UNIT 15 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT:

CONCEPTS AND TOOLS

Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2· Data, Information and Knowledge
15.2.1 Types of Knowledge
15.3 Knowedge Management (KM)
15.3.1 Interest in Knowledge Management
15.3.2 What is Knowledge Management?
15.3.3 Changing Scenario and Driving Forces
15.3.4 Impact of Information and Communication Technologies
15.4 Knowledge Management Systems
15.4.1 Characteristics
15.4.2 Practical Approaches and Strategies
15.4.3 Richness versus Reach
15.5 Knowledge Products
15.5.1 Need
15.5.2 Characteristics
15.5.3 Architecture
15.6 Data Mining and Text Mining
15.6.1 Knowledge Discovery in Data Bases
15.6.2 Data Mining
15.6.3 Text Mining
15.6.4 Text Analysis and Mining Techniques
15.7 Summary
15.8 Answers to Self Check Exercises
15.9 Keywords
15.10 References and Further Reading

15.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to understand:
• the evolution of the concept of Knowledge Management (KM);
• the practice of KM especially in enterprises;
• the strategies of KM in enterprises;
• tools and techniques, such as, data mining, text analysis, and text mining;
and
• facets of preparing knowledge products.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Management as a discipline with its own theories and normative principles
386
evolved during the 20th century although 'management-in-practice' has existed,
 that is management has been practised, for centuries. Managers, as a distinct KnowledgeM~:
Concepts and Took
class of professionals, began to emerge as a societal necessity, with the
formation of joint stock companies in the 15th and 16th centuries in Europe,
more particularly to organise and manage expeditions, explorations, and the
growing trade with countries across the oceans. The manager also played (and
continues to do so) an important role in the smooth functioning of an enterprise,
in the interactions between the workers on the one hand and the investors I
shareholders on the other. From the experiences in managingcompanies,
factories, and various other types of corporate entities and services Over several
decades, commonalities of practice were identified and guiding principles
formulated. Such distillation of normative principles led to theories of
management applicable to the whole gamut of management practices. Articles
in periodicals, new periodicals devoted mainly to the subject 'Management',
education and research programmes, associations and institutions with focus
• on management were started and the new discipline of Management has come
to stay. Sub- branches or specialisations of management - financial
management, human resources management, services management, public
relations management, marketing and sales management, technology
management, etc, and now Knowledge Management (KM) have also evolved.

For an information professional, understanding KM-the concept, its practice,

tools and strategies is important for two reasons: firstly to design and develop
information systems, products and services that support KM practice in the
enterprise hel she serves, and secondly to apply KM efficiently and effectively
in the information resource system of which he/ she is the incharge It may be
mentioned here that the learner is familiar with the concepts like knowledge
economy and knowledge society and their characteristics. These have been
already discussed in Unit 14.

15.2 DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE

There are numerous definitions of data, information, and knowledge in the
literature. However, as Davenport and Prusak note, knowledge is neither data
nor information but it is related to both. However basic it may sound, it is still
important to emphasise that data, information, and knowledge are not
interchangeable concepts. The terms 'data', 'information' and 'knowledge'
have been defined and distinguished in the write-up for other units of this
course. We shall not repeat it here. It is useful to recall that there are three
elements involved in the knowledge process: the knowee, the knower, and the
process of knowing or cognition (operating in the knower). Knowledge is
created when the knower knows the knowee. It implies that knowledge is what
a knower knows; and there is no knowledge without someone knowing it:
Outside of the knower only embodied knowledge (resource) exists.

