Nucleic Acid

- The Swiss physiologist Friedrich Miescher

(1844-1895) discovered nucleic acids in 1869 while
studying the nuclei of white blood cells.
- Found in cell nuclei and acidic accounts for the
name nucleic acids.
- Nucleic acids are found throughout a cell, not just in
the nucleus.
- Only nucleic acids have the remarkable property of
replicating itself in biomolecules. These molecules
serve as the repository and transmitter of genetic
information in every cell and organism.
Nucleotide Formation:
• Cells in an organism are exact replicas - Phosphate group is added to a nucleoside.
• Cells have information on how to make new cells - attached to C5 position through a phoshoester bond
• Molecules responsible for such information are -condensation reaction (H2O released)
nucleic acids - named by appending 5’ monophosphate to
• The nucleic acids (DNA in particular) are the nucleoside name
"informational molecules"; into their primary structure
is encoded a set of directions that ultimately governs Conformation of DNA:
the metabolic activities of the living cell. - DNA can assume different confirmations because
deoxyribose is flexible and the C–N-glycosidic linkage
Two types of Nucleic Acids: rotates.
• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid: found within cell -B-DNA- the common form as described by Watson
nucleus and Crick model
- storage and transfer of genetic information -A-DNA- When DNA becomes partially dehydrated it
- passed from one cell to other during cell division assumes the A-form; observed when DNA is
• RNA: Ribonucleic Acid: occurs in all parts of cell extracted with solvents such as ethanol
- primary function is to synthesize the proteins -Z-DNA- name for it’s zigzag conformation.DNA
segments with alternating purine and pyrimidine
Gene- is a segment of DNA that specifies the chain of bases (esp. CGCGCG) are most likely to adopt a Z
amino acids that comprises the protein molecule configuration; regions of DNA rich in GC repeats are
- Most human genes are 1000-3500 nucleotide often regulatory, binding specific proteins that initiate
units long. or block transcription.
Genome- cell acts like a molecular file where an
organism’s activities' program is encoded. -If deoxyribose is present, the prefix deoxy is used
- All genetic material ( total DNA) (dAMP, dADP, dATP, dGMP, dGDP, dGTP, dCMP,
chromosomes of an organism dCDP, dCTP)
- The human genome is about 20,000-25,000
genes. Nucleoside: formed from condensation reaction
Genetic Message- is transcribed by mRNA and between a five-carbon monosaccharide and a purine
transcripted by tRNA and rRNA into thousands of or pyrimidine base derivative.
different proteins. - the N9 of a purine or N1 of a pyrimidine base is
attached to C1- position of sugar (beta-conformation)
➢ Nucleic acids: polymers in which repeating in an N-C-glycosidic linkage
units is nucleotide. Nomenclature:
- for pyrimidine bases - suffix -idine is used (cytidine,
3 Components of Nucleotides: thymidine, uridine)
1. Pentose sugar- a monosaccharide sugar - for purine bases - suffix -osine is used (adenosine,
2. Phosphate group guanosine)
3. Heterocyclic base - prefix "-deoxy" is used to indicate deoxyribose
present (e.g: deoxythymidine)

Primary Nucleic Acid Structure

-5’ end has a free phosphate group and 3’ end has a free the double strands separate into single strands.
OH group-the sequence of bases is read from 5’ to 3’ • This can be due to extremes of pH, heat, or chemicals
The next nucleotide binds at the 3’ end that disrupt H-bonds.
• DNAs which are G-C rich denature at a higher
temperature (Tm) than those which are A-T rich.

- the proof of this base-pairing came when Watson and

Crick proved by x-ray diffraction that the DNA structure
was a double helix whose chains were complementary
and antiparallel
- complementary → means that A binds to T and C to G
between the chains
- the sequence of bases on one strand automatically
determines the sequence of bases on the other strand
- antiparallel → means that each end of the helix
contains the 5' end of one strand and the 3' end of
the other, so that the chains travel in opposite
dirbctions
- only when the 2 strands are antiparallel can the
base pairs form the H-bonds that hold them together
 Types of DNA sequences:
1. Exons- the coding sequences; interrupted by
noncoding sequences
2. Introns- the noncoding sequences; from 10 to
10,000 bases long
3. Palindrome or inverted repeats
• DNA sequence that contains the same information
whether it is read forward or backward; e.g.
"MADAM, I'M ADAM"
• tendency to form hairpin loop and a snapback
(cruciform)
Shorthand structure of Polynucleotides • perfect palindrome forms with exact base pairs;
quasi palindrome, when not all will form hairpin loop
- bases are indicated by their initials, the ribose by a 4. Cruciform (or snapback)-as their name implies,
straight line extending from the base, and the phosphate are crosslike structures
by P.
- the C, and C, of the ribose or deoxyribose are indicated
by the fact that the Cg is at the end of the ribose line and Primary Nucleic Acid Structure
the Cy is toward the middle of the line.
-Takadiasase (mold) → attacks "b" linkages in which "a" is Primary Structure
linked to a purine nucleotide
- RNAse (bovine pancreas) → attacks "b' linkages in • The nucleotides of a polynucleotide chain are linked
which "a" is linked to a pyrimidine nucleotide to one another in 3',5'-
phosphodiester bonds
The DNA Double Helix
• the sugar-phosphate backbone of the two strands spiral
around the outside of the helix like the handrails on a
spiral staircase
• the nitrogenous bases extend into the center at right
angles to the acids of the helix as if they are the steps of
the spiral staircase
Denaturation of DNA
• The logs of helical structure due to disruption of H-bonds
is called denaturation or melting, where

• Phosphoric acid forms a phosphate ester to and further lengthening is done by DNA Polymerase
connect the 3'-hydroxyl group of one pentose to the resulting to an OKAZAKI STRAND
5-carbon on another pentose nucleotides • The Okazaki strands are then linked together and sealed
• Sugar-phosphate groups are referred to as nucleic using the enzyme ligase leading to
the formation of a NEW STRAND
acid backbone; found in all nucleic acids
• Sugars are different in DNA DNA replication usually occurs at multiple sites within a
- Phosphate molecule (origin of replication) and the replication is
- Nucleotide bidirectional from these sites
- RNA - Multiple-site replication enables rapid DNA synthesis

Polynucleotides and the Nucleic acids • There are different mechanisms for replication of the two
strands
• A ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polynucleotide in • DNA polymerase enzyme can function only in the 5'-to-3'
which each of the monomers contains ribose, a direction which can be offered only by the 3'strand
1) the 3' strand is called the leading strand because it is
phosphategroup, and one of the heterocyclic bases
replicated in a continuous process in the direction of the
adenine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil unwinding:
• A deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleotide 2) the 5' strand is the lagging strand, it is replicated in a
polymer in which each of the monomers contains discontinuous mechanism and grows in segments
deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of the (Okazaki fragments) in the opposite direction; the
heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, or segments are later connected by DNA ligase
thymine
In the Leading Strand:
Replication of DNA molecules The DNA Polymerase, using dNTP's and Mg2,
cause the replication by base-pairing the 3'strand with free
• Process by which DNA molecules produce exact nucleotide units
duplicates of themselves
• The two strands of the DNA double helix unwind, the The Genetic Code
separated strands serve as templates for the formation of -the base sequence in mRNA determines the amino acid
new DNA strands. sequence of the protein synthesized
• Free nucleotides pair with the complementary bases on -the base sequence of an mRNA molecule involves only 4
the separated 5.0u strands of DNA. different bases- A,C,G and U.
• When the process is completed two identical molecules -the coding unit is called a codon.
of DNA are formed -Genetic code is a series of base triplets in mRNA called
• The newly synthesized DNA has one new codons that code for amparticular amino acid.
DNA strand and old DNA strand
• Two daughter DNA molecules are
produced from one parent DNA molecule, SEEMENT OF
PARENT DNA with each daughter DNA molecule
containing one parent DNA strand and one newly formed
DNA strand
In the Lagging Strand
• The enzyme primase (using NTP's and Mg*") puts
primers on the lagging strand by forming hort RNA strands
through base-pairing of the 5 strand.
• DNA Polymerase recognize, then lengthen the primers
using dNTP's.
• The primers are then removed by nucleotidase

Types of RNA Molecules

RNA functions primarily in the synthesis of proteins, the

molecules that carry out essential cellular functions
• Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hRNA)
- formed directly by DNA transcription.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries instructions for protein
synthesis (genetic information) from DNA
• Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) - facilitates the conversion
of hRNA to mRNA.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - combines with specific
proteins to form ribosomes - the physical site for protein
synthesis
• Transfer RNA (IRNA) - delivers amino
acids to the sites for protein synthesis

Over View of Photosynthesis

• Protein synthesis is directly under the direction of DNA

• The expression of the information contained in the DNA
is fundamental to the growth, development, and
maintenance of all organisms
• Proteins are responsible for the formation of skin, hair,
enzymes, hormones, and so on
• Protein synthesis can be divided into two phases.
- Transcription - a process by which
Replication
DNA directs the synthesis of mRNA molecules
- Translation - a process in which mRNA is deciphered to
synthesize a protein molecule