RIVERS

-A point where river begins is called a source.

-A point where a river flows into a sea/lake is called river mouth.
-The river is narrow and deep (V-shaped) in the upper course. It is wide and shallow in the
lower course.
- A drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries
-Watershed is a highland area / higher ground that separate drainage basins
- Tributary is a stream or small river that provides water to the main/larger river.
-Confluence is a place/area where two rivers meet.

Long profile of rivers

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Long profile of a river
- Near the source of a river, which is often (but not always) in an upland area, it flows over steep
slopes with an uneven surface. It often flows over a series of waterfalls and rapids. Highland
areas are often composed of hard igneous rocks, which are ideal for such features to form.
As it flows down the steep slopes the water performs vertical erosion, cutting down towards the
river bed and carving out steep sided V-shaped valleys. As the river flows towards the mouth,
the slopes become less steep and eventually the river will flow over flat land as it approaches the
sea. The discharge (amount of water flowing) will increase as the river approaches the sea.

Cross Profile

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Near the source of a river there is more vertical erosion as the river flows downhill, using its
energy to overcome friction (A). As a result the channels are narrow and shallow and may
contain large boulders and angular fragments eroded and weathered from the steep valley sides.
The sediment in the river creates turbulence and friction. As the river approaches the mouth,
velocity and energy increase due to increased discharge, and the river performs more lateral
erosion making the channel wider, and smoother (B) and (C). As a result there is less turbulence
and friction, making the river more efficient.

Describe how the characteristics of the river are likely to change between points A and C

• river becomes wider at C than at A

• river becomes deeper at C than at A
• river has more discharge at C than at A
• river faster flowing/higher velocity at C than at A

• river more meandering/winding at C than at A

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• river has more load at C than at A

• river has smaller size of particles in load at C and bigger particles at A

• more deposition and less erosion at C and less deposition and more erosion at A
• gradient is less steep/flatter at C than at A
• channel bed gets smoother at C than at A
• Vertical erosion at A and lateral erosion at C

Study Fig. 4.2 (Insert), which is a photograph of a river in an upland area.

Describe the main characteristics of the river and valley shown in Fig. 4.2.
-Steep valley sides;
-V shaped valley;

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-Bare rocks on the valley side/cliff;
-Scree;
-Landslip scar;
-Uneven long profile;
-Narrow river;
-Winding river;
-Interlocking spurs;
-Rocks in channel;
-Shallow;

Erosion

Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and soil found along the river bed and banks. Erosion
also involves the breaking down of the rock particles being carried downstream by the river.

There are four main forms of river erosion:

Hydraulic action – Power of water wears away bed and banks releasing air compressed in
cracks and crevices. The pressure weakens the banks and gradually wears it away.
Abrasion (corrasion) - rocks carried along by the river wear down the river bed and
banks/sandpaper action;

Attrition - rocks being carried by the river smash together/hit each other and break into smaller
and smoother particles.

Solution (corrosion) - soluble particles are dissolved into the river by chemical reactions. It is
common in areas with carbonate rocks such as limestone and chalk.

River Transport
Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow downstream. A river may transport material in
four different ways:

Solution - minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along in solution. It is common in
areas with carbonate rocks such as limestone and chalk.

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Suspension - fine light material is carried along in the water without touching the river bed, for
example, clay, small leaves

Saltation - small pebbles and stones are bounced along the river bed.

Traction - large boulders and rocks are rolled along the river bed, for example, large boulders

Transport of material in a river

Rivers need energy to transport material, and levels of energy change as the river moves from
source to mouth. When energy levels are very high, large rocks and boulders can be transported.
Energy levels are usually higher near a river's source, when its course is steep and its valley
narrow. Energy levels rise even higher in times of flood. When energy levels are low, only small
particles can be transported (if any). Energy levels are lowest when velocity drops as a river
enters a lake or sea (at the mouth).

Deposition
When a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit some of the material it is carrying.

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Deposition may take place when a river enters an area of shallow water or when the volume of
water decreases - for example after a flood or during times of drought.
Deposition is common towards the end of a river's journey, at the mouth.
Deposition at the mouth of a river can form deltas - for example the Mississippi Delta.

Upper-course river features include steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, rapids,
waterfalls and gorges.
Middle-course river features include wider, shallower valleys, meanders, and oxbow lakes.
Lower-course river features include wide flat-bottomed valleys, flood plains and deltas.

Upper-course river features

V-shaped Valley and Interlocking Spurs

V- shaped valleys
-V-shaped valleys are found in a river's upper course where vertical erosion is dominant.
-The river will erode (cut) downwards while the sides are weathered (attacked by the weather
e.g. rain, wind and the sun).
-The weathered material will then fall into the river and be transported away leaving a v-shaped
valley.

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Interlocking spurs
-Interlocking spurs are the areas of the valley (hills) that stick out into the river forcing it to
meander around them.
- Formed because the river is forced to follow a winding path around protrusions of the
surrounding highlands resulting in the spurs interlocking.

Potholes:
-Potholes are holes found in the river bed.
-Load carried by the river is washed around in a circular motion causing vertical erosion.

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-they are produced by corrosion.

Rapids
-Rapids are sections of rough turbulent (white water) water.
-They are normally found in a river's upper course and are formed when there layers of hard and
soft rock. The layers of soft rock erode quicker than the layers of hard rock.
-This makes the bed of the river uneven creating rough turbulent water. They are usually
common in Nile in Uganda and the Zambezi in Zimbabwe.

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Waterfall
Characteristics of waterfall
-Vertical/steep drop/cliff with water going over it;
-Layers of rock/hard rock overlying a soft rock
-Plunge pool / deep pool;
-Overhang / cave / undercut;
-Widens as gets lower;

Formation of waterfall
- It is formed when a river crosses a hard rock layer that overlies a soft rock;
- hard rock layer is eroded slowly while soft rock quickly eroded;
- undercutting of soft rock occur leaving hard rock overhanging.
- the overhanging hard rock eventually collapse.
- Collapsed materials are swirled by the falling water causing abrasion.
- Water plunges from great height causing hydraulic action.
-Waterfall also occur when a river flow down a scarp slope after faulting has caused one block to
be downthrown.

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Explain how waterfall may change in the future as a result of natural processes.
- further or more erosion/undercutting lead to collapse of more rock;
- this causes the waterfall to retreat resulting in the formation/extension of gorge;
- plunge pool gets bigger/deeper etc.

Benefits of waterfalls (eg Victoria Falls)

-Site of hydroelectric power stations eg Victoria Falls Hydro Electric Power in Zambia.
-Tourism/revenue collection
-Recreation eg bunjee jumping, filming (photographing).
-rafting
- Aesthetic value

Gorge:
A gorge is a deep sided valley left behind when a waterfall retreats.

MIDDLE COURSE
Meanders
-These are large bends, and horseshoe-like loops formed when the river erodes laterally, to the
right side then the left side.
-The formation of meanders is due to both deposition and erosion.
-The force of the water erodes and undercuts the river bank on the outside of the bend where
water flow has most energy due to decreased friction. The erosion on the outside of the bend
produces a cliff.
-On the inside of the bend, where the river flow is slower, material is deposited, as there is more
friction. Such deposition of sediment results in exposed bars, called point bars.
-Meanders gradually migrate downstream.

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Study Photograph B (Insert), which shows a meander.

(i) Describe the features shown on Photograph B which are typical of a meander.
Bend/curved shape;
variation in speed of flow across channel/faster on outside/slower on inside;
variation of depth across channel/deeper on outside/shallower on inside;
river cliff/steep bank/undercutting;

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slip off slope/point bar/deposition of pebbles/deposited material
etc. [3]
(ii) Explain why both erosion and deposition are likely to occur on the meander shown in
Photograph B.
there will be areas of both fast and slow flowing
water/different speeds of flow within channel/river;
fast flow on outer bend;
where water is deeper;
helicoidal flow so erosion/undercutting occurs on outer bend; by hydraulic action/abrasion (dev)
slow flow on inner bend; where there is more friction; results in deposition/river unable to carry
load (dev) [5]

Ox-bow lakes
- It is a crescent-shaped feature formed when the neck of meander is cut off and the river takes a
straight course.
-Erosion occurs on outer bends because of faster flow on outer bends.
- Neck of meander narrows/meander becomes more pronounced. As the river breaks through, eg
during a flood when the river has a higher discharge and more energy, and the ends join, the loop
is cut-off from the main channel. The cut-off loop is called an oxbow lake.
- Former meander is sealed by deposition