Information becomes knowledge once it is processed in the mind of an

individual. This knowledge then becomes information again once it is
articulated or communicated to others in the form of text, computer output,
spoken, or written words or by other means. Knowledge is embodied in nature
and its manifestations, in man-made artifacts, documents of all types (including
the digital forms) as text, images, sound, and multimedia, and most importantly
387
Knowledge and Society in people, not only what is in their brain, but also their skills, cultural practices,
traditions, conventions, laws, etc. For an enterprise, it is strategic to focus on
proprietary corporate knowledge, intrinsic to its core competence / expertise
and is often protected by patents, copyright, non-disclosure policies, and its
other intellectual properties

In brief, knowledge is information integrated with experiences, reflected upon

and interpreted in a particular context. Knowledge is a renewable, re-usable
and an accumulating asset of value to an enterprise that increases in value with
employee experience and organisational life. It is intangible, boundary-less,
and dynamic, and if it is not used at a specific time in a specific place, it may
be of no value otherwise. Although know ledge can be represented in and often
embedded in organisational processes, routines, and networks, and in document
repositories, it is only the cognitive process and intellection of a person(s) that
can generate knowledge or apply it.

15.2.1 Types of Knowledge

It may be noted from the literature that knowledge can be thought of in many
ways, and indeed there are a number of different types discussed [Teece, 1998].
From a knowledge management perspective, it is useful to be able to identify
and categorise types of knowledge as it may help to indicate which of the
categories are more amenable to management than others.

A typology of knowledge is: 'core', 'advanced' and 'innovative' knowledge.

Core knowledge is the minimum level of knowledge required for daily
operations; advanced knowledge enables a firm to be competitively viable;
and innovative knowledge enables a firm to lead the industry to which it belongs,
and competitors.

Knowledge is also categorised as 'explicit' and 'tacit' knowledge. Explicit

knowledge is expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data,
scientific formulae, specifications, manuals, and the like. This kind of
knowledge can be readily transmitted between individuals formally and
systematically. Tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to formalise,
making it difficult to communicate or share with others. Subjective insights,
intuition, experience and hunch fall into this category of knowledge. Tacit
knowledge is deeply rooted in an individual's actions and experience as well
as in his/her ideals, values, and emotions. Tacitness may be considered as a
variable, the degree of tacitness being a function of the extent to which the
knowledge is or can be codified and abstracted. Knowledge may dynamically
shift between tacit and explicit over time although some knowledge always
will remain tacit. Codification is the degree to which the knowledge is fully
documented or expressed in writing at the time of transfer between indi viduals.
The complexity of knowledge increases with lower levels of codification.

Another categorisation of knowledge is 'practical, experience-based

knowledge' and 'theoretical knowledge' derived from reflection and abstraction
from experience.

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 Knowledge Management:
15.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT (KM) Concepts and Tools

15.3.1 Interest in Knowledge Management

The level of interest in KM has been building -for several years and this is
partly because of the recognition that knowledge has become increasingly
important to an individual firm's successs. As pointed out by KPMG (1998)
"We are in an era where the traditional pillars of economic power - capital,
land, plant, and labour - are no longer the determinants of business success.
Instead an increasing number of organisations depend for their value on the
development, use and distribution of knowledge- based competencies."

15.3.2 What is Knowledge Management?

• Just as there are many definitions of knowledge, there are also numerous
definitions of knowledge management. To date, no general approach to
managing knowledge has been commonly accepted- although several isolated,
and at times diverging notions are being advanced. According to Malhotra
(1998) academic notions of knowledge and management are split between the
various camps of psychologists, technologists, and organisation theorists, and
that the 'trade', press, or practitioners follow a techno-centric approach (looking
at how various IT systems can facilitate knowledge management) or they take
a human- resourc~ oriented approach (for example looking at the cultural issues
that are relevant to kriowledge management). However, a simple way of defining
Knowledge Management is that "KM is the process of organizing and sharing
the diverse forms of business information created within an organisation.Klvl
can include managing enterprise document libraries, discussion databases,
Intranet websites, and other types of knowledge bases. KM is the application
of enterprise portals to organise, manage, and share the diverse forms of business
information created by individuals and teams in an organisation.

We shall be discussing KM in the framework of an enterprise or organisation

- a company, a research centre, an educational institution, a project or any
other corporate entity.

KM in general relates to unlocking and leveraging the knowledge of individuals

so that it becomes available as an organisational resource independent of
particular individuals. Many authors view KM from an information systems
perspective and is based on the belief that KM systems can be used to capture
and store workers' knowledge and make it accessible to others through a
searchable application. In this perspective KM should enable an organisation
to effectively store, manage, retrieve, and enlarge its intellectual properties.
The repository view of KM emphasises the gathering, providing, and filtering
of explicit knowledge as the information held in a repository can easily be
transferred and shared. Nevertheless, it is neither easy nor appropriate to use
de-contextualised information. Knowledge managers often need access to
human experts, for their tacit knowledge. This 'expert sharing' dimension of
KM emphasises "the human aspects - cognitive, social, cultural and
organisational- aspects, in addition to information storage and retrieval. Rather
than focusing on the management level of an organisation, expert sharing
focuses on the self-organised activities of the organisation's members."
389
(Ackerman, Pipek and Wulf)
Knowledge and Society There are computer systems that can route queries, assemble people and work,
and augment naturally occurring social networks within organisations

Self Check Exercise

1) Define knowledge. State its characteristics.
2) Differentiate between tacit and explicit knowledge.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

15.3.3 Changing Scenario and Driving Forces

Over the past few decades, the economy of industrialised societies evolved
from industrial economy to information economy and on to knowledge-based
economy wherein the level and extent of activities relating to the generation,
accessing, retrieving, processing, communication, application and use of
information and knowledge are deemed to be an important parameter for
measuring the socio-economic development level of nations. The individuals
and corporations that possess and/or have access and the means to exploit
knowledge resources become the more powerful entities in society. In brief
we notice:

Worldwide shift to information economy and on to knowledge economy.

Rapid growth in knowledge and information-intensive products and

services.

Intensification of knowledge utilisation in the production of traditional

products as well.

Manual production workers being substituted / replaced by information /

knowledge workers in various sectors of the economy.

New types of knowledge / information-intensive organisations devoted

mainly.to the production, processing, and distribution of knowledge-based
.products.

The significant impact of the rapidly evolving ICTs (information and

communication technologies) on enterprises.

Enterprises need expertise in KM to sustain and enhance their competitive

advantage of the organisation in an environment of growing competition for
resources, - finance, human, and physical resources, markets, etc. The
knowledge ~~nager, at all levels, is expected to posses special capabilities for
390 creating, r9~ilising, and c~municating knowledge available with the
I
I organisation as well as elsewhere. Knowledge embedded in the organisation's Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
business or work processes and in the employees' including their expertise,
I skills, experiences, provide the enterprise capabilities to create, produce and
I, deliver customers what they need, when and where they need it.

I· KM is introduced to help an organisation of whatever nature to create, share,

and use knowledge effectively because it pays off in fewer mistakes, less
I redundancy, quicker problem solving, better decision making, reduced research
and development (R&D) costs, increased worker independence, enhanced
I customer relations, and improved services to customers. Knowledge support
functions are needed to implement KM in an organisation ..

Another perspective that accele~ated the entliusiasm' for 'KM and the
development of know ledge products is the 'richn~ss versus reach; th~s'i~[Evans
, and Wurster, 1997]. It is pointed outthat the nature of cominu~icatlon has
•
drastically changed. Until now, one had a choice of richness or-reach, but one
could not achieve both simultaneously. A face-to-face conversation, for
instance, is rich in content, nuance and interactivity but poor in reach. A radio
or TV broadcast has .great reach but is poor in interactivity and nuance.
Communication strategies were always an either-or choice. With the Internet,
it is argued that we can craft systems that provide both richness and reach.
This has necessitated arethink on how information and knowledge areshared
within organisations, an important concern of businesses wishing to harness
knowledge. Knowledge products targeted to specific domains, together with
the use of the web as the delivery medium, it is possible to provide the richness
and reach sought for in organisations.

Crucial and value-adding knowledge: The decision to invest in knowledge

depends upon knowing what knowledge is relevant and crucial to the
organisation and what knowledge adds value. Crucial knowledge includes the
ever-changing dynamic knowledge necessary to operate within the industry at
an acceptable level. It may be obtained through consultation with experts,
their tacit knowledge that manifests as problem-solving behaviour. The
continued availability, development, and retaining of experts in the organisation
with such problem-solving proneness and capability is an important aspect of
human resources management.

Much of the literature views KM from an information systems perspective

and is based on the belief that KM systems can be used to capture and store
workers' knowledge and make it accessible to others via a searchable
application.

KM is more than collecting and feeding data and information into a computer
database or website. Effective KM ensures that individuals at all levels of an
organisation have access to the information they need to accomplish the tasks
assigned to them at the same time helping to achieve the organisation's overall
goals.

KM calls for combining the appropriate advanced elements of technological

resources and the indispensable input of human response and decision-making.
It is also about revaluing work and changing the way people perform. The
outcome is a shift in the way people work, and in the way leadership is defined.
To implement KM system, persons involved and affected need to understand 391
 Knowledge and Society why they should undertake a KM system initiative, how it will affect their
work and why the organisation needs to change.

Self Check Exercise

3) Define knowledge management from an information system perspective.

4) Discuss the advantages of KM in an organisation.

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

...... ~ .
•

15.3.4 Impact of Information and Communication

Technologies
An enterprise is a purposeful system, that is a system created to accomplish a
mission or objective. The goal of the mission is usually embodied in a "mission
statement." An enterprise may consist of one or more subsystems. It has
attributes of a thermodynamic system as well as those of a biological system -
e.g. purpose, entropy, requisite variety, viability, homoeostasis, adaptation,
equifinality, etc.

In a knowledge society environment, application of the emerging ICTs is

perceived as an instrument that can contribute to the enhancement of its
competitiveness. ICTs offer opportunities as well as pose challenges to
managers. Keeping these in view appropriate policies and strategies have to
be adopted to derive optimal benefits. Briefly the various opportunities and
added value that ICTs can provide to an enterprise management include, for
example, better customer response, better management information, timely
information about changes in the operational environment of the enterprise,
.productivity increase, cost control, factor replacement, improved quality of
products and services, increased sales, better market intelligence and market
share, assist in developing new products for new markets, and systems
integration and coordination. There are threats and problems to be faced by
non-planned selection and application of ICTs.

15.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

A Knowledge Management System (KMS) has a knowledge base as a major
component of computer-based information systems. A KMS uses its knowledge
base about a specific, complex application area to act as an expert / consultant
to end-users. Such a system can be used either for management or for operational
392
 applications. Thus a KMS can be classified conceptually as either a ope}ation Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
or management system, depending on whether it is used for expert advice to
,I control operational processes or for assisting in managerial decision making.

15.4.1 Characteristics
I·
I
KM, as already mentioned above, attempts at the holistic application of the
complexities of human intellectual processes, including tacit knowledge,
learning and innovating processes, communication cultures, values and
intangible assets to assist decision making and control processes. It also
recognises the subjective, interpretive and dynamic nature of knowledge. At
the same time KM draws from the developments in K'Ts for effective and
efficient organisational management and development.
I
'f. In developing a KMS it is necessary to take into account the following factors:

l) KM does not come cheap.

2) Effective KM requires hybrid solutions using people and technology.

3) KM is highly political, has socio-cultural and human implications.

4) KM requires development of knowledge managers.

5) KM benefits more from maps than models, more from markets than from
hierarchies. .

6) Sharing of knowledge may be perceived as an 'unnatural act'

7) KM entails improving knowledge-based work processes and providing

. knowledge-based products and services.

8) Accessing knowledge is only the beginning

9) KM is a never-ending continuous process.

10) KM requires a knowledge contract.

15.4.2 Practical Approach and Strategies

As mentioned above, in the emerging knowledge society, knowledge is being
recognised in an increasing measure as a primary source of wealth production.
Economies that can efficiently exploit their knowledge resources are doing
better than those that have abundant natural resources but lack the knowledge
to exploit them.

The vast and deep impact on the social and economic environment caused by
technology and globalisation has forced organisations worldwide to make
significant changes to their objectives, strategies, and organisational structures
in order to adapt, survive and succeed in the 21st century. Organisations need
to become wired, retooled and networked; but also need to change both the
extrinsic elements of their products, activities and/or structures and their basic
intrinsic way of operating-values, and mind-set, and sometimes even their
purpose. Organisations must learn very quickly in order to adapt to rapid
environmental changes to survive and succeed. Thus, today's organisation has
little choice but to transform itself into 'learning' organisation, one of the
393
 Knowledge and Society principal purposes will be the expansion of knowledge that comes to reside at
the core of what it means to be competitive and productive. The organisation
should develop the capacity to collect, store and transfer knowledge and thus
continuously transform itself for corporate success. Technology should be
judiciously utilised to optimise both learning and productivity.

The knowledge subsystem is designed for the acquisition, creation, storage,

transfer and utilisation of knowledge.

Acquisition involves collection of existing data and information from within

and outside the organisation via environmental scanning, consultations,
networks, staff suggestions, etc. Creation of new knowledge is'mainly through
problem solving, innovative programmes and conversion of implicit knowledge
to explicit knowledge. Storing is the coding and preserving of value-added
.. knowledge for easy access. Transfer and utilisation refer to the mechanical,
electronic and interpersonal movement of information and knowledge
throughout the organisation as well as its application and use by members of
the organisation wherever they be located. . These elements are ongoing,
interactive and dynamic instead of being sequential and independent.

Only by developing and implementing systems and mechanisms to assemble

package, store and distribute the fruits of its thinking will an enterprise be able
to transform its knowledge into corporate asset and power. In the practical
application of the concept of KM, answers to the following queries about the
information and knowledge need consideration:

• What information and knowledge are needed?

• Why they are needed, for what purpose?
• Where they may be found?
• How they may be sourced and obtained?
• How is it to be processed?
• When, where and in what form and format the information is to be
delivered?

KM process also need to take into account other factors, such as, cost, ability
to tap knowledge, mapping the knowledge, knowledge growth and operations
on knowledge, what technology is to be used, etc.

A networked IT platform should be installed to support the knowledge systems.

Powerful system navigation and information exploration tools that use
hypermedia, dynamic visual querying and tree maps are useful. Employees
should be enabled to communicate freely with each other and share data and
information across the organisation. To achieve efficiency in performance as
many operations as necessary should be automated within the organisation.
Centres of expertise and excellence should be created with assigned
responsibilities for collecting, storing, analysing and distributing knowledge.
These centres can train workers in their specialties tu ensure availability of
qualified workers and consulting services. The centres may have the following
functions in relation to the knowledge repositories:

394 • Creating and managing the knowledge repository;

 Knowledge Management:
• Setting and enforcing standards, methods and practices;
Concepts and Tools
• Assessing work-force competency and performance;
• Providing training and consultancy services; and
• Identifying gaps, to remedy deficiencies in the content and processing of

I· the knowledge repository.

The challenge is to create an organisation that can move and redistribute its
knowledge. By finding ways to make knowledge move; an organisation can
create a value network, not just a value chain. In order to guide KM assessment
and future activities (from a practitioner's perspective), a descriptive KM model
such as that described by Ernst and Young (Fig. 15.1) supports a holistic
approach to KM that encompasses organisational, cultural; and technological
I
aspects.
•
•

Fig. 15.1: KM: A Two-dimensional Perspective

As illustrated in Fig. 15.1, KM may be viewed from a two-dimensional

perspective. The first dimension consists of the activities that are critical to
knowledge creation and innovation, knowledge exchange, capture, reuse, and
internalisation. Collectively, these processes build a learning organisation-
one capable of creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge as well as
adapting its actions' to reflect new in sights and innovations. The second
dimension consists of those elements that enable or influence knowledge-
creation activities. These include:

Strategy: the alignment of corporate and KM strategies;

Measurement: the measures or metrics captured to determine if KM

improvement is occurring or if a benefit is be~g derived;

Policy: the written policy or guidance provided by the organisation;

Content: the subset of the corporate knowledge base that is captured

electronically;

Process: the processes that knowledge workers use to achieve organisation's

mission and goals; 395
 Knowledge and Society Technology: the information technology that facilitates the identification,
creation, and diffusion of knowledge among organisational elements within
and across enterprises; and

Culture: the environment and context in which KM processes must occur

(often described in terms of values, norms, and practices).

The following are some of the KM strategies:

. Viewing KM as a business strategy;
Transfer of knowledge and best practices;
Customer- focused knowledge;
Personal responsibility for knowledge;
•
Intellectual asset management; and
Innovation and knowledge creation.

Influencing factors are:

Working environment has an impact on the knowledge perception level
of the people;
rr has an impact on the organisational perspective of knowledge; and
Knowledge perceptions of the people differ with their profession, age,
and also gender.
To summarise, appropriate strategies include:
• Providing facility to people in the enterprise at all levels so that they feel
comfortable in the working environment. This will enable them to think
technically and help to compete in the environment;
• Considering data, information and knowledge in different ways and give
due importance to skill, intelligence, and knowledge available in human
. capital;
• Making an inventory of intellectual capital i.e., what do we know that is
valuable and where else can we use it;
• Tracing the information flows that parallel the routine activities and new
challenges;
• Looking for key knowledge by asking: "What do we lose when key people
leave?" or "What do we have to teach every new staff member?";
• Switching our thinking from "training" to "facilitating learning." Put job
aids and learning tools in the hands of people on the job. It is estimated
that 70% of learning about a job comes from doing the job; thus we have
to find ways to make that more effective; and
• Providing data and knowledge bases.

Self Check Exercise

5) Enumerate the processes taking place in the knowledge subsystem.

6) Describe KM from a two- dimensional perspective.

396
 Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

15.4.3 Richness versus Reach

Another perspective that accelerated the enthusiasm for KM and the
• development of knowledge products is the 'richness versus reach' thesis of
Evans and Wurster. They pointed out that the nature of communication has
drastically changed. Until now, one had a choice ofrichness or reach, but one
could not achieve both simultaneously. A face-to-face conversation, for
instance, is rich in content, nuance and interactivity but poor in reach. A radio
or TV broadcast has great reach but is poor in interactivity and nuance.
Communication strategies were always an either-or choice. With the Internet,
it is argued that we can craft systems that provide both richness and reach.
This has necessitated a rethink on how information and knowledge are shared
within organisations, an important concern of businesses wishing to harness
knowledge. Knowledge products targeted to specific domains, together with
the use of the web as the c.lelivery medium, we believe can provide the richness
and reach sought for in organisations.

15.5 KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTS

15.5.1 Need
The Internet, intranets, email and groupware make more data than ever before
available to the knowledge worker. Customer / user comments, communications
between staff members of an organisation and peers in a professional group,
internal research reports, trade and.,technical publications, and competitor and
other web sites are some examples of available heterogeneous electronic data.
As a result the literature on KM, information retrieval, corporate portals, digital
libraries and web-based information and document management technologies
express concern about the information overloaded, web-centered digital world,
and the need for better methods of knowledge organisation.

Information managers try to lower the cost of tasks that require discourse /
document analysis, if possible by using automated methods, to provide better
service to clients and improve the quality of information provided. Information
users need to have direct access to relevant information, for rapid awareness
of content, and to discover new ideas and relationships. For meeting these
needs a rapidly growing class of software products called enterprise KM
products has come up. Numerous vendors have entered the KM market with a
wide variety of products purported to manage and control the great quantities 397
Knowledge and Society of textual and other information needed to support enterprise functions and
activities, The tools and products in the KM market include, among many
others, search engines, natural language processing software, document '
management systems, and groupware products.

Thus, the idea of knowledge products arose out of concerns, primarily in the
corporate world but also in other spheres (e.g., government), ofthe information
overload phenomenon which we are subjected to because of the proliferation
of information in conventional and in digital forms. The ongoing need to manage
knowledge and discover the nuggets of knowledge in a sea of information has
led to the search for better methods of organising information for knowledge
discovery. The term knowledge organisation system encompasses all types of
schemes for organising information and supporting KM. These include
taxonomies, classification, clustering and categorisation schemes that organise
materials at a general level, subject headings that provide more specific access,
authority files that control variant versions of key information such as
geographic names, highly structured vocabularies, such as thesauri, and less
traditional schemes, such as semantic networks and ontologies. One kind of
knowledge product which had many votaries during the 1970s and 1980s,
namely, Expert Systems using artificial intelligence (AI) principles did not
make any significant dent primarily because of the difficulties and the cost of
capturing domain knowledge in an ongoing dynamic manner.

Many of the methods for knowledge organisation in the web environment are
based on the theories, principles and practices that librarians have long
formulated, understood and applied. For instance, classification schemes,
subject headings, authority files and thesauri. It would be useful to see if some
of these theoretical insights can indeed be applied in the context of new methods
now being developed to manage the great quantities of textual and other
information that drive the web.

15.5.2 Characteristics
Guttenbergs's printing press revolutionised human civilisation and sparked
the mass media revolution. Five hundred years later, the printed document or
an electronic version of it still largely governs the way we perceive information.
But now we are seeing a convergence of media. Technologies that make
representation, storage and distribution of not only text but of audio and video
as easy as that of text have enabled us to advance beyond the 'document-
oriented' paradigm. It is possible today for the development of products that
are truly knowledge-based.

A knowledge-based product should:

• have captured the tacit knowledge of one or more experts in a domain of

study or practice;

• be the result of collaboration between domain specialists and information

specialists;

• promote collaboration between and among users of the products and

domain specialists;
398
 • be rich in content and if possible have a wide reach within the potential Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
user community; enable quick and easy access to information about the
domain;

• be possible for users of the product to learn new skills, gain insights (or
improve skills) in the domain that is targeted by the product;

• where possible, promote cross-cultural information access, understanding

and communication; and

• continuously evolve with new inputs resulting from interactions that take
place in the process of using it.

Self Check Exercise

7) Discuss the need of enterprise KM products.

8) How does ICT enable to capture tacit knowledge?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

............................................................................................................................

15.5.3 Architecture
The fact that more than 80% of the content on the Web is text has given rise to
automated text mining solutions. The Gartner Group, an active consulting firm
in KM proposed a multi-tier KM architecture. At the lowest level, an intranet
and an extranet with platform servers, network services, and distributed object
models are used as the foundation for KM applications. Databases and
workgroup applications constitute the next level. Above this layer are the text
and database drivers to handle various corporate data and information assets,
Knowledge Retrieval (KR) functions and concept and physical knowledge
maps. Above this is a web user interface. In this architecture, applications and
services are layered and have complimentary roles. No single infrastructure or
system is capable of serving an organisation's complete KM needs. Second,
Knowledge Retrieval (KR) is considered as the newest addition to the existing
IT architecture and is the core of the entire architecture.

The Gartner group presents the KR function along two dimensions: a semantic
and a collaboration dimension. In the former, linguistic analysis, thesauri,
dictionaries, semantic networks, clustering (categorisation/table of contents)
..
are used to create an organisation's Concept Yellow Pages. These are used as
organisational knowledge maps (conceptual and physical). The proposed
techniques consist of both algorithmic and ontology generation and usage. 399
 Knowledge and Society
The Collaboration dimension's goal is to achieve "value recommendations"
identified by experts and trust advisers, community building activities, and
collaborative filters. Domain experts who hold valuable tacit knowledge can
be explicitly identified and consulted for critical decisions. (Fig. 15.2).

Concept Yellow Pages ,--I -- => Retrieved Knowledge

Clustering,

Classification, