COMPILATIONS 301-400
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ashutoshsscaredCOMPILATIONS 301-400
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ashutoshsscared● It was initially a monarchy but subsequently became asangha.
During Buddha's time, both
Kuru and Panchalawere minor states and did not enjoythe political importance that they
did earlier.
Panchala:
● It had two capitals,Ahichhtra (Northern Panchal) and Kampilya (Southern Panchala)
on either side of riverBhagirathi.It covered themodern-dayRohilkhand division&Upper
Gangetic Plains of today’s Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand (around Bareilly, Badaun,
Bulandshahr, etc).
● The famous city ofKanyakubja (Kannauj)was situatedin this region. Several ancient
texts mention aPanchala king named Chulani Brahmadatta.Arthashastra calls them a
sangha, suggesting that thePanchalas too became asangha in later times.
Matsya (Machchha):
● Its capital wasViratnagar/modern Bairat, named afterits founder Virat.It was famous
as the hidingplace of the Pandavas.It was locatedin theAlwar, Bharatpur, and Jaipur
districts of Rajasthan.Later, it was absorbed intotheMagadha Empire.
Assaka (Asmaka):
● The capital wasPratishthan /Potali, Potana or Podana.It now lies in theNandura Tehsil,
Buldhana district in Maharashtra.
● Assaka was located on the banks of theGodavari River.This mahajanapada was situated
to the south of theVindhya Range and was in Dakshinapatha.
Avanti:
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● It had two capitals,Ujjain (North/banks of Shipra river) and Mahishmati (South/modern
Maheshwar).It was divided by theNarmada River andwas located in present-dayMalwa
region.
● Both these towns became fairly important from the fifth century BC onwards, though
eventuallyUjjain surpassed Mahishmati.
● It was founded byHaihayas, a clan of the Yadus wherelarge-scale working in iron and
erecting strong fortificationsdeveloped.The proximityto iron mines of eastern Madhya
Pradesh and the manufacture of good iron weapons was the key factor in the rise of
Avanti.
● They were the biggest rival ofMagadha. Magadha tooka hundred years to finally subjugate
Avanti.Avanti King Pradyota (Chanda Pradyota Mahasena)was a contemporary of the
Buddha. He was a powerful king, and even Ajatashatru was afraid of him. The successors
of Pradyot were weak and later Avanti was taken over by Magadha.
Gandhara:
● The capital of Gandhara wasTaxila. Pushkalavati(identifiedwith present-day Charsadda
in Pakistan) was the capital before the 6th century BCE, followed by the capital Taxila
(identified with modern Taxila in Punjab, Pakistan).
● It covered the regions between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Western Provinces, Peshawar,
the Potohar plateau, and the Kabul River. Gandhara was located in the northwestern region
(Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts of Pakistan and the Kashmir valley).
● Taxilawas an important centre oflearning and trade. Gandhara king Pukkusatiwas a
friend of Bimbisara. The Behistun inscription of Persian King Darius- indicates that
Gandhara was conquered by the Persians in the late 6'' century BCE.
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● Owing to Persian and later Greek influence, the Brahmanas began to treat this region as
impure, since the performance of Vedic rituals became irregular.
Kamboj:
● Its capital was atRajapura(modern Rajouri) and itwas located around the Hindukush
mountains of Kashmir. King Pushkarsarin had a cordial relationship with Magadha.
Behistun inscription of Dariusmentions that it wasconquered byPersians in the 6th
century BCE.
● They had anexcellent breed of horsesand remarkable horsemen. It was a monarchy in
the 6th century BCE, but the Arthashastra describes it as a sangha. It was called
uncultured in the Brahmanical texts.
● Mostly arose in theupper and mid-Gangetic plains.It was mostly situated north of the
Vindhyas and extended from the north-west frontier to Bihar. Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa,
and Avanti seem to have been powerful.
● The political history of India from the sixth century BCE onwards was one of struggles
among these states for supremacy. Eventually, the kingdom of Magadha emerged as the
most powerful and founded an empire.
The Rise and Growth of the Magadh:
● Haryanka dynasty
○ Bimbisara
○ Ajatshatru
○ Udayin
● Sisunagas
○ Sisunaga
○ Kalasoka or Kakavarin
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● Nandas
○ Mahapada Nanda
○ Dhanananda
● Mauryas
○ Chandragupta Maurya
○ Bindusara
○ Ashoka
Haryanka Dynasty Timeline:
● 544-492 BCE: Bimbisara
● 492-460 BCE: Ajatashatru
● 460-440 BCE: Udayin Anuruddha Munda
● 437-413 BCE: Nagadasaka
Kings of the Haryanka Dynasty:
Bimbisara 544 - 492 BCE:
● Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty
and a contemporary of the Buddha & Mahavir. He had taken the title ofSeniyabe
because of the standing army. He began the policy of conquest and aggression which
ended with the Kalinga war of Ashoka.
● Bimbisara acquiredAngaand placed it under the viceroyaltyof his sonKunika
(Ajatashatru)at Champa//defeated ruler Brahmadutta.Anga was important for inland and
maritime trade. He also strengthened his position by marriage alliances.
○ He had three wives. Bimbisara's first wife was Kosala Devi,the daughter of the
king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenjit, the son and successor of the Koshalan
king.
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○ The Koshalan bride brought Bimbisara as dowry to a Kashi village yielding a revenue
of 100,000 which suggests that revenues were collected in terms of coins.
○ The marriage bought off the hostility of Koshala and gave Bimbisara a free hand in
dealing with the other states. Hissecond wife, Chellana,was a Lichchhavi
princessfrom Vaishali who gave birth to Ajatashatru
○ Histhird wife was Khema, the daughter of the chiefof the Madra clan of
Punjab.Marriage relations with the different princelyfamilies lent enormous
diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha westward and
northward.
○ The most serious rival wasAvanti with its capital at Ujjain.Its king, Chanda
Pradyota Mahasena, fought Bimbisara, but eventually, the two thought it wise to
make up.
○ Initial rivalry withAvanti(Pradyota but later becamefriends). Bimbisara had sent
his royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain when Pradyota had jaundice.
● Bimbisarais also said to have received an embassyand a letter from the ruler of
Gandhara with whom Pradyota had fought unsuccessfully.Therefore, through his
conquests and diplomacy, Bimbisara made Magadha the dominant state in the sixth
century BC.
● According to the Buddhist chronicles Bimbisara ruled for fifty-two years, roughly from 544
to 492 BC. He is alsoknown for his cultural achievementsand was a great friend and
protector of the Buddha. Hesent Jivaka to attendhimand also gifted Veluvana Park to
the sangha. According to Hiuen Tsang, it was Bimbisara, whobuilt the city of Rajgir
(Rajagriha),famous in Buddhist writings.
Ajatashatru (Kunika) 492 - 460 BCE:
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● Bimbisara was succeeded by his sonAjatashatru (492-460 BCE).Ajatashatru imprisoned
his father and starved him to death. seized the throne for himself(Pietrahanta).His
reign saw the high watermark of theBimbisara dynasty.
● He fought two wars and made preparations for the third. Throughout his reign, he pursued
anaggressive policy of expansion.This provoked acombination ofKashi and Koshala
against him.Kosalahad a prolongedconflict withAjatashatru.Eventually Ajatashatru got
the best of the war.
● The Koshalanking was compelled to purchase peace by giving his daughter Vajira in
marriage to Ajatashatru. This left Ajatashatru in sole possession ofKashi.
● Ajatashatru faced a stronger rival in the ruler of Avanti. Avanti had defeated the Vatsas of
Kaushambi and now threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this threat Ajatashatru
began the fortification of Rajgir.
● Conflict with Vaishali:
○ Ajatshatru was no respecter of relations. Although his mother was aLichchhavi
prince, he did not hesitate on the question of declaring war against Vaishali. The
reason for the war was that Lichchhavis were the allies of Koshala.
○ Ajatshatru invaded Lichchhavis by defeating them in a battle.Licchavi princess
HallaandVihallarefused to hand over a special elephantand necklace of pearls. It
took him 16 years to destroy Vaishali. He sowed the seeds of discord vis his
minister Vassakara.
Udayin or Udayabhadra (460-444 BCE):
● TheMahavamsastates that Udayin (Udayabhadra) eventually succeeded his father,
Ajatasattu,moving the capital to Pataliputra, which,under the later Mauryan dynasty,
would become the largest city in the world.
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● Patliputra lay in thecentre of Magadha Kingdom, which now extended from the
Himalayas in the North to the hills of Chhotanagpur in the South. He is believed to have
ruled for sixteen yearsfrom 460 BCE to 444 BCE. Hebuilt a fort on theconfluence of
river Ganga and son at Patna.
Shishunaga [413- 395 BCE]:
● As the Haryanka rulers ascended by patricide, the people of Magadha got angry and
deposed the last ruler in413BC and elected Shishunaga(viceroy of Benaras) as ruler.
Shishunaga was an earlier Viceroy at Sanavas.He founded his dynasty in 413 BCE with
its capital inRajgir and later Pataliputra(bothin what is now Bihar).
● Buddhist sources indicate that he had asecondarycapital at Vaishali,formerly the
capital ofVajji until it was conquered by Magadha.The Shishunaga dynasty ruled one of
the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. He defeated Avanti and made it a part of
Magadha.
Kakavarna/Kalashoka (395- 367 BCE):
● According to the Puranas, Shishunaga was succeeded by hisson Kakavarnaand according
to the Sinhala chronicles by his sonKalashoka.Duringthe Shishunaga reign, he was the
governor of Varanasi.
● He convened the secondBuddhist council at Vaishaliin 383 BC.and also made the final
transfer of the capital to Pataliputra.Accordingto the Harshacharita, he was killed by a
dagger thrust into his throat in the vicinity of his capital. According to Buddhist tradition,
he had nine or ten sons.
Mahapadma Nanda (345- 329 BCE):
● He began the firstnon-Kshatriya dynasty andis thoughtto be of low origin. It is said in
the Puranas the son of Mahanandin, and a Shudra mother, so-called “Adharmika” those
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who do not follow Dharma. He is thought to be from“Anantakula”which means
Unknown lineage.
● He was regarded as"the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas'[Puranas]. He defeated many
other kingdoms, including the Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus,
Maithili, Surasenas and the Vitihotras;
● He expanded his territory south of the Vindhya Range into theDeccan Plateau.He was
called Ekarat, the only ruler who had defeated all other rulers. Mahapadma Nanda was
called Ugrasena inPali textsbecause of his largearmy.
● Sarva kshatrantakaor the uprooter of Kshatriya. He added Kalinga to Magadh and got an
image ofJina as the Victory trophy.Hathigumpha inscriptionof Kharavela indicates that
Kalinga was under Nandas. He acquired Koshala.
● He appointed officials for themethodical collectionof taxes and canals for irrigation.At
its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the
east, to the Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.
Dhana Nanda (Last important king) (329- 321 BCE):
● He was known as Aggrames or Xandrames in Greek classical writings whohad a huge
armyand the Greek ruler Alexander invaded duringhis reign. He inventedNando
Pakramani (some measure), but,he was an arrogantand oppressive ruler whoimposed
heavy taxes.
● He also had greed and exploited his subjects.Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilyadefeated
Dhana Nanda. The Nanda kings built on the foundations laid by theirHaryanka and
Shishunagapredecessors to create the first greatempire of north India.
● To achieve this objective, they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000
cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). According
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to theGreek historian Plutarch, the size of the Nanda army was even larger, numbering
200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalries, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war elephants.
● However, the Nanda Empire did not have the opportunity to see their army faceAlexander,
who invaded North-western India at the time ofDhanaNanda,since Alexander was forced
to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab and Sindh, for his forcesmutinied at the
river Beasand refused to go any further upon encountering "the 4000 well trained and
well-equipped war elephants of theGangaridai (Nanda)"according toDiodorus.
● At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in
the east, to the Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range. The
later Nandas proved to be weak and unpopular.
● Their rule in Magadha was supplanted by that of the Maurya dynasty under which the
Magadha empire reached the apex of glory. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by
Chandragupta Maurya,founder of the Mauryan Empire.
Causes of Magadh’s Success:
● Strong Rulers:The formation of the largest statein India during this period was the work
of several enterprising and ambitious rulers such asBimbisara, Ajatashatru, and
Mahapadma Nanda.
● Strategic Location:Magadha enjoyed an advantageousgeographical position in the age
of iron,because the richest iron deposits were situatedclose to Rajgir. This enabled the
Magadhan princes to equip themselves with effective weapons which were not easily
available to their rivals.
○ The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Rajgir and the second at Pataliputra, were
situated at very strategic points.Rajgir was surroundedby a group of five hills,
and so it was difficult to invade.
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● In the fifth century BC, the Magadhan princes shifted their capital from Rajgir to
Pataliputra. It occupied a pivotal position facilitating communication on all sides because of:
○ Location of Patna:Also, the position of Patna itself was rendered invulnerable
because it was virtually surrounded by rivers. Pataliputra was therefore a true water
fort (jaladurga)
○ Swift movement of Army:The army could move north,west, south, and east by
following the courses of the rivers
○ Magadha lay at the centre of the mid-Gangetic plains,the Ganges providing a
means of both transport and agricultural facilities.
○ Availability of Timber:There was also an abundanceof timber as can be seen in
the palisades of the sixth century BCE found south of Patna. Thus, boats could be
easily manufactured and they played an important part in promoting the advance of
Magadha towards the east and the west.
○ Fertile Land:Similarly, environmental factors conduciveto agriculture helped
Magadha. The alluvium, once cleared of jungles, proved immensely fertile.
○ Rainfall:Given the heavy rainfall, the area couldbe made productive even without
irrigation. This area was far more productive than the areas to the west of
Allahabad. This naturally enabled the peasants to produce a considerable surplus,
which could be mopped up by the rulers in the form of taxes.
○ Elephants:Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organisation. Although
the Indian states were well acquainted with the use of horses and chariots, it was
Magadha that first used elephants on a large scale in its wars against its
neighbours. The Eastern parts of the country could supply a large number of
Elephants to be used in the army.
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○ Rise of trade and use of Metal Money:The princes of Magadha also benefited
from the rise of towns and use of metal money. They contributed to trade and
commerce in north-east India. This enabled the princes to levy tolls on the sale of
commodities and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
○ The unorthodox character of society:Finally, the unorthodox character of
Magadhan society helped it to grow faster than others. It was inhabited by the
Kiratas and Magadhas, who were held in low esteem by the orthodox Brahmans. It
fuelled a greater enthusiasm in Magadhas for expansion than the kingdoms that
had been brought under the Vedic influence earlier.
Foreign Invasion I- Achaemenid Empire (500-300 BCE):
The situation in North-Western India:
● In northeast India, smaller principalities and
republics gradually merged with theMagadh
Empire.North-west India, however, presented a
different picture in thesixth century BC.Several
small principalities, such as those of the
Kambojas, Gandharas, and Madrasfought one
another.