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LOWER COURSE
Flood Plain
- Floodplains are the areas of land that rivers flood onto when they exceed bank full discharge.
- Floodplains are created by the constant movement of meanders. Because horizontal erosion is
more dominant in a rivers lower course, floodplains tend to be a lot wider in a river's lower
course.
-Their floor is usually covered by alluvium (alluvial deposits) which is essential to keep
farmland fertile.
-The outer limits of the floodplain is marked by bluff line

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Delta
Explain how a delta is formed.
- it is a low lying area formed when large amounts of sediment are brought downstream by the
river.
-As the speed of flow and energy of the river is reduced, deposition in lower course occurs.
-When rivers reach the sea, the meeting of fresh and salt water produces an electric charge which
causes clay particles to coagulate and to settle on the seabed, a process called flocculation.
- The deposited materials grow towards sea due to lack of current until they block the course of
river.
- The river eventually splits into distributaries.
- The deposited sediments end up being colonised by vegetation.

Types of delta
Arcuate:
-They are called arcuate deltas because the outside edge has a very regular shape, just
like the arc of a circle.
- Rounded, convex shoreline consisting of both fine and coarse sediments.
- It is crossed by several distributaries.
- it has few lagoons
- it has long sand spits and bars
- It appears as an inverted cone, for example, the Nile.

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Cuspate:
- they occur where the material brought down by a river is spread out evenly on either side of its
channel, e.g. the Tiber delta
- they are shaped by opposing currents of fairly equal force.
- Have limited or no distributaries.
- Formed in areas of moderate sea currents.
- It is shaped like a tooth

•Birds foot
- Formed in areas where there are weaker tidal currents in a sheltered bay which allow the
distributaries to extend seawards
- It appears as the claws of a bird hence the name bird’s foot. For example, Mississippi.

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- it has few distributaries
-it is elongated seaward has many lagoons
-it has levees and islands
-it has fine sediments

Estuarine
-it is formed where sea level rises and deltas are drowned.
- it is shaped like a funnel
-it has no distributaries.
-it is deeper and has no lagoons

Flooding
Explain why many people live near to rivers even though it may be hazardous
Fertile land;
Farmers obtain high yields of crops;
Land is flat so easy to build on/transport/trade;
Communications on land are easy along flood plain;
River can sometimes be used for navigation;
Fishing/food supply from river;
Water supply from river;
Scenic beauty/good view;
Jobs in tourism;
HEP/generate energy;
Wash clothes/bathing;

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Religious significance;
Irrigation/water for crops
Gold panning;
Example of leisure activities etc

For a named river you have studied, explain the causes of flooding.
Named river ..
Heavy rainfall,
Rainfall over a long period of time,
Impermeable rocks,
Rocks reach saturation level,
Snow / ice melt,
Deforestation,
Urban development
Storm surges
High spring tides
Cyclones – so coastal flooding idea fine at estuary
Lack of river management

Case Study : Ganges River/Brahmaputra River/Meghna in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is located in South Asia. Bangladesh has a population of 156 million people, a
population density of 1099 square kilometres.

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Physical Causes

-Three major rivers flow through Bangladesh, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna
bringing in a lot of water.

-The south of the country is very low lying and is basically one big floodplain in which 70% of
Bangladesh is less than 1 metre above sea level

-Snow melt in Himalayas during Spring and Summer increases river discharge

-Bangladesh experiences the monsoon season (tropical rains) every year from June to September

-Cyclones can hit Bangladesh from the Bay of Bengal causing storm surges. This blocks the
water from the rivers to enter into the Bay of Bengal causing flooding.

-10% of Bangladesh is covered in lakes and rivers which makes river discharge to increase
rapidly

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Human Causes

-Deforestation in the Himalayas mountains reduces interception and increasing surface run-off

-Urbanisation such as Dhaka, Mongla reduces infiltration and increasing surface run-off

-Population growth increasing population density

-Growth of informal settlements on marginal land (floodplains)

-Siltation of dams in India causing sedimentation of rivers and this reduces cross-section of
rivers leading to flooding

-Poorly maintained flood defences

-Global warming is causing more snow to melt in the Himalayas, it is causing sea levels to rise
and it is increasing the frequency and magnitude of cyclones.

The Effects/Impacts of the 1998 Flood

-Over 57% of Bangladesh's land surface was flooded

-Over 1,300 people were killed

-7 million homes were destroyed making 25 million homeless

-Spread of water borne diseases like typhoid

-Shortage of clean water and food - many rice paddies flooded (2 million tonnes of rice lost)

-0.5 million cattle and poultry lost

-Roads and bridges damaged

-Total costs estimated at about $1 billion

Flood Management in Bangladesh

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In 1989 the government of Bangladesh began working with a number of international agencies to

produce the national Flood Action Plan (FAP). The plan contained 26 proposals that were hoped
would reduce the problem of flooding in the future.

Short Term Management

-Boats used to rescue victims stranded on buildings and patches of dry land

-Emergency water and food supplies distributed

-Food supplied for surviving animals

-Aid accepted from foreign countries

-Tents and blankets provided for homeless

Long Term Management

-Reduced rates of deforestation in the Himalayan foothills

-The building of seven large dams - cost up to $40 million and construction up to 40 years

-The building of 5000 flood shelters

-The building of 350km of levees (embankments)

-Create flood water storage areas

-Developing flood warning scheme

-Basic repairs to houses and sewer systems

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For a named river you have studied, describe the impacts of flooding.
Named river ..
Deaths,
Damage to housing,
Damage to possessions,
Transport disrupted,
Electricity cut off,
Water supplies contaminated,
Economic impacts,
Loss of crops etc.
Loss of fertile soil
Impact on natural environment

(iii) Explain why the building of large settlements on or close to a flood plain increases the
discharge of a river after heavy rain.
Water is not able to soak into soil/rock;
Surfaces are impermeable;
Trees have been removed;
Less interception/transpiration;
More overland flow;
Artificial drains move water rapidly to rivers etc.
3 @ 1 mark [3]
(iv) State two different methods to reduce river flooding. For each method explain how it
works.
Raise banks / artificial levees;
Dams / reservoirs;
Straighten rivers;
Concrete banks/beds;
Diversionary spillways;
Afforestation / planting trees;
Allow farmland upstream to flood

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dredging (1) increases the depth of the river and enables more water to
flow within its banks (1) [4]

Flood management

Case study: River Tees

It is located north east of the United Kingdom

Geographical information about the river

• Its source is in the Pennies where rainfall amounts are around 2000mm per year.

• Runoff is high because of the impermeable type of rocks and steep slopes

• The river occupies the whole of the valley which is V-shaped

• The river bed is rocky and turbulent flow is common

• The river is also full of rapids and waterfalls

• Population density is low in the area because of the steep slopes.

Flood management at River Tees

• The river tees is flashy so reservoirs are built to reduce the risk of flooding

• Construction of barrages reduces the risk of flooding at high tides

• Dredging this increases channel depth

• Straightening of meanders allows water to move faster

• Construction of reinforced concrete walls

• Raising of the height of levees

• Improved flood warning systems

• Rerouting rivers/flood relief channels

• Construction of embankments

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• Afforestation of catchment area

• Restricted use of flood plains

• Flood gates

(c) Describe the opportunities provided for local people by a named river you have studied.
Name of river : Zambezi river
Water supply : Zambezi river provide water to Kariba town and Victoria Falls town in
Zimbabwe for domestic and industrial uses
Fishing : kapenta and tiger fishing in Lake Kariba
Navigation:
Work in tourist industry- Victoria Falls in the Zambezi river has promoted tourism. This
provides employment eg tour guides (eg Sharewater tour guides), photography, selling
umbrellars (vending), drivers, craft industry, arts such as dance groups. This resulted in a
multiplier effect eg growth of Victoria Falls town with infrastructure such hotels (Kingdom
hotel), retail shops (Pick n Pay, OK), specialist shops (Edgars, Chicken Inn), police station and
schools.
Agriculture on flood plain of Zambezi river, Irrigation eg Nkandabbwe Irrigation Scheme in
Zambia, Kanyemba small scale irrigation in Zimbabwe,

Transport routes along valley

Recreation eg White Water Rafting on the Zambezi River, Bungee Jumping at Victoria
Falls, - Swimming in the Devil's Pool on the edge of Victoria Falls, Canoeing,
Zambezi River Sunset Boat Cruises above Vic Falls
Hydro Electric Power generation at Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe (1 470 MW), at Kafue
gorge in Zambia990 MW, Kahora Bassa in Mozambique (2 075 MW). Other smaller
hydro plants are Nkula Falls and Tedzani in Malawi and Victoria Falls in Zambia, which
generate 124 MW, 90 MW and 108 MW, respectively in 2010.

Hazards which are likely to have been caused by flooding

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drowning;
damage to/need to repair homes/buildings;
damage to/need to repair specific building (e.g. school, hospital etc.);
damage to/need to repair roads/railways/communications;
businesses/factories/shops damaged;
loss of production/people without work;
damage to possessions/cars;
damage to/destruction of crops/food supply/famine;
loss of livestock;
diseases;
contamination of water;
loss of electricity supply etc3]
(iv) Explain why many people still live in places prone to flooding even though flooding is likely
to occur.
warning usually given before flooding ;
people have time to evacuate;
people are able to take precautions or example;
soils are fertile/high yields can be produced/they provide good grassland for
grazing;
irrigation;
rivers provide a water supply;
food supply/fishing;
rivers can be used for transport;
flooding is infrequent;
their jobs are nearby;
flooding can be prevented;
emotional attachment/lived there all their lives;
near friends/family;
population pressure/high population density;
flat land for building/agriculture/roads etc.
[4]

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Explain why rivers sometimes continue to flood for many hours after the end of a period
of heavy rain.
Most of the rain does not fall on the channel;
Takes time for overland flow to reach river;
Water has to travel downstream;
Much of the water gets to the river slowly through soil/rocks/
percolation/groundwater/throughflow; [3]
(iv) Explain why an increase in discharge of a river will influence the amount of erosion and
transportation taking place.
River flows faster/with more force/energy/pressure;
More erosion is likely to occur/more materials worn away;
Reference to specific named erosional processes or description; More
transportation will occur/more load moved/more material carried;
Reference to specific named transportation processes or description;
Larger materials can be moved;
Greater wetted perimeter.[4]
(b) Study Fig. 7, which shows information about drainage basins in Oregon, USA (an MEDC).

(i) What is meant by the following terms:

drainage basin - Area of land drained by a river/catchment area of river.
watershed - Area of land/a line which surrounds a drainage basin/area of land / (line which)
separates adjacent drainage basins.
tributary? - A river/stream which joins/flows into/leads into the main/bigger river. [3]
(ii) Describe the problems for people and the natural environment which may be

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caused by increased deforestation.
Loss of habitat;
Destroys food chains;
Species may have to migrate/face extinction/die;
Soil erosion (may increase);
Silt/soil washed into rivers;
Makes soil infertile/increases leaching/removes nutrients from the soil;
Eutrophication DEV mark;
Air pollution;
e.g. acid rain/asthma DEV mark;
Reduces drinking water quality;
Increased cost of purification/water treatment;
Increased flooding risk;
Loss of amenity value/less tourists go there;
Reduce fuel supplies/less wood for building/ 5]

(c) Describe the opportunities of living near a named river you have studied.
Name of river ..........................................
Fertile soil
High yields of crops
Land is flat so easy to build on
Communications on land are easy along flood plain
River can sometimes be used for navigation
Fishing/food supply
Water supply
Irrigation
Leisure
HEP
Industry.

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(iv) Explain why many people still live in places like area X, even though flooding is likely to
occur.
warning usually given before flooding ;
people have time to evacuate;
people are able to take precautions or example;
soils are fertile/high yields can be produced/they provide good grassland for
grazing;
irrigation;
rivers provide a water supply;
food supply/fishing;
rivers can be used for transport;
flooding is infrequent;
their jobs are nearby;
flooding can be prevented;
emotional attachment/lived there all their lives;
near friends/family;
population pressure/high population density;
flat land for building/agriculture/roads etc.
[4]
(b) Study Photograph B (Insert), which shows a meander.
(i) Describe the features shown on Photograph B which are typical of a meander.
Bend/curved shape;
variation in speed of flow across channel/faster on
outside/slower on inside;
variation of depth across channel/deeper on
outside/shallower on inside;
river cliff/steep bank/undercutting;
slip off slope/point bar/deposition of pebbles/deposited material
etc.
.[3]
(ii) Explain why both erosion and deposition are likely to occur on the meander shown in

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Photograph B.
there will be areas of both fast and slow flowing
water/different speeds of flow within channel/river;
fast flow on outer bend;
where water is deeper;
helicoidal flow (dev)
so erosion/undercutting occurs on outer bend;
by hydraulic action/abrasion (dev)
slow flow on inner bend;
where there is more friction;
results in deposition/river unable to carry load (dev) et.[5]
(c) For a named river you have studied, describe what has been done to reduce the risk of
flooding.
Name of river ..........................................
Dams/reservoirs
Levees
Overflow/flood relief channels
Dredging,
Afforestation,
Warnings,
Evacuation plan,
Flood gates etc

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