can be of two types, namely

 Classification according to attributes or common characteristics like gender, literacy etc., and
 Classification according to class intervals whereby the entire range of data is divided into a
number of classes or class intervals.

Tabulation

Tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form
for further analysis. The necessity of tabulating raw data is:

 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum, and
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
 Tabulation can be done manually as well as with electronic and mechanical devices like
computers. When the data are not large in number, tabulation can be done by hand with the
help of tally marks.

DATA ANALYSIS

The task of analysing quantitative data in research is done by social statistics. Social statistics
has two major areas of function in research. They are namely Descriptive and Inferential.
Descriptive statistics is concerned with organizing raw data obtained in the process of
research. Tabulation and classification of data are instances of descriptive statistics.
Inferential statistics is concerned with making inferences or conclusions from the data
collected from the sample and drawing generalisations on the entire population.
EXTRA READING
KEY DATA COLLECTION TOOLS
All of the above data collection methods are performed via special tools such as online
software programs, mobile applications, or traditional offline solutions such as written notes..

Tools for interview Depending on the type of interview (face-to-face, self-administered

interview, etc.), you can use a wide variety of tools like audio recorder, digital camera,
software programs, etc.

Some of the most popular tools include:Software platforms for online qualitative research
such as VisionsLive and Kernwert Audio recording tools like Sony ICD ux560.

Some of the top free and paid online survey tools are: Google Forms,SoGoSurvey,Survey
Monkey,Typeform,Survicate,CrowdSignal,Survey Planet

still can use paper questionnaires and survey forms.

Tools for focus group

Here are some popular solutions:FocusVision,LiveMinds,itracks,Recollective,Flex
MR,Collabito
 Information from open data sources like Data.gov and World Bank Open Data
 Social media monitoring tools like TweetDeck, Followerwonk, and Hootsuite
 SEO tools are: SEMrush, Ahrefs, Google Search Console, etc.
 Web competitive intelligence tools like SimilarWeb.com, Talwalker, Glassdoor, etc.