● The area did not have any powerful kingdom like that ofMagadha to weld the warring
communities into one organized kingdom.As the areawasfertile and rich in natural
resources,it attracted theattentionof its neighbours.Also, it could be easily penetrated
through the passes in theHindu Kush.
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Achaemenid Empire (500 BCE - 300 BCE):
● The Achaemenidrulers of Iran,who expanded their empire at the same time as the
Magadhan princes,took advantage of the political disunity on thenorth-west frontier.
Rulers of the dynasty are as follows:
○ Cyrus or Kurush
(559 – 530
BCE):He was
thefounder of
theAchaemenid
empire.He was
thefirst
Achaemenid
ruler to lead an
expedition to India.He crossed the Hindu Kush before,destroyed the city of
Kapisha (Afghanistan),and collected tributes fromthetribes of Kamboja,
Gandhara, and the Trans Indus area.
○ Darius I (520-486 BCE):Anaval expedition under Skylaxwas dispatched by
Darius Ito explore theIndus in 517 BC.He penetratednorth-west India in516 BC
and annexed the Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh. This area was converted
into thetwentieth provinceorsatrapy of Iran,which had a total number of
twenty-eight satrapies.It was the most fertile andpopulous part of the empire.
The tribute this area paid accounted forone-thirdof the total revenue Iran
receivedfrom itsAsian provinces.The Indian subjectswere also enrolled in the
Iranian army.
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○ Xerxes or Khashayarsha (486 - 465 BCE):He was the son ofDarius I.Xerxes,
Darius’s successor,employed Indians in the long war against the Greeks. It
appears that India continued to be a part of theIranianempiretill its invasion by
Alexander.
○ Artaxerxes or Artakhasa (405 - 358 BCE):During hisreign, subjects ofGadara
and Hiduwere still calledPersian subjects.
○ Darius III (336 - 330 BCE):He deployedIndian troopsin his army.He was
defeated by Alexander in thebattle of Arabella/Gaugamela(330 BCE).
● Impact of Iranian Contact on India:
○ The Indo-Iranian contact lasted for about 200 years. It gave an impetus to
Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. But the culturalcontacts were more significant.
○ Iranian coinswere found in thenorth-west frontierregion which points to the
exchange of goods with Iran. Persian Sigloi type coinswere copied in India, but
punch marked coins were not their result.
○ Iranian scribes brought into India a form of writing that came to be known as the
Kharosthi script.TheKharosthi scriptwas derivedfromAramaic,the official
script of thePersian empire.
➢ It was written fromright to leftlike theArabic.SomeAshokan
inscriptionsin north-west India were written in thethird century BC in
this script.
● Iranian Influence on Maurya Sculpture:Themonumentsof Ashoka's time,especially the
bell-shaped capitals,draw inspiration from the Iranianmodels. Iranian influence may also
be traced in the preamble to Ashoka's edicts as well as in certain terms used in them. For
Ex, for the Iranian term‘dipi’,the Ashokan scribeused the term‘Iipi’.
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To be Noted:
Herodotus (484 – c. 425 BC) Father of History:
● He was regarded as theFather of History, a title conferred on him by the ancient Roman
orator Cicero.The ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of
Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey).
● He is known for havingwritten the book ‘Histories’– a detailed account of the
Greco-Persian Wars. He was thefirst writer to perform a systematic investigationof
historical events.
● The Histories primarily cover thelives of prominent kings and famous battlessuch as
Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale. His work also provides a
cultural,ethnographical, geographical, and historiographical backgroundthat forms an
essential part of the narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional
information.
● Herodotus has been criticized for hisinclusion of "legends and fanciful accounts" in his
work.The fellow historian Thucydides accused him of making up stories for entertainment.
However, Herodotus explained that he reported what he "saw and [what was] told to him".
● As per Herodotus:
○ 20th and most prosperous satrapy of the Persian Empire:
■ Paid 360 talents of gold- 28 provinces together.
■ ⅓ of the total revenue of Iran from Asia.
■ Indian mercenaries for the Persian army fought against Greece in the 5th
century.
■ Xerxes' army included theGandhara people.
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Alexander Invasion (327-325 BC):
● He was the king of the ancient Greek kingdom ofMacedonia,also known as theArgead
dynasty andwas born inPellain 356 BC. He wastutoredby Aristotleuntil age 16.
● He succeeded hisfather Philip IIat
the age of 20.
● He spent most of his ruling years on
anunprecedented military
campaignthrough Asia and
northeast Africa, and he created one
of the largest empires of the ancient
world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.
● He wasundefeated in battleand is widely consideredone of history's most successful
military commanders. In the 4th Century BCE, Greeks and Iranians fought for the
supremacy of the world. He defeated the Persian army led by Darius IIIat
Arabella/Gaugamela (330 BCE).
● Under the leadership of Alexander, the Greeks were able to destroy the Iranian empire.
Alexander conquered not justAsia Minor and IraqbutalsoIranandfrom Iran, he
marched towards India.
● Through theKhyber Pass in 326 BC, it took him fivemonths to reach theIndus and
eventually enter India.Alexanderfound North-westIndia easy to conqueras the area
was divided into many independent monarchies and tribal republics. Among the rulers of
these territories, two were well-known:
○ Ambhi, the prince of Taxila
○ Poruswhose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and theChenab.
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● Together they might have effectivelyresisted Alexander's advance, but they could not put
up a joint front, and the Khyber Pass remained unguarded.
o Ambhi, theruler of Taxila,
readily submitted to
Alexander, augmenting
Alexander's army and
replenishing his treasure.
● When he reached theJhelum
(Hydaspes River), Alexander
encountered the first and the strongest resistance from Porus, this great resistance was
also known as the‘Battle of Hydaspes’ fought in 326BCE.
● Although Alexander defeated Porus, he was impressed by his bravery and courage. He
therefore restored his kingdom to him and made him his ally. He then advanced as far as
theBeas River (Hyphasis River).He wanted to move still further eastward, but his army
refused to accompany him because of diseases and homesickness.
● He wasnot attracted to India for wealth but for geographyi.e., solving the problem of
the ocean. Forced to retreat, heerected 12 hugealtars on Beas bank. He was in India
for 19 months. While returning encountered some gana sanghas likeMallol.Hedied in
Babylon in 323 BC.
Impact of Alexander’s Invasion:
● The most important outcome of this invasion was the establishment ofdirect contact
between India and Greecein various fields. Greeksettlement was another important factor
in his invasion. He referred toautonomous cities(maybe gana- sanghas).
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● Alexander's campaign opened up fourdistinct routes by land and sea(3 by land), paving
the way for Greek merchants and craftsmen, and increasing the existing facilities for trade.
He hadsent Nearchus via sea route
to Iran.
● Alexander's historians also provide us
with important information about the
social and economic conditions of
the time, helping to reconstruct
India’s historical past.
○ They tell us about thesati system,the sale of girlsin marketplaces by poor
parents, and thefine breed of oxenin north-west India. Alexander ordered2 lakh
oxento be sent to Macedonia.
○ It tells us that theart of carpentrywas the mostflourishing craft in India, and
carpenters used to build chariots, boats, and ships.
● Most importantly, Alexander’s invasion paved the way for theexpansion of the Mauryan
empire in North-West India.
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Ancient History
Lecture 17: Mauryan Empire
Mauryan Empire (324 - 185 BCE):
● It was thefirstsubcontinental empire but itdidnot include Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
some parts of NEIndia. It was an innovative and stablegovernment.
● Sources of Mauryan History:
○ Kautilya’s Arthashastra:Kautilya, also known asVishnugupta*and Chanakya,
who was also a scholar at Takshashila and an advisor to Chandragupta Maurya is
credited to have written Arthashastra.
➢ The text can be translated as"political science,""economic science," or
"statecraft." It is an ancient Sanskrit treatise onstatecraft, political
science, economic policy, military strategy, and a science of material
well-being.
➢ Artha is consideredsuperior to dharma and kama.TheSaptanga Theory
covers various topics such as:
❖ government, law, court systems, ethics, economics, trade,
❖ diplomacy, war, peace, prisons, spies,
❖ forts, coins, taxation,
❖ duties of a king moral duty of the king,
❖ paternal despotism, happiness/welfare of subject = King's
welfare/happiness,
❖ incorporates Hindu philosophy,
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❖ provides insights into agriculture, mining, animal husbandry,
medicine, forests, wildlife, manufacturing, trade,
❖ Practical and unsentimental assassination when to kill family and
secret agents.
➢ Arthashastra was composed, expanded, and redacted between the 2nd c.
BCE - 3rd c. CE but it was lost after 12 C CE.
➢ In 1905, the treatise was rediscovered by R. Shamasastry as a copy on palm
leaves.R. Shamasastryworked at Mysore Govt. OrientalLibrary and later
after discovery it was published in 1909, with the first English translation
released in 1915 by him. gained global interest in the 21st century. This is
why Chanakya is Compared with ThePrinceofMachiavelli.
○ Megasthenes’s Indica:He was a Greek ambassador ofSeleucus Nikator who wrote
Indica. Major faults of Megasthenes’ work included:
➢ the uncritical acceptance of Indian folklore
➢ idealizing Indian culture by the standards of Greek philosophy.
➢ mentioned about imaginary creatures
➢ classified Indian society into 7 castes- Philosophers (Bahmans), farmers,
hunters & pastoralists, artisans, traders, soldiers, overseers, and King's
counsellors. This interpretation of his came after being inspired by the
classification of Egyptian society by Herodotus.
➢ Indians did not know the art of melting, writing (drink wine at sacrifice
only)
➢ no record of practice of slavery and
➢ no instances of famine
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○ This bookdid not survive but some parts were derived and preserved in Greek
and Latin works of:
➢ Diodorus:He was ahistorianwho describes Alexander’sIndian campaign
and provides a general description of India.
➢ Strabo:He was ageographerwhose books dealt withthe geography of
India and Persia. Strabo alsowrongly states thatIndians were ignorant
of writing and smelting,and never drank wine exceptat sacrifices.
➢ Pliny:He was aRoman scholarwho cites Megasthenes’s observations.
➢ Arrian:He was a statesman and soldier who providesus with an account of
Alexander’s campaign and also of Admiral Nearchus’s voyage back to
Babylon.
❖ It gives a detailed description of India mentioning that:
(a)India is aquadrilateral-shaped country, bound bythe
ocean on the southern and eastern sides.
(b)It contains lengthy descriptions of soil, climate, rivers,
plants, and animals (including elephants, horses, and
monkeys).
(c)It produces, has an administrative setup, has a society, has
legends, folklore, etc.
(d)The Greeks referred to theIndians’ worship of Lord
Krishnaand addressed him asDionysus and
Herakles/Hercules.
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(e)He mentioned that famine has never visited India and
neither the food scarcity. As per his observation even in
wartime, the cultivated fields will not be destroyed.
(f)He was impressed by the contentment and prosperity of the
people of India.
(g)He portrayed Indians as honest (since theft was rare) and
having great character and moral values.
(h)Inspired by the classification of Egyptian society by
Herodotus, he mentioned the classification of Indian society
into 7 castes such as Brahmanas and Shramanas; farmers,
herdsmen, and hunters; artisans and traders; soldiers;
overseers; and the king’s counsellors.
○ VishakhaDatta’sMudrarakshasa
○ Puranas
○ Buddhist literature
○ Jatakas
➢ Part of Kuddanikaya of Sutta Pitaka/549 stories
➢ Dipavamsa (Ashoka) | Mahavamsa (CM)
➢ Divyadana (Ashoka) which is a Tibetan Buddhist text
➢ Ashokavadana
➢ Mahabhasya (CM)
➢ Milindpanho (CM)
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○ Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: James Princep deciphered the Ashokan script
in 1837.There are 14 Major/3 Minor rock edicts, 7Major/3 Minor pillar edicts, and
3 cave edicts.
○ Other Inscriptions:Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman(beginning of
construction of Sudarshana lake), Sohgaura copper plate inscription| Gorakhpur and
Mahasthan inscription | Bogara, Bangladesh.
○ Material Remains:Wooden palace of Chandragupta, NorthernBlack polished ware,
and Punch marked coins.
○ Other Important Literary Sources:
➢ Hemchandra wroteParishishta Parvan(which describesthe connection
between Chandragupta and Jainism).
➢ Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasaaround the 5th Century.The subject
matter of Mudrarakhshasa was a battle between Chanakya and
Chandragupta Maurya against Dhanananda.
➢ Dandin’s Dashakumarcharitawas one of the famous literarysources of
this period.
➢ Banabhatta wrote Kadambari.
➢ Vamasatta paksiniwas based on the legend of Chanakyaand
Chandragupta Maurya.
➢ Mamulnar(Tamil poet of the Sangam period) referredto the southward
expansion of Mauryas and alliance with Koshar (North Karnataka)
Did you know?
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● The Mauryan Empire was the first subcontinental empire. The empire stretched to all parts
of the subcontinent except Kerala, TN, and some parts of NE India. It was an innovative
and stable government.
Mauryan Dynasty Timeline:
● 324/21–298 BCE → Chandragupta Maurya
● 298–272 BCE → Bindusara
● 268–232 BCE → Ashoka
● 232–224 BCE → Dasharatha
● 224–215 BCE → Samprati
● 215–202 BCE → Shalishuka
● 202–195 BCE → Devavarman
● 195–187 BCE → Satadhanvan
● 187–180 BCE → Brihadratha
Chandragupta Maurya (324/21–298 BCE):
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● The Maurya dynasty wasfounded by Chandragupta Maurya, who belonged to an ordinary
family. His origin is considered as Ambiguous. He was born ofMura- a shudra womanin
the court of the Nandas- as per
Brahmanical texts.
● The earliest Buddhist tradition speaks
of the existence of aKshatriya clan
called Mauryan living in the region of
Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese Terai.
(Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, Divyadana).
● By extending into the kingdom of
Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain on the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the
empire had itscapital city at Pataliputra (modernPatna)with provincial capitals at
Taxila and Ujjain.
● The empire was thelargest to have ever existed inthe Indian subcontinent,spanning
over 5 million square kilometres at its zenith under Ashoka.
○ Hetook advantage of the Nandasin the last days oftheir rule. With the help of
Chanakya, who is known as Kautilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the
rule of the Maurya dynasty.
○ His machinations ofChanakya against Chandragupta'senemiesare described in
detail in the Mudrarakshasa, a play written by Vishakhadatta later in 5th c. CE and
Parshsishtparvan of Hemachandra.
○ Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire that included not only Bihar and
substantial parts of Orissa and Bengal but also western and north-western India,
and the Deccan.
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● Chandraguptaliberated north-western Indiafrom the clutches ofSeleucus Nikator, who
ruled over the area west of the Indus. Eventually, peace was concluded between the two,
and in return for 500 elephants, Seleucus gave him not only his daughter but also eastern
Afghanistan, Balochistan, and the area west of the Indus.
● The spread ofJainism in Karnatakais
attributed to Chandragupta Maurya
(322-298 BC).
○ The emperor became a Jaina, gave
up his throne, and spent the last
years of his life in Karnataka as a
Jaina ascetic.
