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GEOPHYSICAL MONOGRAPH SERIES

David V. Fitterman, Series Editor
Michael W. Asten, Volume Editor

NUMBER 12

THE MICROTREMOR SURVEY METHOD

By Hiroshi Okada
Translated by Koya Suto
DOI:10.1190/1.9781560801740.fm

Published by
SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS
with the cooperation of
SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS OF JAPAN
AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Okada, Hiroshi.
The Microtremor Survey Method / by Hiroshi Okada.
p. cm. — (Geophysical monographs series no. 12)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56080-120-4
1. Seismic reflection method. I. Title. II. Series.
2001020118
DOI:10.1190/1.9781560801740.fm

ISBN 0-931830-56-7 (Series)

ISBN 1-56080-120-4 (Volume)

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

P.O. Box 702740
Tulsa, OK 74170-2740

c 2003 by Society of Exploration Geophysicists

All rights reserved. This book or parts hereof may not be
reproduced in any form without written permission in writing from
the publisher.

Published 2003
Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

Historical note and foreword to the SEG translation . . . . . . . . vi

Translator’s foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
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1 Introduction 1

2 Fundamental properties of microtremors 3

2.1 What are microtremors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Power spectra of microtremors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Temporal and spatial variation of microtremors . . . . . . . 6
2.3.1 Temporal variation of microtremors . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.2 Spatial variation of microtremors . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Principle of the microtremor survey method 17

3.1 The microtremor survey method (MSM) . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 Wave type used in microtremor surveys . . . . . . . 17
3.1.2 From dispersion of surface waves to subsurface structure 18
3.2 Spectral representation of microtremors . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1 Spectral representation of a stochastic process . . . . 23
3.2.2 Spectral representation of microtremors . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Detection of surface waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Detection of Rayleigh waves from the vertical component of
microtremors (frequency-wavenumber method) . . . . . . . 27
3.4.1 Frequency-wavenumber power spectral density function 28
3.4.2 Beam-forming method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.3 Maximum likelihood method or high-resolution method 32
3.4.4 Phase velocity and direction of wave propagation . . 34
3.4.5 Calculation of cross-spectra by block averaging . . . 36

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iv CONTENTS

3.5 Detection of Rayleigh waves from the vertical component of

microtremors (spatial autocorrelation method) . . . . . . . . 40
3.5.1 Spectral representation of microtremors in a polar
coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5.2 The spatial autocorrelation function and the spatial
covariance function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5.3 The spatial autocorrelation coefficient of a circular
array and its relation to phase velocity . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Detection of Love waves from microtremors (spatial autocor-
relation method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6.1 The spectral representation of horizontally polarized
waves in microtremors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6.2 The spatial autocorrelation function for horizontally
polarized waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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3.6.3 The spatial autocorrelation coefficient for horizontally

polarized waves and wavenumber equation of Love
waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4 Estimating phase velocity and subsurface structure 55

4.1 Estimating phase velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1.1 Spatial autocorrelation (SPAC) method . . . . . . . . 56
4.1.2 Extended spatial autocorrelation (ESPAC) method . . 57
4.2 Estimating subsurface structure from phase velocity . . . . . 60
4.2.1 Procedure for estimating subsurface structure . . . . 60
4.2.2 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.3 Estimating adjustment parameters . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.4 Calculation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.5 Effective variables for refining a model . . . . . . . . 65

5 Data acquisition and analysis methods 67

5.1 Observing microtremors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1.1 Observation array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1.2 Data acquisition system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.1.3 Time for data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 Data analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2.1 Data analysis by frequency-wavenumber method . . . 70
5.2.2 Data analysis by spatial autocorrelation method . . . 74
5.2.3 Case history of estimating phase velocity . . . . . . . 80
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CONTENTS v

6 Case histories 97
6.1 Application of the frequency-wavenumber ( f -k) method . . . 97
6.1.1 Regional structural survey by long-period microtremors 97
6.1.2 Comparison of the result with a reflection seismic
survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Application of the spatial autocorrelation method . . . . . . 106
6.2.1 Evaluating the reliability of the spatial autocorrelation
method by comparison with wireline log data . . . . 106
6.2.2 Estimating shallow and deep subsurface structures in
earthquake damaged areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7 Closing remarks 117

References 121
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References for general reading 127

Index 129
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Historical note and foreword to the SEG translation

The microtremor survey method (MSM) relies on two paradigms foreign to
the practice of conventional seismic exploration. These are (a) the property
of seismic surface waves that their penetration into the earth is frequency
dependent, hence the dispersion curve (phase velocity versus frequency) for
observed data can be inverted to yield a layered-earth model of the subsurface,
and (b) the variation of phase velocity with frequency can be measured using
array-processing methods.
The MSM applied to the study of near-surface geology has had a fasci-
nating history over the last 50 years, and it is fitting that SEG should publish
a Japanese text as a benchmark. For it was a (then) young Japanese seis-
mologist, Keiiti Aki, (1957, 1965) who laid the foundation for the Spatial
Autocorrelation (SPAC) method which has become the key to successful
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extraction of phase-velocity information from surface-wave microtremors.

This particular contribution from Aki appears to have been largely ignored in
Western literature on the study of microtremors; the great strides in seismic
array data processing of the 1960s and 1970s were spurred by the need to lo-
cate direction to seismic sources, and, hence, beam-forming (or f-k) methods
(e.g., Capon, 1969) received the greatest emphasis.
Indeed, the very nature of high-frequency microtremors has been a source
of significant debate; some authors in past decades attributed them to P-wave
energy, and marketed the use of engineering-seismic studies based on compar-
ing spectral peaks of microtremors with P-wave resonances, while others at-
tributed the same energy, and the same spectra, to Rayleigh-wave propagation.
See the exchanges by Asten (1979) and Katz (1979) following Asten (1978b)
for examples where the debate generated heat as well as light (with some-
what more vigorous debate occurring in unpublished notes sent to the Editor
of the day!). More recently, literature originating in the Western Hemisphere
has debated whether microtremors are dominated by S-wave resonances or
by Rayleigh-wave propagation (e.g., Ibs-von Seht and Wohlenburg, 1999 and
references therein; Liu et al., 2000).
The study and use of the spectra of microtremors for engineering-scale
studies has developed into a separate and mature science, largely due to the
efforts of Japanese seismologists over the last 20 years (Nakamura, 1989;
Konno and Ohmachi, 1998). The study and use of phase-velocity disper-
sion curves of microtremors has developed separately, also in Japan, largely

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HISTORICAL NOTE AND FOREWORD vii

as a result of the diligence of Prof. Okada and his students, and was consid-
erably assisted by use of the SPAC technique pioneered by Prof. Aki 45 years
ago.
The SPAC technique is worthy of an additional observation. Array beam-
forming delivers estimates of wave velocity and direction, and is subject to
bias in velocity estimates when waves from multiple directions are incom-
pletely resolved. However, the SPAC technique has the delightful property
that, since the wave direction is not sought, estimates of wave scalar velocity
are unaffected by the superposition of waves from multiple directions. This
property was described by Aki (1965), a principle subsequently overlooked
in some literature, e.g., Douze and Laster (1979), but was then reiterated by
Asten (1983).
In fact, the more omnidirectional the wave energy (assuming single-mode
propagation), the better the estimate of scalar velocity. The SPAC technique
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thus has the serendipitous property of giving its best results when seismic
sources are many. This is why the technique has enormous potential in built-
up areas, where microtremor noise militates against the use of conventional
seismic methods, but that same ubiquitous noise generated by urban activ-
ity produces an omnidirectional wavefield of high-frequency microtremors,
ideally suited to the SPAC technique.
I welcome Prof. Okada’s learned contribution to the theory, methodology,
and case histories for the use of high-frequency microtremors in engineering
geophysics. I warmly endorse his desire to see the method develop into a
commercially viable survey tool.
I see scope for several further developments not covered in this book.
Firstly, the integrated study of both spectral shapes and phase velocities is
likely to provide more information than either discipline alone. Secondly, the
extension of the SPAC technique to detect multimode Rayleigh-wave propa-
gation (e.g., Asten, 1978a; Henstridge, 1979) should extend the utility of the
method developed in this book. Thirdly, the routine use of three-component
seismometers should allow simultaneous detection and use of Love-wave mi-
crotremor energy, using theory by Prof. Okada, which is presented in English
for the first time in this book, but not yet implemented on published exam-
ples of field data. Modern data acquisition hardware and portable computing
power make the logistics of recording and processing the extra data trivial,
compared with the size of the task if using the technology of one or two
decades ago. Prof. Okada has positioned us for an immense step forward in
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viii EDITOR’S FOREWORD

the use of seismic methods for engineering and environmental applications in

built-up areas.
Michael W. Asten
July, 2001
Department of Earth Sciences
P.O. Box 28E
Monash University
Melbourne, Vic. 3800, Australia.
Email: masten@mail.earth.monash.edu.au

References
Aki, K., 1957, Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves, with
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special reference to microtremors: Bull., Earthq. Res. Inst., 35, 415–456.

———1965, A note on the use of microseisms in determining the shallow

structures of the Earth’s crust: Geophysics, 30, 665–666.

Asten, M. W., 1978a, Phase velocities of mixed-mode high-frequency micro-

seisms (Abstract): EOS, 59, 1141.
———1978b, Geological control on the three-component spectra of
Rayleigh-wave microseisms: Bull., Seism. Soc. Am., 68, 1623–1636.

———1979, Comments on “Microtremor site analysis study at Beatty,

Nevada” by L. J. Katz and R. J. Bellon: Bull., Seism. Soc. Am., 69, 1623–
1636.

———1983, Discussion on “Seismic array noise studies at Roosevelt Hot

Springs, Utah Geothermal Area”: Geophysics, 48, 1560–1561.

Capon, J., 1969: High-resolution frequency-wavenumber spectrum analysis:

Proc. IEEE, 57, 1408–1418.
Douze, E. J., and Laster, S. J., 1979, Seismic array noise studies at Roosevelt
Hot Springs, Utah Geothermal Area: Geophysics, 44, 1570–1583.

Henstridge, J. D., 1979, A signal processing method for circular arrays: Geo-
physics, 44, 179–184.
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HISTORICAL NOTE AND FOREWORD ix

Ibs-von Seht, M. and Wohlenburg, J., 1999, Microtremor measurements used

to map thickness of soft sediments: Bull., Seis. Soc. Am., 89, 250–259.

Katz, L., 1979, A reply: Bull., Seis. Soc. Am., 69, 1637–1639.
Konno, K., and Ohmachi, T., 1998, Ground-motion characteristics estimated
from spectral ratio between horizontal and vertical components of mi-
crotremor: Bull., Seis. Soc. Am., 88, 228–241.
Liu, H. et al., 2000, Comparison of phase velocities from array measurements
of Rayleigh waves associated with microtremor and results calculated from
borehole shear-wave velocity profiles: Bull., Seis. Soc. Am., 90, 666–678.
Nakamura, Y., 1989, A method for dynamic characteristics estimation of
subsurface using microtremors on the ground surface: Quarterly reports of
the Railway Technical Research Institute, Tokyo, 30, 25–33.
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Translator’s foreword
The phenomenon of microtremors has long been known to mankind, but it
is only quite recently that the microtremor survey method has established
itself. It is basically a passive seismic method, whereby “listening” to nature’s
“voice” gives information enabling us to estimate the subsurface structure
under an array of geophones.
Because it is a passive method, the data collection system of the mi-
crotremor method is relatively simple, and it can be carried out in areas where
access by a conventional seismic crew is prohibitively difficult.
As urban development progresses, the increased level of cultural noise of-
ten precludes the use of many of the conventional geophysical survey methods
normally used for detecting subsurface structures. The microtremor method
provides a viable alternative.
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This textbook by Professor Okada is believed to be the first comprehensive

textbook in this field. Professor Okada and his team at Hokkaido University
have been investigating and developing the method since the early 1980s,
and this textbook is a ripe fruit of their collaboration. This textbook was first
prepared in 1997 for a seminar of the Japanese SEG, and it has undergone
several revisions in the last five years.
The first three chapters of the book are mainly concerned with the na-
ture of microtremors and principles of their detection. Chapter 4 outlines the
procedures for data analysis, followed by a chapter on data acquisition and
analysis (Chapter 5) and a few case histories in Chapter 6.
The style of the original text reflects the careful and diligent nature of Pro-
fessor Okada: each building block is carefully explained, laid, and consolidated
before the next layer is introduced. Readers may wish to skip details in places,
particularly where conceptual discussions take place. However, readers will
soon realize that these foundations are necessary steps to understanding the
validity of subsequent developments such as practical data collection systems
and case histories of their application.
I am a petroleum exploration geophysicist who has been interested in the
microtremor survey method for several years, but I am not a native speaker of
English. With the help of fellow geophysicists in the Oil Company of Australia
Ltd (a subsidiary of Origin Energy Ltd), the English text was carefully refined
and made as natural as possible. Acknowledgement for this work is given to
Messrs. Justyn Hedges (now with Hardman Resources Ltd) and Damian Kelly
(now with Cairn Energy PLC). A special thanks is due to the SEG Volume

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TRANSLATOR’S FOREWORD xi

Editor, Dr. Michael Asten, who carefully reviewed the technical content of
the text and further refined my English.
Koya Suto
Brisbane, 2002
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Preface
One of the recent innovations in geophysical survey techniques is the appli-
cation of the microtremor method to the fields of construction and structural
engineering. Its main purpose is to estimate the subsurface structure that
provides a fundamental basis for analysis of the response of the ground to
earthquake movement, particularly in densely populated areas where there is
a growing difficulty in utilizing conventional seismic techniques. Therefore
development of the “microtremor survey method” (MSM) is eagerly awaited
by those concerned with urban engineering.
The history of the microtremor survey method is short, and we can only
draw from limited experience and a few case histories. In particular, its ap-
plication to resource exploration has scarcely been documented. However,
application of the microtremor method is gaining popularity in the con-
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struction and structural engineering in the area of prevention of potential

disaster by earthquakes. This method is well adapted to such an applica-
tion.
The applicability of the microtremor survey method is, at least theoret-
ically, not limited to any field. It is a basic survey method for delineating
subsurface structure, not only for urban applications, but also for exploration
of oil, gas, and other resources. In this sense, it is no different from the con-
ventional seismic method.
The microtremor survey method has not been developed as an applica-
tion or extension of the conventional seismic method, but it is a totally new
method based on a totally new idea. Firstly, the wave concerned is different.
Consequently, the resultant image of the subsurface structure is, naturally,
different from the conventional imaging. As this humble textbook describes,
the microtremor method is derived from several assumptions and conditions
in its basic theory and development that impose a limitation in applicability.
For this reason, the microtremor method is, at present, regarded as unsuitable
for detailed surveying.
I present an overview of the practicality and broad applicability of the
microtremor method. The charm of this method is its differences from the
conventional geophysical methods, in ideas and means. These differences,
in turn, may make it difficult for it to be widely accepted as a new geo-
physical technique. It may still take some time before it becomes a commer-
cially viable survey method. Yet, it is clear the MSM has already reached,
to a degree, the realm of practical application, and it is also clear that the

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PREFACE xiii

demand for an extended applicability of this method is mounting. We be-

lieve that now is the time to extend the frontiers of the microtremor survey
method.
Prof. Hiroshi Okada
Dept of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Hokkaido University, Japan
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Acknowledgments
A part of this work was supported by the scientific Research Fund from the
Ministry of Education of Japan.
On the subject presented in this textbook, the author had many valuable
discussions with Dr. Y. Moriya, Dr. T. Sasatani of Hokkaido University, and
Mr. O. Nakano of Dia Consultants. For their important contributions to parts
of this textbook, the author has pleasure in acknowledging them.
The author is also deeply indebted to Dr. S. Ling for his great assistance
in preparing this textbook.
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xiv