○ He also performedSallekhana, also known asSanthara,which meansdeath by
fasting.His teacher wasBhadrabahu.
From the lecture:
Greek interaction with the Mauryas:
● Greek scholars calledChandragupta MauryaasSandrocottus.They wrote about the
meeting ofChandragupta Maurya and Alexander.He also mentioned the battle between
Chandragupta Maurya and Seleucus
Nikator in 301BC.
● Seleucuswas Alexander’s General. He
got control of Eastern Asiatic provinces
after Alexander’s death. Seleucus Nikator
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sentMegasthenesas an ambassador, who laterwroteIndica.
○ Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nikator and was forced to yield
Arachosta (Qandahar); Gedrosia (South Balochistan) and Parapomisadai
(including Kabul, Herat, and Gandhara).In return,Chandragupta Maurya gave
him500 elephants.
Bindusara (298 - 272 BCE):
● Chandragupta Maurya wassucceeded by Bindusara, whosereign is important for its
continuing links with the Greek princes. Bindusara'slife is not documentedas well as the
lives of these two emperors - Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
● Much of the information about Bindusara comes from legendary accounts written several
hundred years after his death. Bindusara consolidated the empire created by his father.
Buddhist sources (mostly silent on Bindusara) that provide information about Bindusara
includeDivyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Vamsatthappakasini,Samantapasadika,
and the 16th-century writings of Taranatha.
● The Jain sources include the 12th-centuryParishishtaparvanby Hemachandraand the
19th-centuryRajavali-Katha by Devachandra.The HinduPuranas also mention Bindusara
in their genealogies of Mauryan rulers. Mahabhasya refers to him asAmitraghata (killer
of enemies).
● Some Greek sources also mention him by the name"Amitrochates"or its variations.
Deimachus was the ambassadorof the Seleucid emperorAntiochus I at Bindusara's
court.
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● Though thereligion of Bindusara is not known precisely, it’s a settled fact among
historians that Bindusarapatronized the Ajivikas.One of the fortune tellers told him that
his son Ashoka would be a great person.
● Other Sources on Bindusara:
○ Taranatha, the Tibetan monk mentions that one of Bindusara’sgreat lords,
Chanakya, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made him master of all
the territory between the eastern and western seas. Greek sources mentioned his
diplomatic relations with Western kings.
○ According to Strabo,Antiochus (Syrian king) sentDeimachusas an ambassador
to Bindusara’s court. Pliny mentions thatKing PtolemyII Philadelphus of Egypt
sent Dionysiusas an ambassador to India.
○ Divyadanamentioned his son Ashoka, who quelled arebellion against wicked
ministers at Taxila. Under him, the Mauryan empire reached as far as Karnataka.
Ashoka (268 – 232 BCE):
● After the death of Bindusara in 273 BCE, there was a4-year succession conflict.Ashoka
was appointed theviceroy of Taxila and Ujjain, bothplaces were commercially important.
According to Divyavadana:
○ Bindusara wanted Susima to succeed.
○ Ashoka was the choice of Bindusara’s ministers, especially Radhagupta.
● Later Ashoka acquired the Magadha throne after killing his 99 brothers. Formally took the
throne in 268 BCE. Ashoka was regarded as one of thegreatest kings of all time.
○ He made contact with his people through his inscriptions. TheBuddhist text
Ashokavadanaclaims that Ashoka’s mother was the daughterof a Brahmana of
Champa named Subhadrangi.
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● The name Ashoka, which means"without sorrow" in Sanskrit,is thought to have sprung
from the fact that his birth brought his mother and father back together who were
otherwise separated due to a palace intrigue.
● Ashoka was an emperor of theMaurya Dynasty,who ruledalmost all of the Indian
subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded
Chandragupta's empire and reigned over a realm that stretched from present-day
Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east.
● It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Kerala.
○ Ashoka converted to Buddhism in about 260 BCE. He is remembered for the
Ashoka pillars and edicts,for sending Buddhist monksto Sri Lanka and Central
Asia, and for establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of
Gautama Buddha.
Ashokan Inscriptions:
● The history of Ashoka is reconstructed based on his inscriptions, thirty-nine, in number,
that are classified into
○ Major Rock Edicts,
○ Minor Rock Edicts,
○ Major Pillar Edicts, and
○ Minor Pillar Edicts.
● In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged adestructive war againstthe state of Kalinga
(modern Odisha). He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done.
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● The name Ashoka occurs in copies of theMinor Rock Edict I found at three places in
Karnataka (Maski, Nittur & Udegolam) and at one in Madhya Pradesh (Gujjara).Thus,
altogether, the name Ashoka occursfour times.
● The inscriptions do not carry his name but
mention onlyDevanampiya Piyadasi, (dear to
the gods),and leave out the name Ashoka.
The titleDevanampiya or 'dear to gods'
adopted byAshoka was not unique but also
adopted by his ancestors.
● Ashokan inscriptions have been found inIndia,
Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.Altogether,
they appear at forty-seven places, and the
total number ofversions is 182 including two
edicts that are considered spurious.
● They were composed inthe Prakrit language and writtenin Brahmi scriptin the greater
part of the subcontinent. However, in the north-western part of the subcontinent, they
also appeared in theAramaic language and Kharosthiscript,and in Afghanistan, they
were written in both Aramaic and Greek scripts and languages. (This added philosophical
discourse from that language as well and a connection with Zorastrian concepts was
found).
● The Ashokan inscriptions appear on important highways. The stone pillars were made in
Chunar near Varanasifrom where they were transportedtonorth and south India.
○ These inscriptions throw light onAshoka’s career,his external and domestic
policies, and the extent of his empire.
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○ Inscription did not contain key ideas ofBuddhismbutBuddhist core ideologies
inspired Ashoka’s dhamma.
James Prinsep (1799 - 1840):
● He was an English scholar, orientalist, and antiquary. He was the founding editor of the
Journal of theAsiatic Society of Bengaland is bestremembered for deciphering the
Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India.
● Around 1836, Prisep was able to decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around
India. The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a kingDevanampriya Piyadasi, initially
assumed to be a Sri Lankan King.
Edicts of Ashoka:
● Ashoka’s inscription is about hisDhamma.It talksaboutuniversal law/righteousness or
religious or social order.It was inspired by BuddhistUpasaka dhamma, but not a copy of
it. It is more about social and intellectual codes of ethics, influencing many aspects of
social life.
● Ashoka’s dhamma is aboutconformity to social ethics.It is primarilyethical behaviour,
recognition ofthe dignity of human life, andstateconcern for thewelfare of its people.
● Basic Traits:Compassion (Daya), Charity (Dana), Truthfulness,purity and gentleness.
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts:
First Edict Declared prohibition ofanimal sacrifice.
Second Edict Medical treatment of humans and animals, plantingbeneficial medicinal
herbs and roots, fruits, and the digging of wells.
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Third Edict Mentions Pradeshikas, Rajukas, and Yuktasand theirneed for going on tours
of inspection every five years as part of their other duties, preaching dhamma,
and also adopting a liberal attitude towards Brahmanas and Shramanas.
Fourth Edict Bheri Ghosha (war drum)wasreplaced by Dhamma Ghoshaand King
Ashoka attached the greatest value to this duty.
Fifth Edict Appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas, a special cadreof officials entrusted
to spread dhamma within the kingdom.
Sixth Edict Mantri Parishad and officers like Pulisani and Pativedakas (reporters).
Seventh Edict Religious toleranceamongst all sects and welfaremeasures for the public not
only in his kingdom but also in the neighbouring kingdoms of Cholas, Pandyas,
and Antiochus in the north-west.
Eighth Edict Royal pleasure tours (Vihara-yatras) replaced by dhamma tours
(dhammayatras). Ashoka himself went to Sambodhi at Bodhgaya.
Ninth Edict Criticism of the uselessness of various ceremonies, instead lays stress on
dhamma and moral conduct.
Tenth Edict King desires no more fame or glory.
Eleventh Edict Announces that the gift of dhamma is the best gift of all gifts and the Policy
of Dhamma is the best policy to follow. Dhamma included giving respect to
elders, and good behaviour towards slaves.
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Twelfth Edict Mention of Ithijika Mahamatta (mahamattas in charge of women’s welfare)
and appeals for tolerance amongst sects and for people to honour and
understand the dhamma of others.
Thirteenth Edict The Kalinga war (261 BCE, which occurred in the ninth year after Ashoka’s
consecration) changed his attitude and Ashoka, who was the worshipper of
Shiva, turned towards Buddhism.
Fourteenth Edict Purpose of rock edicts.
Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka:
● Asoka's principle of protection of the
people
● Defines dhamma as a minimum of sins,
many virtues, compassion, liberality,
truthfulness, and purity
● Preach to avoid practices of harshness,
cruelty, anger, pride, and other sins among
the subjects
● Prescribe duties and responsibilities of
Rajukas, who would go every five years to different parts of the empire to spread Dhamma
● A list of animals and birds which should not be killed on certain days, and another list of
animals which have not to be killed on all occasions. Describes the release of 25 prisoners
by Ashoka.
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● Works done by Asoka for Dhamma Policy. He says that all sects desire both self-control
and purity of mind. This edict only appears on the Delhi-Topra pillar.
Ashoka’s State Policy:
● The ideology ofBuddhismguided Ashoka's state policyat home and abroad. He therefore
abandoned the policy of physical occupationin favourof one of cultural conquest. In
other words, bherighosha (sound of war drums) was replaced withDhammaghosha.
● Ashoka now appealed ideologically to the tribal people and the frontier kingdoms. The
subjects of the independent states in Kalinga were asked to obey the king as their father
and to repose confidence in him.
● The officials appointed by Ashoka were instructed to propagate this idea among all sections
of his subjects. The tribal peoples were similarly asked tofollow the principles of
dhamma (dharma).
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● Heno longer treated foreign dominions as legitimate areasfor military conquest. He
took steps for the welfare of men and animals in foreign lands, which was a new thing
considering the conditions in those times.
● He sent ambassadors of peace to theGreek kingdomsin West Asia and Greece.He sent
missionaries for the propagation ofBuddhism to SriLanka and Central Asia,and there is
inscriptional evidence to support Ashoka's initiatives to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
● Ashoka sent hisson Mahindra and his daughter Sanghamitrato Sri Lankato preach
Buddhism. Hedid not pursue the peace policyfor thesake of peace under all
circumstances but adopted the practical policy of consolidating his empire.
● Heretained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire. Although he
repeatedly asked the tribal people to follow the policy of dharma, he threatened adverse
consequences if they violated the established rules of social order and righteousness
(dharma). He appointed a class of officers known as theRajukas,who were vested with
the authority to reward people and punish them when necessary.
Motifs associated with Religious Traditions:
● Lotus:purity
● Lion: solar symbol and Buddha referred to asSakyaSimha.
● Bull:fertility.
● Elephant:Buddha conception.
● Spoked wheel:Dharmachakra
● Horse
● Social Code
● Dhamma consists of the least amount ofsin, performingvirtuous deeds, and having
compassion, purity, and truthfulness.
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● Soul and Sin
● Rajukas
● Delhi Topra pillar edict, and featuresprohibitionsregarding animal killings.
● Welfare of people
● Dhamma Mahamatta
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Ancient History
Lecture 18: Mauryan Empire (Part 2)
Ashoka’s “Dhamma Policy:”
● Ashoka held thethird Buddhist council (sangiti)around250 BCEat Asokarama in
Pataliputra. Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself,and this was the ideal ofpaternal
kingship. As agents of the king, the officials werealso asked to take care of the people.
● Ashoka appointedDhamma Mahamatrasto propagate dharmaamong various social groups,
including women and appointed Rajukas for the administration of justice in his empire.
● Ashokadisapproved of rituals, especially those observedby women. He alsoforbade killing
certain birds and animals, prohibited the slaughter of animals in the royal kitchen, and
forbade the slaughter of animals in sacrifices.
● Ashoka's inscriptions are calledDhammalipi,whichcover not only religion and morality but
also embrace social and administrative matters. Theycan be compared to the
Dharmashastrasor law books written in Sanskrit underBrahmanical influence.
○ Though the Dhammalipi were written in Prakrit under Buddhist influence, they tried
to regulate the social order like the Dharmashastras.
○ The Ashokan edicts can be also compared to the shasanas or royal edicts issued in
Sanskrit by the Brahmanized kings.
● Thebroad objectiveof Ashoka’s Dhamma Policywasto preserve the social order. He
ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to the Brahmanas and Buddhist
monks, and show mercy to slaves and servants.
● Above all, the dhammalipi asked the people to show firmdevotion (dridha bhatt) or
loyalty to the king. These instructions are foundin both the Buddhist and Brahmanical
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faiths. Ashoka taught people to live and let live. He emphasized compassion towards
animals and proper behaviour towards relatives.
○ His teachings were meant to strengthen the institution of family and the existing
social classes. He held that if the people behaved well, they would go to heaven,
butnever said that they would attain nirvana,whichwas the goal of Buddhist
teachings.
○ Ashoka's teachings were thus intended to maintain the existing social order based
on tolerance. He does not seem to have preached any sectarian faith.
Historical Significance of Ashoka:
● Ashoka brought about thepolitical unification ofthe country.He bound it further by one
dharma, one language, and virtuallyone script calledBrahmiwhich was used in most of
his inscriptions. In unifying the country, he respectednon-Indian scripts such as
Kharosthi, Aramaic, and Greek.
● He hadtolerance and respectfor the religion andscripts. His inscriptions appear not only
in different types of Indian languages like Prakrit but also in Greek and particularly in
Aramaic which was a Semitic language of ancient Syria.
○ His multi-script and multi-lingual inscriptions enabled him to contact literate
people. Ashoka followed a tolerant religious policy, not attempting to foist his
Buddhist faith on his subjects.
○ He gave gifts to non-Buddhist sects like gifting the Barabar Caves to Ajivikas.
Ashoka is important in history for hispolicy of peace,non-aggression, and
cultural conquest.
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○ He consistently adhered to his policy, for though he possessed sufficient resources
and maintained a huge army,he did not wage any warafter the conquest of
Kalinga.He also had relations with the outer world.
Mauryan Administration:
● Mostly a centralizedbureaucratic systemwhichderivedthe power from the King.
However, there was a presence ofPaternal despotisminstead of divine rule. The Mauryas
organized a very elaborate system of administration. This is known from theaccount of
Megasthenes and the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
● Megastheneswas a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucusto thecourt of Chandragupta
Maurya. He lived in the Maurya capital of Pataliputraand wrote an account not only of the
administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya empire as a whole.
○ These fragments have been collected and published in the form of a book entitled
Indica,which throws valuable light on the administration,society, and economy of
Mauryan times.
○ Megasthenes account can be supplemented by theArthashastraof Kautilya.
○ Arthashastra was finally compiled a few centuriesafter Maurya rule;some of its
books contain material that provides authentic information about the Maurya
administration and economy.
Municipal Administration:
● Kautilya devotes a full chapter to the rules of theNagaraki.e., city superintendent. His
chief duty was the maintenance of law and order. Megasthenese account of the system:6
committees of five members each,and their functions;
○ 1st -Industrial Arts
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○ 2nd -Entertainment of Foreigners,
○ 3rd -Registration of Births and Deaths, stats
○ 4th -Trade and Commerce - market regulations (weights& Measures, to be sold
before perished)
○ 5th -sale of manufactured goods
○ 6th -Collection of taxes (1/10th of the article price)
● Megasthenesalso refers to theadministration of Pataliputra,the capital of the Mauryas.
The city was administered by six committees, each of which consisted of five
members.
● These committees were entrusted with sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of birth
and death, regulation of weights and measures, and similar other functions.
● Various types of weights belonging toMaurya timeshave been found in several places in
Bihar. According to Kautilya, the central governmentmaintained about two dozen
departments of state,which controlled social andeconomic activities at least in the areas
that were in proximity to the capital.
Saptanga Theory:
● Kautilya enumerated seven Prakritis or essential organs of the state. They are as
follows:
○ Swami (The Ruler)
○ Amatya (The Minister)
○ Janapada (The Population)
○ Durga (The Fortified Capital)
○ Kosha (The Treasury)
○ Danda (The Army)
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○ Mitra (Ally and Friend)
King (Swamin):
● It was regarded as thesoul of all the seven elements.The king was theDharmapravakta
and was assisted by a council. He was thepromulgatorof social ordersas he issued:
○ Rajasasana:Royal Rescripts.
○ Porana Pakiti:Maintaining ancient rules and customs.
● King took the final call on all aspects including regarding revenue, law and order, war, or
any other matter related to administration. He was expected to beflexible and always
accessibleby his officials. He helped thevulnerablesections of societysuch as women,
children, and old.
● He considered all his subjects to be like his children and he desired their happiness in this
and the other world. Heensured the welfare of thepeople, especially by planting trees,
constructing wells, medical care facilities, etc. Hissecurity was to be checked. There were
female personal bodyguards of the king, who were skilled in archery.
● System of Spies:
○ Sansthaor stationary spies who wereposted permanentlyin a particular region.
○ Sancharaorwandering spieswho wandered from placeto place collecting secret
information.
○ Pativedakas and Pulisani, who functioned as specialreporters of the king and kept
him informed of public opinion.
Chandragupta Maurya:
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● Hewas an autocrat who concentrated all power in hishands. He stated that in the happiness of
his subjects lay his happiness and, in their troubles, lay his troubles. He alsomaintained the
body of spies.
● Kautilya advises the king to promulgate dharma when the social order based on thevarnas and
ashramas(states in life) collapses. He calls thekingDharma Pravartakaor promulgator of the
social order. That the royal orders were superior to other orders was asserted by Ashoka in his
inscriptions.
● Ashokan inscriptions show thatroyal writ ran throughoutthe countryexcept for the extreme
east and south.
Ashoka:
● Ashokapromulgated dharma and appointed officialsto inculcate and enforce its essentials
throughout India.
○ An assertion of royal absolutism was a natural culmination of the policy of military
conquest adopted by the princes ofMalla, Anga, Vaishali,Kashi, Koshala, Avanti,
Kalinga, etc., one by one were annexed to the Magadhanempire.
○ Military control over these areas eventually turned into coercive control over the lives of
the people.
○ Magadha had the requisite power of the sword to enforce its overall authority. To
control various spheres of life the state had to maintain a vast bureaucracy.
Amatyas:
● It was a form ofCentral Administration.Amatyas werehigh officials, counsellors, and
executive headsof departments/ministers.The MantriParishad:The king was assisted by
the Mantri Parishad, whose members included:
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○ The Yuvaraja (the crown prince)
○ The Purohita (the chief priest)
○ The Senapati (the commander-in-chief)
○ A few other ministers.
● TheMaha-Mantrins, or high ministers, also attendedthe Mantriparishad meeting.
Important functionaries were calledtirthas.Mostfunctionaries werepaid in cash, the
highest among whom, theminister (mantrin), the highpriest (purohita),
commander-in-chief (senapati), and crown prince (yuvaraja),were paid generously.
● There were bodies ofNikayas (trained officials)wholooked after the ordinary affairs of
the realm. Other important officials were:Mahamattasand Adhyakshas.TheAdhyakshas
(or superintendents)were high-ranking officials nextto the Tirthas, concerned mostly
with economic functions and some military duties.
● TheMahamattaswere high-ranking officials. The magistrateswho looked after towns and
cities were calledNagaradhyaksha, and those lookingafter the military were called
Baladhyakshas. Samnidhatri (treasurer)was in chargeof the royal stores and
Akshapatalaheld the responsibility of records-cum-auditoffice, anddauvarikawas the
chief of the palace attendants).
● The administrative mechanism was backed by an elaborate system of espionage. Various
types of spies collected intelligence about foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous
officers. Various tests were conducted for the acceptability of appointments:
○ Dharmopadhasuddha:to be purified by religious tests.
○ Arthopadhasuddha:to be purified by a money test.
○ Kamopadhasuddha:to be purified by a love test.
○ Bhayopadhasuddha:to be purified by a fear test
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Important Officials:
Term: Description:
Nagaraka The officer in charge of the city administration
Akshantala Accountant General
Sita Adhyaksha Supervised agriculture
Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce
Samsthaadhyalisha Superintendent of Market
Pauta Adhyaksha Superintendent of weights and measures
Nava Adhyaksha Superintendent of ships
Sullo Adhyaksha Collector of tolls
Nagaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
Loh Adhyaksha Superintendent of Iron
Bal Adhyaksha Military
Sannidhata Chief treasury officer and looked into royal stores
The collector general of revenue + most of the Superintendents under
Samaharta him + maintained accounts of the collection of taxes
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Vyayahari Chief Justice of Dharmasthala Nyayalaya (Civil Court)
Pradeshta Chief Justice of Kantak Shodhan Nyayalaya (Criminal Court)
A new post created by Ashoka, empowered with [Mamma Mahanlana]
functions of propagating Dharma and taking care of the folk and their
Dharma Maha Mantra material well-being
Rashtrapati/kumara The viceroys in charge of a province
Pradesika They were the modern district magistrate
They were the latter-day Patwaris and were responsible for surveying
Rajukas Kajukas and assessing the land
Yukta A subordinate revenue officer of the district level
Sthanika The collecting officer directly under the control of the Pradeshika
Gopa Responsible for accounts
Janapada:
● It was aform of Provincial Administration thatincluded not only territory but also
population. The empire wasdivided into several provinces, and each of these was placed
under a prince who was a scion of the royal dynasty. The provinces weredivided intostill
smaller units, and arrangements were made for both rural and urban administration.
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● A large number of towns
relate toMaurya times.
Pataliputra, Kaushambi,
Ujjain, and Taxilawere the
most important cities.
Pataliputra was the chief
center of royal power, but
Tosali, Suvarnagiri, Ujjain,
and Taxilawere seats of
provincial power. Kautilya prescribes thefollowingrequisitesof a prosperous Janapada in
terms of territory:
○ Accommodate and support people;
○ Defend the state against enemies;
○ Find the occupation of people;
○ Those have manageable Neighbours;
○ Those can provide pastures;
○ Those have arable land, mines, forests;
○ Those can provide good internal communication,i.e.,rivers, roads, and outlets to the
sea.
● According to theJunagadh Rock edict of Rudradaman,Saurashtra was governed by
Pushygupta, the Vaishya, at the time of Chandragupta Maurya and by the Yavan king
Uhasp, at the time of Ashoka.
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● Each of them was governed by agovernor called kumara or prince,and thus every
governor hailed from the royal family. The princely governor ofTosaliadministered Kalinga
and also parts of Andhra, and that of Suvarnagiri ruled the Deccan area.
● Similarly, the princely governor of Ujjain ruled the Avanti area while that of Taxila was the
frontier area. The princely governors may have functioned as autonomous rulers, and
although some governors oppressed their subjects, Ashoka’s authority was never seriously
questioned.
Province Capital
Uttarapatha i.e., Northern Province Taxila
Avanti Rashtra i.e., Western Province Ujjain
Prachi i.e., Eastern and Central province Patliputra
Kalinga i.e., Eastern Province Toshali
Dakshinapatha i.e., Southern Province Suvarnagiri
Administrative Unit Head
● Rashtrapala/Kumara (prince) [Law & Order + revenue]
Chakra (i.e., province) ● Assisted by Mahamatyas & Council of Ministers
● Pradeshika (Administrative)
Ahar/Vishaya (i.e., District) ● Rajuka (land revenue)//assisted by Yuktas
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Sangrahana (a group of 10
villages) ● Gopa
Gram (i.e., village) ● Gramika
Other Administrative Units:
● Sthaniya- 800 villages
● Dronamukha -400 villages
● Kharvatika -200 villages
● Samgrahama -10 villages
Durga (Fortified Capital):
● As per a Greek writerJustin, the most striking feature ofChandragupta Maurya’s admin
was the maintenance
of a huge army.
Chandragupta
maintained
600,000-foot soldiers,
30,000 cavalrymen, and
9000 elephants. The
Mauryas also
maintained a navy.
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● The Mauryas' military strength was almostthree times that of the Nandas, and this was
apparently because of a much larger empire and thus far greater resources. According to
Megasthenes, theadministration of armed forces was carried on by 6 committees
consisting of 5 members each.
● Each of them looked at one of the 6 divisions of Armed forces: Army, Navy, cavalry,
Elephants, Chariots, and Transport. In the Mauryan period, there were two types of
Gudhapurushas (detectives):
○ Santhan
○ Sanchari (Wandering)
● Megasthenes wrote thatPataliputrawas bounded by a deep ditch and a wooden wall
crowned with 570 towers, and had 64 gates. The ditch, timber palisades, and also wooden
houses have been found in excavations.Antamahamattaswere responsible for the security
of frontier forts.
● Chanakya described the construction of thefortaswell as he strongly approved the
recruitment of a standing army from all four varnas. SeveralAdhyakshas/superintendents
of various army wings and units served under Senapati and Nayaks, two prominent military
leaders.
● TheWar Officehad 30 members, who were experts indifferent branches of military, art
and science, etc. They were divided intosix Boardsof five members each:
○ Board of Admiralty:In charge of the navy.
○ Board of Infantry:Headed by Padadhyaksha
○ Board of Cavalry:Headed by Asvadhyaksha
○ Board of War Chariots:Headed by Rathadhyaksha
○ Board of War Elephants:Headed by Hastyadhyaksha
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○ Board of Transport and Supervision of Equipment.
● There was aperiodic levy of troopssuch as Maula(hereditary warriors), Bhartiakas
(mercenaries), forest tribe soldiers, and allies (furnished by friends).
Kosha (Treasury):
● The state-controlled almost all theeconomic activities in the realm.The state brought
new land under cultivationwith the aid ofcultivatorsand shudra labourers.Thevirgin
land that was opened for cultivationyielded handsomeincome to the state in the form
of revenue collected from the newly settled peasants.
● The taxes collected from the peasants varied fromone-fourth to one-sixth of the
produce.Those who were provided with irrigation facilities by the state had to pay for
them. In addition, in times of
emergency, peasants were
compelled to raise more crops.
● The main cropswere rice barley,
wheat, millet, sugarcane, pulses,
oilseeds, etc. The Mauryan
administration established anew
agricultural settlementto bring
virgin land under cultivation known asShunyanivesha.It was owned by the king and
looked after bySitadhyaksha (Superintendent of agriculture).
● Mauryas maintained a huge standing army and employed a large number of state officials.
Soldiers and officials were paid in cash, the state taxes were not considered sufficient to
meet all the needs of the state.
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● Taxeswere levied in bothcash and kind.The concept of private property of Kshetra
emerged during this time, where thekshetrika (landowner)was distinguished from the
upasava (tenant).
○ Peasants paidone-sixth of produce as bhagaandextra tax - Bali, as a tribute.
The Bali was the main item of revenue and was levied at the rate of one-sixth of
the produce.
○ Certain other taxes that peasants had to pay were: Pindakara(assessed on
groups of villages),Hiranya(paid only in cash),Kara(levied on fruits and flower
gardens), etc. Land tax was collected by a class of officials calledAgranomoi.
● The Maurya periodconstitutes a landmark in the system of taxationin ancient India.
Kautilya names many taxes which were collected from peasants, artisans, and traders. This
required a piece of strong and efficient machinery for assessment, collection, and storage.
● TheSamahartawas the highest officer in charge ofassessment and collection, and the
Sannidhatawas the chief custodian of the state treasuryand storehouse. Theexistence
of rural storehousesshows that taxes were also collectedin kind. These granaries were
probably also meant to help local people in times of famine, drought, etc.
Shunyanivesha:
● A striking social development of the Maurya period was theemployment of slaves in
agricultural operations.During the Maurya period,slaves were engaged in agricultural work on
a large scale.
● The state-maintained farms on which numerous slaves and hired labourers were employed.
About 150,000 war captives brought by Ashoka from Kalinga to Pataliputra may have been
engaged in agriculture.
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● Royal control was exercised over a very large area, at least in the core of the empire. This was
because of the strategic position of Pataliputra, from where royal agents could sail up and
down the Ganges, Son, Punpun, and Gandak rivers.
● As the value of irrigation became important, peasants were required to pay a higher tax on
irrigated land, also known asudaka-bhaga(water rate,and generally levied at one-fifth to
one-third of the produce).
● Share-cropping was practiced on both state-owned and private lands. Sharecroppers like the
Svaviryopajivinsand theArdhasitikasworked on state-ownedland and kept half of the
harvest (kept one-fourth or one-fifth of the produce).
● There was no reference to eviction from land in case of non-payment of taxes. If the
treasury ran out, the authorities may impose extra levies oremergency taxes like Pranaya.
The state appointedtwenty-seven superintendents(Adhyakshas),principally to regulate
its economic activities.
● They controlled and regulatedagriculture, trade andcommerce, weights and measures,
crafts such as weaving and spinning, mining, and the like.The state also provided
irrigation facilities and regulated water supply for the benefit of agriculturists.
● In the Maurya empire, the officials measured the land as in Egypt and inspected the
channels through which water was distributed into smaller channels.
● Important Officials:
○ Panyadhaksha:In charge of Trade, price fixation,and sale of goods produced by
the state.
○ Sansthadhyaksha:In charge of markets.
○ Rupadarshaka:Inspector of coins.
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○ Pautavadhyaksha:They were in charge of standardized weights and measures.
● Tolls were also levied on commoditiesbrought to townfor sale, and they werecollected
at the gate.Moreover, the state enjoyed amonopoly
in mining, the sale of liquor, the manufacture of
arms, etc. This naturally brought vast resources to
the royal exchequer. Chandragupta, thus, established
awell-organized administrative systemand gave ita sound financial base.
● State Participation & State Control:Thepunch-markedsilver coins, which carry the
symbols of thepeacock and crescented hill,formedthe imperial currency of the Mauryas.
○ Copper coinswere also punch-marked. Besides punch-marked silver and copper
coins, cast copper coins and die-struck coins were also issued.
● Trade was ongoing through textile manufacturing centres like Benaras, Mathura, Bengal,
Ujjain, etc. Textile manufacturing at times was done by the state itself. State-run mining
and metallurgy were looked into by Akaradhyaksha. Kautila believed that the State should
own forests, pastures, mines, and usage of iron (for this he hired Lohadhyaksha).
○ Transport was very important in ancient trading practices which happened via rivers
(Ganga, Gandak, Son, Punpun) or roads connecting Peshawar (connected to Central
Asia), Kalsi, Patna, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Kalinga, Mirzapur, Andhra, and Karnataka.
○ Trade also was conducted through sea routes and the ships and boats were
harboured at Tamralipti and Bharuch ports.
○ Artisans in towns were taxed either in cash or kind or were made to be forced
labourers known as vishti. Shulka was a duty imposed on exported goods.
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○ Local manufacturers were made to pay excise duty. The economy was
state-controlled and there was a large-scale participation of the State in all
matters.
○ Guilds too were present which were headed by Jeshthakas. Wage labourers of this
period were termed Karmakara along with bonded labourers known as Dasa. slaves
were known as ahitikas.
Danda/Bala (Justice/Force):
● The king possessed supreme authority and he adjudicated the cases that came before him.
Though judging cases consumed a lot of time, he would never keep his petitioners waiting.
Judges were calledDharmasthas. Pradeshtriswere theofficers responsible for the
suppression of criminals.
● From village to province, a variety of civil and criminal tribunals operated locally. There
were Police headquarters at all the principal centers.Bandhanagarameans proper jail while
Charkarefers to police lock up.
● Punishments to persons held guilty by the court were very severe, including decapitation,
amputation of limbs, fines, and forfeitures. The severity, nature, circumstances, and varna
of the perpetrator and plaintiff all had an impact on the type of punishment meted out.
Special attention was given to cases related to foreigners.
● ThePillar Edict 4 of Ashokamentions that thedvija/highervarnaswere given lighter
punishment than the lower ones.
● Sources of Law:
○ Dharma (sacred law) is a royal proclamation.
○ Vyavahara (Usage)
○ Charitam (Custom and precedents)
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○ Rajasasana
● Important terminologies related to the Judicial system of the Mauryan Administration:
○ Vyayahari:Chief Justice ofDharmasthiya Nyayalaya(Civil Court).
○ Pradeshta:Chief Justice ofKantakashodhan Nyayalaya,(Criminal Court).
Mitra (IR):
● The Mauryan Empire had diplomatic relations with various Greek and South Asian countries.
Vijigishuwas considered as the would-be conqueror.Kautilya discusses the inter-state
policy and takes into account all possible circumstances.Shad-gunyaor the six policies
that the king should follow in these circumstances:
○ Policy of Sandhi:A peace treaty to be followed ifone is weaker than the enemy.
○ Policy of Vigraha:A policy of hostility to be followed if one is stronger than the
enemy.
○ Policy of Asana:A policy of keeping quiet to be followedif one’s power is equal to
that of the enemy.
○ Policy of Yana:Marching on a military expeditionif one is much stronger than the
enemy.
○ Policy of Samshraya:Seeking shelter with anotherking or in a fort if one is very
weak.
○ Double policy of Dvaidhibhava:Policy of peace (Sandhi)with one king and
hostility (Vigraha) with another if one can fight the enemy with the help of an
ally.
● Department of Foreign Affairs:Certain Diplomaticposts were as follows:
○ Nisriharthaduta:Full-fledged/powerful Ambassador
○ Parimitarthaduta:They could not go beyond his instructionin negotiation.
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○ Sasanharaduta:They were special messengers.
Machiavellianism:
● The notable works of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) - were ‘The Prince’ and
‘Discourses on Livy’. Machiavellianism is apersonalitytraitthat denotes cunningness, the
ability to be manipulative, and a drive to use whatever means necessary to gain power.
● Machiavellianismis one of the traits that form theDark Triad, along withnarcissism
and psychopathy.Based on current datum, it tendsto decrease in age and is more
prevalent in men than in women.
● Max Weber stated:
○ Truly radical "Machiavellianism", in the popular sense of that word, is classically
expressed in Indian literature in theArthashastra of Kautilya: compared to it,
Machiavelli's ‘The Prince’ is harmless.
○ More recent scholarship has disagreed:
➢ "The ultimate source of the prosperity of the kingdom is itssecurity and
prosperity of its people",
➢ Advocates land reform,
➢ The need for empowering the weak and poor,
➢ The subsistence of helpless women,
➢ Values not just powerless human life, but even animal life.
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Ancient History
Lecture 19_Mauryan Empire (Part 03)
Mauryan Society:
● The varna system persisted, and Brahmanas and Kshatriyas ruled the social hierarchy despite the
challenges posed by Buddhism and Jainism.
● Owing to greater trade and commerce, there was animprovement in the social status of Vaishyas or
the trading communities.
● Shudras wereinvolved in the agricultural and artisanalactivities.
● This period saw anincrease in the number of untouchables,i.e., Chandalas and Shvapakas (dog
breeders), also calledAntavasayin,literally meaningliving at the end.
● However, there isno mention of either Varna or Satiin the Ashokan edicts.
● Despite Megasthenes' praise for Indian civilization for having no slaves, ironically,slavery did existin
India at the time.
● Arthashastra stated that“no Arya or freeman couldbe reduced to slavery”.
● Reference to Dasas (the slaves) in Ashokan inscriptions also bears testimony to the existence of the
institution of slavery in Mauryan India.
● When addressing the dhamma, the Ashokan edicts call for respect forDasas and Bhatakas/bhritakas
(servants).
● Kautilya lists various rules andpenaltiesif rulesare violated for the treatment of male and female slaves.
For instance, there were consequences if a pregnant slave was sold or mortgaged without maternity leave
being provided.
● Manumission of slaves on payment of money
● Slaves are of four kinds:
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○ born in the house,
○ inherited
○ bought or
○ obtained in some other way [captured, received as a present, etc.
● The King shall enforce the laws regarding slaves and bonded labour.
● An Arya minor[i.e., a Hindu child of any of the fourvarnas] shall never be sold or mortgaged into
slavery.
● It is however not a crime for a mleccha [a non-Hindu or foreigner] to sell or mortgage his child.
● If, in times of distress, an Arya family✓ had bound itself as a whole [including minor children], a minor
child or anyone who can help the family shall be the first ones to be redeemed when the family has
collected enough money to do so.
● Afemale bonded laborershall not be beaten, treated violently, made to give a bath to a naked man or
deprived of her chastity.
● For the offenses against bonded men or women described above, the master shall forfeit the amount owed
by them.
● If the woman against whom such an offense is committed is a nurse, a cook, a maid or an agricultural
tenant, she shall be freed.
● A woman laborer to whom a child of the master is born shall be entitled to leave the household.
● Raping a pledged nurse is a punishable offense. If a master himself rapes or lets someone else rape a
virgin girl under his control, he shall not only forfeit the amount owed but shall also pay the dowry for
her marriage and a fine of double the dowry.
● A pregnant female slave:
○ Shall not be sold or mortgaged without making adequate provision for her welfare during her
pregnancy.
○ Procuring the abortion of a pregnant slave is a punishable offense.
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○ All those involved in crimes against minors and women -buyers, sellers, and witnesses -shall be
punished.
● Children born to a slave and her master:
○ When a slave gives birth to a child of her master, both the mother and the child shall be
recognized as free.
○ If the mother continues to stay with the master and look after the house, her brothers and sisters
shall also be considered free.
Mauryan Art and Architecture:
● Important beginnings were made in rock-cut and stupa architecture during the Mauryan Period.
● In the Mauryan period,stone culturedramaticallyemerged as the principal medium of Indian arts.
● The Mauryan rulers, especiallyAshoka, gave greatsupport to a variety of art forms includingstone
sculptures, ring and disc stones, terracotta figurines, and stupa architecture.
Stupa:
● Stupa architecture waspopularised by Ashoka.
● In addition to redistributing the Buddha's relics to all significant towns,
Ashoka also mandated theconstruction of stupasover them. He got
approximately 84,000 stupas built.
● Inscription at Amravati suggests the possibility that the
Stupa-monastery complexlocated here dates to Ashoka’s time.
● There is anAshokan Pillar at Sarnath.
● Sanchi:An important Stupa site that definitely dates to Ashoka’s time.
Rock-Cut Architecture:
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● The Maurya artisans also started thepractice of hewing out cavesfrom rocks for monks to live in; the
earliest examples are theBarabar cavesat a distanceof 30 km from Gaya. Later, this form of cave
architecture spread to western and southern India.
● Caves carved from rocks for monks' habitation started by Maurya artisans.
● The earliest Barabar caves near Gaya, later spread to western, and southern India.
● The polished stone sculpture of a female known as theDidarganj
Yakshiniis famous.
● Yakshinisare generally regarded asfertility deities,and the
female counterpart ofYakshas, who were the deitiesconnected
with water, trees, forest, wilderness, and fertility.
● A polishedChunar sandstone sculpture is of the torsoof a nude
male figurefound at Lohanipur in Patna.
● 300 BC:Terracotta art in central Gangetic plains.
● Maurya era:Extensive production terracotta.
● Themes:Animals, women, especially mother goddesses.
● Notable:Hand-modelled elephants, animals, mothergoddesses, female
statues
● The Mauryas made a remarkable contribution architecture, of art and
and introduced stone masonry on a wide scale.
Multi Pillar Hall at Kumarahar near Patna:
● Kumrahar 80 Pillared Hall:72 pillars arranged in a neat chessboard pattern plus 8 more pillars and a
number of brick structures in the area, were also discovered.
● It was earlier thepalace of Chandragupta Maurya.
● Megasthenes described the grandeur of this palace.
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● They certainly attest to the high technical skill achieved by Maurya artisans inpolishing the stone
pillars, which are as shining as the Northern BlackPolished Ware.
● It was a very difficult task to transport the huge blocks of stone from the quarries and to polish and
embellish them when they were erected. The whole process suggests a great feat of engineering.
● Each pillar is made of a single piece ofbuff-coloredsandstone. Only their capitals, which are beautiful
pieces of sculpture in the form of lions or bulls, are joined to the pillars on the top.
Carved Ring Stone and Disc Stone:
● It probably had religious and ritualistic significance.
● These carvedring stones and disc stoneshave beenfound at various sites
in northern India, such asDelhi, Patna, Taxila, Mathura,Vaishali, and
Kaushambi.
● Universities at Taxila, Ujjain, and Varanasi werefamous for learning.
● Bhadrabahu’s Kalpsutra is attributed to this period.
Burnt Bricks:
● At the end of the Maurya period,burnt brickswereused for the
first time in north-eastern India.
● Maurya constructions were made ofbricks, and also timberwhich
was available in abundance because of the dense vegetation in
ancient times.
● The use of burnt bricks spread in the outlying provinces of the
empire. Because of the moist climate and heavy rainfall, it was not
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possible to have large, lasting structures made of mud and mud-brick, as was the case in the dry zones.
Ring wells:
● Similarly,ring wells, which were first constructed under
the Mauryas in the Gangetic plains, spread beyond the
heart of the empire. As ring wells supplied water to
people for domestic use, it was no longer imperative to
find settlements on the banks of rivers.
● Can also be used as a soak pit.
Historical Significance of Ashoka:
● Ashoka brought about thepolitical unification ofthe country.He bound it further by one dharma, one
language, and virtuallyone script called Brahmiwhichwas used in most of his inscriptions.
● In unifying the country, he respectednon-Indian scriptssuch as Kharosthi, Aramaic, and Greek.
● He hadtolerance and respectwith regards to the religionand scripts.
● His inscriptions appear not only in different types of the Indian languages like Prakrit, but also in Greek
and particularly in Aramaic which was a semitic language of ancient Syria.
● His multi-script and multi-lingual inscriptions enabled him to contact literate people. Ashoka followed a
tolerant religious policy, not attempting to foist his Buddhist faith on his subjects. He gave gifts to
Non-Buddhist sects like gifting the Barabar Caves to Ajivikas.
● Ashoka is important in history for hispolicy of peace, non-aggression, and cultural conquest.He
consistently adhered to his policy, for though he possessed sufficient resources and maintained a huge
army,he did not wage any war after the conquest of Kalinga.He also had relations with the outer
world.
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Why did the Mauryan Empire Collapse?
● The Madhan empire, which had been reared by successive wars culminating in the conquest of Kalinga,
began to disintegrate after the exit of Ashoka in 232 BC. Apart from the death of Ashoka, other reasons
are as follows:
○ Brahmanical Reaction
○ Financial crisis
○ Oppressive Rule
○ North West Frontier
○ Spread of knowledge
Brahmanical Reaction:
● The Brahmanical reaction began as a result of Ashoka’s policy. All his preachings and principles were in
sharp contradiction of Brahmanism.
● He issued hisedicts in Prakritand not in Sanskrit;He prohibited the killing of birds and animals and
denied superfluous rituals performed by women.
● The anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism adopted by Ashoka adversely affected the income of Brahamans.
● Further, Ashoka appointed rajukas to govern the countryside and introducedvyavahara samata and
dandsamata.This meant the same civil and criminallaw for all varnas.But the Dharmashashtra
compiled by the Brahmanas prescribed varnas discrimination.
● Naturally this policy infuriated the Brahamanas. This reaction helped some new kingdoms to rise into
power. For example: The Shungas and the Kanvas, who ruled in MP and further east on the remnants of
the Maurya empire, were Brahmanas.
● Similarly, the Satavahanas, who founded kingdoms in the western Deccan and Andhra, claimed to be
Brahmanas.
● These new kingdoms capitalized the Brahmanism anger against the Maurya empire led by Ashoka.
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● Brihadratha was the last important kingof the Mauryan Empire who was assassinated by the
Pushyamitra Sunga.
Financial Crisis:
● Theenormous expenditure on the army and payment tothe bureaucracy created a financial crisis for
the Maurya.
● Despite the range of taxes imposed on the people, it was difficult to maintain this huge superstructure of
bureaucracy and defense mechanism.
● In addition, Ashoka madelarge donations to the Buddhist monkswhich took a heavy toll on the royal
treasury.
Oppressive Rule:
● The oppressive rule in the province was an important cause of the break-up of the empire.
● In the reign of Bindusara, thecitizens of Taxila bitterlycomplained about the misrule of wicked
bureaucrats (dushta Matyas).
● Their grievance wasredressed by the appointment ofAshoka, but when Ashoka became emperor, a
similar complaint was made by the same city.
● Ashoka wasmuch concerned about oppression in the provinceand, therefore, asked the mahamatras not
to tyrannize the townsmen without due cause. For this purpose, he introduced the rotation of officers in
Tosali (in Kalinga), Jiian and Taxila.
● All this, however,failed to stop oppression in the outlying provinces, and after their retirement, Taxila
took the earliest opportunity to throw the imperial commitment.
Neglect of the Security Concerns Emanating from the North-West Frontier:
● Since Ashoka was primarilypreoccupied with missionary activities at home and abroad,he was unable
to pay attention to safeguarding the passes through the north-western frontier.
● This had become necessary in view of the movement of tribes in Central Asia in the third century.
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● A nomadic people principally reliant on theuseof the horse,they pose a serious danger to the settled
empires in China and India.
● The Chinese rulerShih Huang Ti(247-10 BC) constructedtheGreat Wall of Chinain about 220 BC to
safeguard his empire against the attacks of the Scythians, but Ashoka took no such measures.
Spread of Knowledge in the Indian Subcontinent:
● It is an obvious fact that Magadha owed its expansion to certainbasic material advantages.
● Once the knowledge of the use of these elements of culture spread to central India, the Deccan, and
Kalinga as a result of the expansion of the Magadha empire, the Gangetic basin, which formed the heart
of the empire, lost its special advantage.
● On the basis of thematerial culture acquiredfrom Magadha,new kingdoms could be founded and
developed.
● This explains therise of the Sungas and Kanvasin central India,of theChetis in Kalinga, and ofthe
Satavahanas in the Deccan.
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Ancient History
Lecture 20: Mercantile Era
Mercantile Age (200 BC to 300 AD):
● In this phase, there was an absence of large empires. The focus shifted fromMagadha to
North Western India.There were invasions and theemergence of regional kingdoms.
○ There was an emergence
of a new type of
government - joint rule,
subordinate rule.
Expansion of cities took
place which led to the
development ofurban
culture.
○ Development ofcraft, trade between theIndian subcontinent and the Roman
Empire, and currency usagewere evident.
○ During this period new cultures, doctrines, image worship, and institutionalization of
religious activities took place. New styles developed in the field of sculpture and
architecture. There was development or improvement in the role of artisans,
merchants, and guilds still it was referred to as a dark age maybebecause of the
absence of a territorial large imperial dynasty (except for Kushanas).
Sunga Dynasty (185 – 73 BCE):
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Rulers of Sunga Dynasty:
● Pushyamitra Shunga: (185 – 149 BCE)
● Agnimitra: (149-141 BCE)
● Vaso Jyeshtha: (141-131 BCE)
● Vasumitra: (131-124 BCE)
● Bhadraka (aka Andraka or Odruka): (124-122 BCE)
● Pulindaka: (122-119 BCE)
● Ghosha (aka Ghoshavasu): (119-108 BCE)
● Vajramitra:(108-94 BCE)
● Bhagabhadra (aka Bhagavata): (94-83 BCE)
● Devabhuti: (83-73 BCE)
● TheSunga Dynastywas established byPushyamitra Sunga,Brahmin commander-in-chief,
of the last Mauryan ruler namedBrihadratha.PushyamitraSunga killed Brihadratha while
he was inspecting his
troops. But, he ruled only
a part of the Mauryan
empire. [Patliputra +
Ayodhya + Vidisha +
Pongal).
● The capital of the Sunga
Dynasty was atVidisha.
The Buddhist stupa at Bharhutwas built during hisperiod despite being an orthodox
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Hindu. Brahmans were referred to in theBrahmanical and Buddhist texts.He took grand
titles likeMaharaja, Rajaraja, and Shaonano Shaho.
● The empire had Brahmin rulers who were believed to be against Buddhism.Sources like
Harshacharita by Banabhatta, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi,
Kalidas’s Malavikagnimitram, Divyavadana and Taranatha’s accountgive us some
reference in this regard.
○ Divyavadana and Taranatha’s account talks about the persecution of Buddhist
monks and the rest were compelled to vacate the region. There were attempts at
destroying theKukuta Aram monastery.
Pushyamitra Shunga:
● Pushyamitra Shunga was also credited with repulsingthe two attacks of the Greeksand
the conquest of Vidarbha. The first of these attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by
Pushyamitra Shunga, was underDemetrius(mentionedin Patanjali’s work as well), and
another was underMenander.
● Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the Kalinga’s king Kharavela conquest. The
Ayodhya Inscription of Dhandevamentions that he performedtwo Ashwamedha Yagyas
(horse sacrifices).Some of the evidence says thatPushyamitra Shunga destroyed many
stupas of Ashoka.
○ He is also said to have persecuted Buddhist Monks in a large number and
contributed to a resurgence of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to
Kashmir, Gandhara, and Bactria.
○ Buddhist scriptures such as theAshokavadana accountof the Divyavadanaand
ancient Tibetan historianTaranathahave written aboutthe persecution of
Buddhists.
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○ Pushyamitra is said to haveburned down Buddhist monasteries, destroyed
stupas, massacred Buddhist monks, and put rewards on their heads, but some
consider these stories as probable exaggerations. He was challenged by theGreeks
(Eucratides, Demetrius, and Menander)and also hadan encounter with
Vasumitra (son of Agnimitra).
Agnimitra:
● He was thenext and last powerful ruler of the ShungaDynasty. After him, the Shunga
dynasty started to decline. He was portrayed as a hero inKalidas’s Malavikagnimitra.
Also, the Malavikagnimitra claims that the empire of Pushyamitra extended to the Narmada
River in the south. They may also havecontrolledthe city of Ujjain.
● During this time, Kabul and much of Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks and
the Deccan Plateau to theSatavahana dynasty.TheShungas nearlydoubled the
diameter of the initial stupa at Sanchiencasing itin stone, and built a balustrade and a
railing around it. His court poet wasPatanjali:
○ He wroteYoga Sutra and Mahabhashya.He was also thepriest of 2Ashwamedha
Yagyaperformed by Pushyamitra Shunga.
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Last Phase of the Shunga Dynasty:
● Indo-Greeks (Bactrians) and the Shungasseem to have reconciled and exchanged
diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the
dispatch of a Greek
ambassador named
Heliodorus, from the
court of the
Indo-Greek king -
Antialcidas at
Taxilato the court
of the Shunga
emperor -
Bhagabhadraat the site of Vidishain Central India.He built theGarud pillar inscription
atBesnagarfor Heliodorus at Vidisha.
● The last ruler was Devabhuti, he was killed by his Brahman ministerVasudeva Kanvaas
per Harshacharita. His Brahman Minister as perHarshacharita.InCentral India. They were
replaced bySatavahanas.
Cultural Contribution of the Shungas:
● The literary and philosophical field witnessed the composition ofYogasutra, Mahabhasya,
an
d finally,Bhagavad Gita (150-100 BC)too was composedduring theShunga period.
Manusmrti and Yajnavalakya Smrititoo were completedduring this age.
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● Mathura School of Artflourished during theSunga period.The period saw the flowering of
the visual arts, including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural
monuments such as the:
○ Chaitya Hall at Bhaja,
○ Stupa at Bharhut (by Pushyamitra), and
○ The renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi (by Agnimitra).
○ Some construction at Bodh Gaya
● UnderShunga patronage, the core of the Great Stupa,thought to date from the era of
the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (273–232 B.C.), wasenlargedto its present diameter of 120
feet, covered with a stone casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a
stone railing.
Kanva Dynasty (73-28 BC):
Famous Ruler of the Kanva Dynasty:
● Vasudeva (75 – 66 BCE)
● Bhumimitra (66 – 52 BCE)
● Narayana (52 – 40 BCE)
● Susarman (40 – 30 BCE)
● The capital of the Kanva Dynasty wasPataliputa. Thefirst ruler of the Kanva dynasty was
Vasudeva. He was succeeded by his sonBhumimitra.Coins bearing the legend
Bhumimitra have been discovered from thePanchalarealm.
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● Bhumimitra ruled forfourteen yearsand was later succeeded by his son Narayana.
Narayanaruled for twelve years. His son Susharman,the last king of the Kanva dynasty,
succeeded him. However, he waskilled byPulamayiIof the Satavahana dynasty.
Other North Indian Dynasties:
● The provincial governors started asserting their independence and many such principalities
came into being in Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Mathura, and Ahichhatra.
○ Arjunayanas:It was a tribal republic in the southwestof Mathura, which roughly
extended between Agra and Jaipur.
○ Kunindas:Situated between Beas and Yamuna.
○ Audambaras:Situated between Ravi and Beas.
Satavahana Dynasty (50 BC- 200 AD):
● The area aroundDeccan and Central Indiawas ruledby theSatavahanas.They were the
immediate successor of the Mauryas and ruled for460years.
○ With the fall of the Maurya Empire, most of the vassal states declared
independence, and the great empire built by his predecessors lay in Ashoka
fragments.
○ There was much feud and conflict among these small states. Kotilingala in
Karimnagar district was the first capital of the Satavahana Kingdom (230
BCE–220 CE).
● The rise of theSatavahana Empirein south-centralIndia providedmuch-needed peace
and stability to the land. Satavahana or Shaliwahana’s dynastyplayed an important
role in the history of South India when the fortunes of Indian culture flourished.The
Satavahana dynasty has contributed a great deal to enrich the Indian culture.
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● They are also calledAndhras in
Puranas and the reference to
this dynasty has also been
found in the Matsya, Vayu,
and Brahmanda Purana.
○ Theircoins hadbilingual
legends.The name of
the Kings was written in
Prakritand it was also the official language of thedynasty. There was also a
prevalence of someSouth Indian languages.
● They usedSatakaranias their surname.Edicts of Ashokamention thatSatavahanasas
feudatories of Ashoka. They had their capital established at Pratishthan/Paithan | Amravati
(Dharanikota). Mainly their coins were made oflead,they also used copper, bronze, and
pot.
● There isno agreed chronologyof their origin. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised
the present-dayTelangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
Famous ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty:
● Simuka (100-70 BCE):Simuka is mentioned in Puranasas the “first” ruler of the
Satavahana regime. However, his name has been mentioned as Sishuka, Sindhuka,
Chhismaka, Shipraka, etc. He declared his independence from Mauryan rule in about 230
BC.
● Kanha (70-60 BCE):Simuka’s brother who succeededhim. He extended the kingdom up
to Nashik in the west. His successor wasSatakarniI.
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rd
● Sri Satakarni (1st BCE):He wasSimuka's sonand3 ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty.
He conquered westernMalwa, Anupa (Narmada valley),and Vidarbha, taking advantage
of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India. He also performedVedic
sacrifices.
○ Details of Satakarni I are mentioned in theNaneghatinscription by Naganika his
wife who was the daughter of Maharathi.
○ In this inscription, he is referred to as Dakshinpatha Natha. The queen was the
regent queen and minted coins in her name. She had donated to 13 villages to
saints, monks, etc as mentioned in the inscriptions.
● Satakarni II:He ruled for 56 years, during whichhe captured easternMalwa from the
Shungas.He contributed immensely to the constructionof Sanchi Stupa (architect Ananda
at Sanchi) and was succeeded byLambodara.
th
● Hala (17th):He was the 17 ruler of theSatavahanaDynasty andcomposedGatha
Saptashati(700 erotic verses in Maharashtri or PaishachiPrakritGunadhya,the author of
'Vrihat Katha'(written in Prakrit which mentions of Vikraa=matidya I), was the
contemporary of Hala.
rd
● Gautamiputra Satakarni (103-127 CE):He was the 23 ruler and most famous ruler of
theSatavahana dynasty. He defeated theSaka SatrapsNahapana. A hoard of 13000
coins was excavated from Jogalthembifrom which herestuck 8000 coins. He was also
known asEkabrahmana, which means a peerless Brahmana.
○ He donated land to the Buddhist monks, theMahasamghikas,at Karle and at
Nashik. His achievements are written in theNasikcave inscription, built by his
motherGautami Balashri. He also engaged in Vedicsacrifices like Hiranyagarbha
yajna.
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○ He assumed titleslike Tisamuda (one who drank water from three oceans), and
Toyapita VahanaHe donated lands to Mahasanghikas-Karle& Nashik.In the
Nashik Inscription, he is described as
➢ The destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and the Yavanas;
➢ The uprooter of the Kshaharatas,
➢ The restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas.
● Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (200-225 CE):He was the sonof Gautamiputra Satakarni. He
repaired and enlarged the old stupa at Amaravati, and was the 24th ruler, and was married
to the daughter ofSaka Kshatrapas Rudradaman, butwas defeated by him twice.
○ Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have
been found distributed over a wide area. His coins featuringships with double
masthave been found on the Coromandel Coast, indicatinginvolvement in
maritime trade and naval power.
● Yajna Sri Satakarni:The reference to this ruler is found in the inscriptions at Nasik,
Guntur, and Kanheri. He ruled over the whole Deccan and recovered much of the territory
lost to the Western Kshatrapas, and issued silver coinage, imitating them. He played a
pivotal role in recoveringNorth Konkan and Malwafrom Sakas.
● Pulamayi IV:He was the last Satavahana king and ruleduntil 225 BCE. Several Buddhist
monuments were constructed at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati. Satavahanas were finally
succeeded by the Ikshvakus in the 3rd Century AD.
Satavahana Administration:
● At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and
Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including
Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota).
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● The kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas
wereearly issuers of Indian state coinage struckwith images of their rulers.They
formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and
culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
● They supportedBrahmanism as well as Buddhismandpatronized Prakriti literature.
They had to compete with the Sungas and then the Kanvas of Magadha to establish their
rule. Later, they played a crucial role in protecting a huge part of India against foreign
invaders like theSakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas.Inparticular, their struggles with the
Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time.
● The great rulers of the Satavahana DynastyGautamiputraSatakarni and Sri Yajna
Satakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and
stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, theempire was split into smaller states and
later on, it disintegrated.
● Satavahanas were tolerant rulers.The Satavahana rulers were followers of the Vaishnav
religion,butBuddhist art and architecture flourisheda great deal andresulted in
Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati.
● They were the first solid dynasty of south India, who ruled for more than four centuries
and provided peace and glory towards the history of Deccan, while there was uncertainty
and instability in south India. The Satavahana coins, inscriptions, and literature are a rich
source of knowledge about their administrative system.
● The Satavahanas followed theadministration guidelinesof the Shastras.Their
government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of
feudatories:
○ Rajan,the hereditary rulers
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○ Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their names
○ Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villagesin their names and
maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
○ Mahasenapati,civil administrator under Pulumavi II;governor of a janapada under
Pulumavi IV
○ Mahatalavarawere the"great watchman"
○ The royal princes(kumaras)were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.
Representation of King:
● The Satavahana rulers strived to achieve the ideals outlined inDharmashastra.The king
was represented as anupholder of Dharma.The SatahavanaKing is represented as
possessing thequalities of mythical heroeslikeRam,Bhima, Keshava, Arjuna,etc. All
this was meant to attribute divinity to the King.
● Several officials helped the king like:
○ Senapati and Amatya
○ Koshadhyaksha Rajdoot
○ Special officials called Uparakshita were charged with the duty of building caves etc
for the monks.
● The king was the head of the Government as well as the protector of his people. The
people wereinvolved in decision makingand theiropinions were respectable at every level.
○ Public grievances were well heard and there was an effective mechanism of
redressal of their complaints. Their administrative system wasfeudal.
○ They had divided their empire among several feudal chiefs who managed the land
revenue system and looked after the administration.
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● The Satahavanas retained some of the administrative units found in Ashokan times.
For example:
○ The districts were calledAhara.
○ The Officials were calledAmatyas and Mahamatyas.
○ Other Officials were known as Senapati, Koshadhyaksha, and Rajdoot.
○ There were special officials called‘Uparakshita’charged with the duty of building
caves, etc. for the monks.
Provincial Governance:
● The kingdom was divided into provinces and‘Janapadas’for administrative efficiency. The
highest official in a province was‘Amatya’or minister.His office was not hereditary. Men
of proven ability were appointed to this official. Each unit had several villages.
● The Satahavanas appointed theirSenapatias provincialgovernors. Strong military control in
the Deccan was necessary as the tribal people were not thoroughly and reconciled.
Village Administration:
● Rural areas during the Satavahanas were put under the control ofGaulmikas.Gaulmika
was the head of a military regiment consisting of9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25 horses, and
45-foot soldiers.The military character of Satavahanarule is also evident from the use of
terms such asKataka and Skandhavarasin their inscriptions.
● These were military camps and settlements which served as administrative centres so long
as the king was there. There were separate organizations to look after the administration
of the towns and the villages. The towns were administered by a body called the‘Nagar
Sabhas’while in villages there were‘Gram Sabhas’.
Army:
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● TheMilitary character of Satavahanarule is also evident from the use of terms such as
Kataka and Skandhavarasin their inscriptions. Thesewere camps and settlements which
served as administrative centres so long as the king was there.
● Their army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry, and elephants. Foot soldiers or infantry were
the backbone of the army and they formed the vanguard and were flanked on either side
by horses and elephants.
● The soldiers used swords, spears, axes, and armour as weapons of war. They kept a
regiment posted in each village to maintain peace and order. They were maintained at the
expense of the rural inhabitants. Thus, the village was an important unit in the Satavahana
administration.
Land Grants:
● Satavahanas started the practice ofdonating land with fiscal and administrative
immunitiesto Brahmans and Buddhist monks, which eventuallyweakened their authority.
The earliest inscriptional evidence of land grants in India belongs to the 1st century BC.
● These pieces of land had immunity from taxation along with administrative immunity. The
reason behind such donations
is to gain popularity and
legitimacy.
○ Now if Brahmins start
praising these kings, it
is obvious that people
would start believing in
the king.
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● The land grants also helped in the expansion of agricultural practices as the forest areas
would get cleared off and overall, cultivable land would increase. Ploughshares, sickles, etc
were used, and irrigation facilities (water wheel and water lifting tool along with wells and
tanks) were available. Cotton, rice, wheat, millet, and barley were cultivated along with
sorghum jujube, gram, pea, etc.
Coinage in the Satavahana Period:
● The Satavahana period is known for itsrich coinage history.Thousands oflead, copper,
and potin(base metal silver-like alloy). Satavahana
coins have been discovered in the Deccan region;a
few gold and silver coinsare also available.
● These coins arenot in uniform design or sizeand
thus suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory,
leading to regional differences in coinage.
● Prakrit dialecthas been used in these coins without exception. Several coins carry titlesor
matronyms that were common to multiple
rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and
Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by
coinage cannot be determined with certainty.
The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the
various coins. Some of these rulers appear to
be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs.
● The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even
facial features (curly hair, long ears, and strong lips).
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● They issued mainlylead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually
struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings.
● The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions,
horses, and chaityas (stupas), as well as the"Ujjainsymbol", a cross with four circles
at the end.
Language:
● The official language of the Satavahanas wasPrakrit.All their inscriptions were composed
in Prakrit and written in theBrahmi script, as wasthe case inAshokan times.
● Some Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books also. One Prakrit text called
Gathasattasai, or the Gathasaptasati, is attributedto a Satavahana king calledFiala or
Hala.It consisted of700 verses,all written in Prakrit.
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Ancient History
Lecture 21: Mercantile Era (Part 2)
Society under the Satavahanas:
● Brahmanism, Buddhism along with Jainism, flourished simultaneously. Karnataka also
witnessed the influence of Jainism during this period. The Digambara sect flourished in the
south. Acharya Kunda Kunda authored Niyamsara and Samaysara during this period.
● The Varna system was prevalent but the caste system was not very rigid. Mahayana
Buddhism flourished during this please. It is believed that Nagarjuna came and imparted
education during this region.
● Even though there was use of matronyms, the society was not matrilineal in nature. When
donations were made, there is no reference to caste-based distribution. Because of land
grants, there was tribal assimilation.
Important Terminology:
● Halaka:Ploughman
● Golika:Shepherd
● Vardhaki:Carpenter
● Kolika:Weaver
● Tilapisaka:One who extracted oil
Satavahanas in Foreign Countries:
● The Satavahana Empire colonized Southeast Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts.
Mahayana Buddhism, which may have originated in Andhra (north-western India being the
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alternative candidate), was carried to many parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of
the Satavahanas. The Amaravati style of sculpture spread to Southeast Asia at this time.
Religion during the Satavahana period:
● The worship ofSiva and Krishnawas popular. Theywere originally practicing the Hindu
religion. However, despite this, they gavepatronageto Buddhism.TheNanaghat
inscriptionrefers to other gods like Dharma, Indra,and guardians of the four quarters
Yama, Varuna, Kubera, and Vasava. It also mentions sacrifices by Satkarni I.
● Social harmony and cohesion were great characteristics of the period. All Satavahanas
cave templesare located on ancient caravan root whichstarts from Sopara (Suprak) and
through Junnar, Ellora, and Bhogwardhan.
● The trading emporiums as well as art centres have flourished around these cave temples.
The Edicts of Ashoka mention the Satavahanas as feudatories of Emperor Ashoka.
Art and Architecture during the Satavahana Period:
● The Satavahana period witnessed high water marks in the fields of art, architecture, and
painting due to their superiority in
the economic fields, especially in
trade and commerce which was
responsible for their artistic
achievements.
● The Satavahanas are among the
earliest Indian rulers toissue their own coins with portraitsof their rulers,starting with
KingGautamiputra Satakarni.The Satavahana during their regime had carved outmore
than 450 caves in the entire South India.
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● Amravatischool evolved in the period as a distinct identity of South Indian art. Buddhist
art and architecture flourished in the Satavahana period due to their active support for the
all-round development of art and architecture.
● TheChaityas at Bhaje and Karleare the unique creationsof this period. In theAjanta
caves, Cave Nos. 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13 were mostlycarried during the Satavahana period.
The oldest paintings in the Ajanta caves, especially in caves No. 9 and 10 belong to the
Satavahana period.
● Due to huge advancements in art and architectural aspects during the Satavahana period,
they can be described asforerunners of the ClassicalGupta Age.
Amravati School of Art:
● The third main centre of early Buddhist art in India was the Amravati School of Art in
South India. Amravatiwas thecapital of Andhra Rulerin South India. Amravati of the
late Andhra Empire (25 B.C.-320 A.D.), was ruled by the Satavahana Dynasty.
● Buddhist artwas created by the artists of South Indiain both architecture and sculpture.
The Buddhist monuments at Amravati marked another important landmark of Indian
Buddhist art like the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut.
● The Amaravati School of Art flourished in the Guntur district.The grand stupa of Amravati
built on the basin of river Krishna belongs to this style.This stupa has rows of different
figures and not only its railings but also its dome is covered with marble.
● Throughout, the Buddhist art of the Satavahanas, denies any human representation of the
Buddha, even in highly descriptive scenes.
● Features of Amaravati Stupa:
○ Nothing remains now of Amaravati stupa, only its relics can be seen.It consisted
of a dome or Anda or egg of about 50 m in diameter rising to a height of 30 m. A
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terrace or Medhi,high from the ground was added forming a separateambulatory
or Pradakshina Pathabout 2m wide.
○ The upper part of the dome was
plastered and ornamented with a
garland-like pattern while the lower
part of the dome was covered by
huge slabs of marble measuring 2-3
m wide and covered withTriratna
and Poornakumbham ornamentations.At the top of the dome was aHarmika
covered with a stone umbrella.
○ One notable feature of this stupa is the improvement in the architectural
appearance by providing arectangular platform (Ayaka)to the base of the dome
at four cardinal points.
○ While the front side of the platform was used to provide a base for a group offive
Aryakar worshipping pillarseach nearly 6 m in heightwhich represented five
celestial Buddhas as well as five important episodes in Buddha’s life.
○ The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life
of the Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style.
Sanchi Stupa:
● The Satavahanas contributed greatly to theembellishment of the Buddhist stupa of
Sanchi. It was heavily repaired
under King Satakarni II. The
gateways and the balustrade were
built after 70 BCE, and appear to
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have been commissioned by the Satavahanas.
● An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work ofSatakarni II's
royal architect Ananda.
● An inscription records the gift of one of the toparchitravesof the Southern Gateway by
the artisans of the Satavahana EmperorSatakarni.
Disintegration of the Satavahana Period:
● The dynastyreached its zenith under the rule ofGautamiputraSatakarniand his
successorVasisthiputra Pulamavi.The kingdom fragmentedinto smaller states by the
early 3rd century CE.Satavahana empire fragmentedinto five smaller kingdoms:
○ The northern part is ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas (which ended
in the early 4th century.
○ The western part around Nashik is ruled by the Abhiras.
○ The eastern part (Krishna-Guntur region), is ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus.
○ South-western parts (northern Karnataka), are ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi.
○ The south-eastern part was ruled by the Pallavas.
○ Deccan was ruled by Vakatakas.
○ Mysore was ruled by the Kadambas.
Chedi/Cheti Dynasty of Kalinga:
● Rose to prominence in the middle of the 1st century BC underKharavelawhose
achievements are given in the Hathigumpha inscription; Split of Kalinga into several
principalities and its decline after its death. The history of Kalinga after the death of
Ashoka is shrouded in obscurity.
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● A new dynasty, known as the Cheti or Chedi dynasty, rose in the region probably in the
1st century BC. A follower of Jainism,Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monksfor
whose residence he constructed caves on theUdayagirihill, near Bhubaneswar in Orissa.
Jainism was the state religion.
● Kharavela'sachievements are given in theHathigumphainscription.He wascalled a
bhikkhu raja. He constructed a great palace, the palace of Victor.Split of Kalinga into
several principalities and its decline after his death.
Dark Age - 200 BC to 200 AD:
● No Indian Dynasty could take control of the whole country. North West frontier was
vulnerable to attack from Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans. Thus, this era was
dominated by foreign rulers
● There was a spread of theKharosthi script.
This age is also called the ‘Mercantile Age’
○ Due to foreign rulers’ roots connections
trade flourished in the subcontinent. The
Silk Route over land as well as sea prospered and changed the dynamics of the economy.
The Indo-Greeks (Bactrian) 2nd Century BC:
● A series of invasions in India began in about 200 BC. The first to cross the Hindu Kush
were theGreeks, who ruledBactria, or Bahlika, situatedsouth of the Oxus River in the
area covered bynorth Afghanistan.
● One important cause of the invasions was theweakness of the Seleucid empirethat had
been established in Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran calledParthia.On account of
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growing pressure from theScythian tribes, the later Greek rulers were unable to sustain
power in this area.
● With the construction of theGreat Wall of China(builtin 220 BC by Huang Ti), the
Scythianswere pushed back from the Chinese border.They, therefore, turned their
attention toward the neighbouringGreeks and Parthians.Pushed by the Scythian tribes,
theBactrian Greeks were forced to invade India.
● The successors of Ashoka were tooweakto stem thetide of foreign invasions that began
during this period. At the beginning of the second century BC, the Indo-Greeks occupied a
large part of north-western India, a much larger area than that conquered by Alexander.
● It is said that Indo-Greeks pushed forward as far asAyodhya and Pataliputra.However,
the Greeksfailed to establish united rule in India.
○ The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Greco-Indian Kingdom was ruled by more than30
Hellenistic kingsin the various parts of the northwestand northern Indian
subcontinent during a period from the2nd centuryBCE to the beginning of the
1st century CE.
○ The Greco-Bactrian kingDemetrius invaded Indiaearlyin the second century BC
and formed the kingdom.
○ There were numerous cities, such asTaxila, Pakistan'sPunjab, Pushkalavati,
Sagala, and several dynasties in their times.
● The Indo-Greeks remained in India for two centuries (up to the first century AD) and later
paved the way for the Shakas (Scythians), Pahlavas (Parthians), and Kushanas (Yuezhi).
● They ruled for two centuries, combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols that
can be seen on their coins, and blended ancient Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist religious
practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities.
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● The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around10 ADfollowing the
invasions of theIndo-Scythians.
Bactrian Dynasty:
● Euthydemus Eudratides
● Demetrius I Helicoles
● Menander Antialcidas → Bhagabhadra – Sunga dynasty → Hailstones
● Amyntas and Hermaeus
Bactrian Rulers:
● Demetrius:He conquered a part of the Mauryans inNW India and extended their rule to
the soul of Hindukush. He was thefirst rulerwhoinvaded India during Brihadratha (190
BC). He was defeated by Pushyamitra Sunga (maybe).
● Menander (165-158 BCE):Menander was the most importantruler and also known as
Milinda.He converted to Buddhism byNagasena/Nagarjuna,before this his religion was
calledPantheon (Jupitar). The Buddhist workMilindaPanho/Question Asked by Milinda
to Nagasena was written in pali.
○ He stabilized Indo-Greek power and extended frontiers in India (Bactrial + NW
India + southern Afghanistan + Gandhara). He had established his capital at
Sakala (Sialkot, Punjab).
○ He also probably invaded Ganga–Yamuna doab but failed to retain it. Kharoshti
inscription at Bajour (NWFP, Pakistan) calls himMinedra,which refers to the
enshrining of the relics of Buddha in a stupa.
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Indo-Greek Coinage:
● The coinage of the Indo-Greeks is considered some of the most artistically brilliant of
antiquity. They were the first ones to issue gold coins for monetary purposes. The first ruler
to issue coins which can be attributed to the kings.
● It has aesthetic excellence and precise economic value, also, it bears information on
religious sects and cults (especially Shaiva and Bhagavat). It was mostlybilingual and
bi-script legends.
● There are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers in India; exactly how many is
complicated to determine, because the Greeks did not number their kings, and the eastern
Greeks did not date their coins.
● While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I, mainly issuedbilingual (Greek and
Kharoshti) coins(same were followed by Sakas, Parthians,and Kshatraps) for circulation
in their own territories, several of them also struck rare Greek coins which have been found
in Bactria.
● The later kings probably struck these coins as some kind of payment to theScythian or
Yuezhitribes who now ruled there, though if as tributeor payment for mercenaries
remains unknown. The coinage was also adjusted to region and requirement, such as:
○ North of Hindukush:
➢ The coins were made of gold, silver, copper, and nickel.
➢ It followed the attic weight standard.
➢ It had a royal portrait on one side and images of Greek deities like Appello
and Zeus on the other.
○ South of Hindukush:
➢ The coins were made of silver, and copper and often in square shape.
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➢ Bilingual inscriptions on Greeks Kharosthi (rarely in Brahmi).
➢ It followed the Indian weight standards.
➢ It had a royal portrait on one side and Indian religious symbols on another
side.
Hellenistic Art and Literature:
● Gandhara Art:It was an assimilation of Greek + Indian+ Central Asian art form. E.g., -
Besnagar inscriptions of Heliodorus. Monumental Buildings lead to Urban Planning.
Excavation of Ai-Khanoum city, Antioch, Sirkap at Taxila (at the confluence of Oxus &
Koksha of Modern Balkh). New terms like“horshastra”used for Astrology in Sanskrit are
derived from the Greek word ‘horoscope’.
st th
Sakas (1 – 4 ) Century AD:
● The Sakas were originally nomadic tribes (also calledScythians) of Central Asia. Patanjali
in his Mahabhasya refers to the Shakas as‘Anirvasita(pure) Shudras’.In 165-160 B.C.
they were driven out of their land by another powerful nomadic tribe, theYueh-chi.
● They in turn swooped down on the Bactrian and Parthian empires and conquered a large
portion of them between 140 to 120 B.C. They replaced Indo-Greeks in India and once
there were 5 branches of Sakas in India. At the beginning of the first century BCE, two or
possiblythree groups of Sakas migrated to India fromCentral Asia:
○ Sakas from the north (perhaps coming from Khotan) took the'Pamir routes'
through theKarakoram Mountains to Swat and Gandhara.
○ Sakas crossed the Hindu Kush under pressure from the Yuezhi to the mountain
valleys ofnortheastern Afghanistan.Sakas comingfrom the southwest
(Sakastan) took control of modern Sindh insouthern Pakistan.
Five branches of Shakas in India and Afghanistan:
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● 1st branch settled in Afghanistan
● 2nd branch in Punjab with Taxila as capital
● 3rd branch in Mathura ruled for 2 centuries
● 4th branch in western India ruled until 4th century
● 5th branch in upper Deccan
Maues/Moga:
● He was one of theearliest Indo-Scythian rulersduringthe early first century BCE. His
name is preserved in bilingual Greek (Maues) and Kharosthi (Moa) coins and a Kharosthi
inscription from Taxila (Moga).
● Maues' origins are obscure:He may have been connectedwith the Sakas of Sakastan, or
he could have belonged to another branch of Sakas that migrated from the north through
the mountains to Gandhara and Taxila.
● In giving himself the title of "King of Kings"inbilingual Greek and Kharosthi coin legends,
Maues imitated Parthian royal titles.Coins in silverand copper-Indian deities like
Abhishek Lakshmi.
Azes:
● Azes followed Maues as the mostpowerful Indo-Scythian ruler in 58 BCE, a date
corresponding to the beginning of the so-called"Vikrama"era, which is still used in India.
○ Like his predecessor, Azes adopted the title of"King of Kings"and iconography of
Greek and Indian gods and goddesses from the coins of contemporary Indo-Greeks.
● In about 58 BC theking of Ujjain (Vikramaditya)issupposed to have fought effectively
against the Sakas. An era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from 58 BC.
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○ Azes and his successors Azilises and Azes IIadministered Taxila and other areas
of northwestern Pakistan and India through regional rulers with Iranian, Greek, and
Indian titles.
To be Noted:
We mainly know them from inscriptions and coins may be the practice of conjoined rule.
● Vonoes
● Saplirises and Azes I
● Azilises and Azes II
● Kshatrapas Governor
● Mahakshay Traps-subordinate ruler
● Sakas and Scytho Parthians ruled through them and they helped in expansion.
● Meridarch-OIC of a designated area
Rajuvula:
● He was the Kshatrapasof azilies( Scytho Parthians ruler) who went for eastward
expansion. Later on, he took the title of Mahakhstraps. He also functioned as an
independent ruler of Mathura. He was succeeded by his son Sodasha at Mathura.
Significance of Saka Rule:
● Sakas was in control of major commercial centres along the"Northern Route"
(Uttarapatha) and "Southern Route" (Dakshinapatha)encouraged the development of
trade networks and supportedIndian religious institutions.
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● Inscriptions that record the establishment of Buddhist relics and donations to monasteries
inGandhara, Taxila, Mathura, and Western IndiashowthatSakas, Parthians, and other
Iranians were active supporters of the Buddhist community.
● Saka's support of Buddhismdid not preclude theirpatronage of other religious traditions
or imply that their old beliefs were abandoned. Iranian elements inarchitecture,
iconography, languages,and many other spheres ofIndian life around the beginning of the
Common Era are easy to recognize.
● Concurrent with their impact in India,migrationsof the Sakas during the last two
centuries BCE and the Kushans in the first century CEfrom Central Asia to
northwestern India eventually led to the transmission of Buddhism in the other direction to
Central Asia and East Asia.
st st
Parthians (1 BC - 1 AD):
● Initially, for some time, they bothruled concurrently. Scytho-Parthians/Shaka-Pahlavas
(are mentioned in Sanskrit Texts). Theyoriginallylived in Iran.Later Parthiansreplaced
the Sakas in North-Western India(Small Portion).
Gondaphemes/Gondophernes/Guduvhera:
● He has been mentioned in an inscription (45 CE) found atTakht-e-Bahi Peshani as he
wasafamous and important Parthian king.During hisreign, St. Thomas is said to come
to India for the propagation of Christianity but he was killed in Chennai, later in his
memory Santhome church was built.
● Parthianswere assimilatedinto Indian Society. Hiscoins mention about:
○ His nephew
○ His governors:Sapdana, Satavastara, Military governors– Asperarman and Sasa
st rd
Kushana Period (1 – 3 Century AD):
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● They wereamong the most powerful political powersof ancient history. Theyreplaced
Parthians&controlled theSilk Route and India.Theywere considered to be a prosperous
period of trade and commerce.
● They practice deifying the ruler –Devakulas.Thename Kushan derives from the Chinese
termCusihang,used in historical writings to describeone branch of the Yuezhi-a loose
confederation of Indo-European people who had been living in northwestern China until
they were driven west by another group, the Xiongnu, in 176-160 B.C.
● The Kushans ruled from thefirst to the second centuryAD, extending its reach to each
corner of the valley. They united 5 clans andformedthe foundationof a united empire.
He mintedcoins in copper, probably imitating the Roman aurei-type coins for trading
purposes.
● The traces of this empire have also been foundsouth of Hindukush,this shows their
southern movement. The empire also suggests an association with Buddhism. They adopted
epithets like:
○ Dharmathida
○ Sachadhar
Famous Ruler of Kushana Dynasty:
● Kujula Kadphises, Vima Taktu, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka I, Vaishak, Huvishka I
(140-183), Vasudeva I (191-225), Kanishka II, Vashiska, Kanishka III, Vasudeva II, Mahi,
Shaka, Kipunada
Kujula Kadphises (15 CE – 64 CE):
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● Kujula Kadphises was thefounder of the Kushana Dynasty.The history of Kushanas
began with attacking thesouthern region of the HinduKush,conquering Kabul and
defeating Gandhara including the kingdom of Taxila. Later, the leader Kadphises died in 78
AD. But by then Kushans hadsupplemented the princeof Indo-Greek, Saka, and
Indo-Parthiancommunities along the frontiers of India.
Vima Kadphyises (64-78 BCE):
● He was thesuccessor of Kadphiseswho conquered a large part of North India. Thecoins
of Kadphisesshow that his authority extended
up to Banaras and also to the Indus basin.
● The bravery of this king extended from
Narmada to Saka Satraps in Malwa and
Western Indiaacknowledged his sovereignty.
● Heconsolidated and expanded the empire.Hepromoted trade through the silk route.
He issuedgold coins andwas a firm devotee ofShiva. He was proclaimedas Mahishvara
on the coin. All the coins (both gold and copper) have the sign of Shiva with his trident &
bull.
Kanishka (78 - 101 CE):
● Heintegrated Central Asia and North Indian culture and trade.He was thenext ruler
after Kadphises/Vima Kadphyisesand his son.
● Kanishka was a prominent ruler of the Kushan Dynasty who achieved remarkable
milestones in the state of Jammu & Kashmir. His descendants called him"Devaputra"
which means son of gods.
● The empire of Kanishka constituted Bactria (modern Afghanistan), Part of Central Asia
(Tajikistan), northwestern India (modern Pakistan), and northern India till Pataliputra.
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During his time, theKushan Empire was at its peak.The capital during his period was
Purushapurawhere he built many
Buddhist buildings.
● In the Initial days, hemanaged Kashmir
and consolidatedthe Indus and the
Gangetic basin. His army defeated the
Chinese by crossing the Pamirs. He
co-ruled with his kinVashishkafrom
Purushpura (Peshawar) and Mathura with
a mature political approach to administer
the large region under him.
● Kanishka's rise to power also marks the
beginning of the Saka era calendar,
which was adopted as theIndian national
calendar in 1957(Maybe because Kanishka was mistaken for Saka). Continuation of this
era into Western Kshatraps according to the overlordship of Kushana.
● Kanishka establishedregional governments and militaryestablishmentsto protect his
empire. He established his capital- Mathura, Peshawar.Bactria served as the Centre:
○ Use of Bactrian language in Kanishka’s coins and inscriptions.
○ Rabtak Inscription(Baghran Province, Afghanistan)– Information on Kanishka.
○ Kanishka wears a peaked helmet in some coins.
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Fourth Buddhist Council:
● Place:Kashmir
● Presidency:Vasumitra.
th
● Kanishka and the 4 Buddhist Council:
○ As per the legends a Buddhist Monk passed advised him to conduct his council.
○ Kanishka's major contribution was to Buddhism. He was the active patron of Mahayana
Buddhism during the latter part of his reign.
○ Kanishka is known to have organized the fourth major Buddhist Council in Kashmir where
Buddhist scriptures in Prakrit were translated into Sanskrit.
○ Here, under his supervision, the historical division between two versions of Buddhism,
namelyMahayana and Hinayana,took place through the great Buddhist council that was
organized.
● Built a giant stupa to house Buddha’s relics.Fa Hien(Chinese Pilgrim)visited in the 5th
century BC and it was intact. An ancient stupa (locally called theKanika Chorten)
survives in the high Himalayas of the Zanskar valley in Kashmir which is revered deeply by
Buddhists even today.
● Shahji Ki Dheri – Peshawar:The remains of a muchmore magnificent stupa (with a
height of over 600 ft) built by him were discovered in the early 20th century in Peshawar,
Pakistan.
Vasudeva I:
● He was the last great king of theKushana Dynasty.Later, the Kushana Dynasty was
replaced in India by the Nagas.
Vasudeva II – Last Kushana Emperor:
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● The immediate successors of Kanishka wereVasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka II(adopted the
title of ‘Kaiser’), and Vasudeva I. The name of these rulers wasfound at Hunzaover a
rd
massive rock inthe Kharosthi inscription. Theempire started to decline in the early 3
century CE.
● Small Dynasties emerged after the fall of the Kushana dynasty:
○ West of Indus – Sassanian power (Iran)
○ North India – Various ganas and monarchies.
○ Shaka Kshatraps – Western and Central India.
○ Arjunayamas - Bharatpur and Alwar Area.
○ Malavas – Punjab and Rajasthan.
○ Yaudyeya (gana) – Eastern Punjab and adjoining areas of UPs and Rajasthan.
○ Naga – Padmavti region (modern Gwalior district of MP).
Religious Tolerance of Kushanas:
● Motifs found on the coins were of:
○ Indian God:Shiva and Buddha
○ Greek God:Helios (Sun God), Selene (Moon Goddess)
○ West Asian God:Persian gods (Atach – fire God, Mithra- Sun God)
● The Kushana dynasty demonstrated greatreligious syncretismand tolerancefor different
beliefs, evident from his coins that depict Iranian, Hindu, and Greek divinities. The coins during
his rule prove that he honoured a medley of Gods - Zoroastrian, Greek, Mithraic, and Indian.
Theprominent Indian deity was the God Shiva.
● An ancient stupa (locally called theKanika Chorten)survives in the high Himalayas of the
Zanskar valley in Kashmir and is revered deeply by Buddhists even today.
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● Remains of a much more magnificent stupa (with a height of over 600 ft) built by him were
discovered in the early 20th century in Peshawar as Kanishka devotedly spread Mahayana
Buddhism in Central Asia, ultimately becoming a practitioner himself.
● Kanishka was benevolent and kind to his people for which they regarded him greatly and he
wasoften compared with Ashoka. He was also known as thesecond Ashoka.
Scholars who were given patronage uder the Kushanas:
● Ashvagosha:He was a Buddhist Scholar and wroteBuddhacharita(sacred biography of
Buddha). He also composedSaundarananda(a SanskritKavya).
● Charaka:He was known as thefather of Ayurveda whowroteCharaksamhita(book on
medicine).
● Sushrut:He was thephysician and the world's firstsurgeon andwas regarded as the
“Father of Surgery”/“Father of Plastic Surgery"forinventing and developing surgical
procedures. His work in theSushruta Samhitais consideredone of the oldest texts in the
world on plastic surgery and is highly regarded as one of theGreat Trilogy of Ayurvedic
Medicine, theBrihat-Trayi;Charaka Samhita + Sushrut Samhita + Astanga Hridaya by
Vagabhatta (in chronological order).
● Vasumitra:He was a renownedphilosopherwho authoredMahavibhasa, an encyclopedic
work onBuddhist philosophy.
● Mathara:He was aMinisterand famous for awesomeintelligence.
● Agesilaus:He was a GreekEngineer. Probably Stupaof Peshawar was built under him.
● Nagarjuna:He was termed anIndian Einstein who hadproposed the theory of relativity in
the form of a sutra (Prama Parimata Sutra). He wasagreat supporter of Mahayana
Buddhism.He propoundedMadhyamika(also called Sunyavada school – also on
sunyata/emptiness).
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Patronised School of Sculpture:
● Two famous schools of sculpture wereGandhara and Mathura schools.Kushana Dynasty
under Kushana controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia i.e., China → Central Asia
→ Afghanistan → Iran → Western Asia (Part of the Roman empire)
● Kanishka Vs China in Central Asia:Defeated by GeneralPan-Chao andPaid tribute to
Chinese emperorHo-Ti.
Kushana Period in a Nutshell:
Place Jammu and Kashmir
Period 200 BC- 225 AD
Language Pali, Prakrit, Bactrian, Sanskrit, and Greek.
Religion Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Greco-Buddhism Ancient Greek religion
Kings Kujula Kadphises, Vima Taktu or Sadashkana, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka I,
Huvishka, Vasudeva I
Kushana Coins:
● The first two Kushan kings,Kujula and Vima, issued gold coins. They also mintedsilver
and copper coins.The Kushana coins are excellent examples of artistic excellence and
sophistication. The coins were die-struck and produced in large numbers to facilitate
growing trade and commerce.
● They resembled great similarity to the earlier Indo-Greek coins as these coins also depicted
the portrait of the issuing monarch in great detail. The Kushanas also closely followed the
Indo-Greek weight standardin minting their coins.
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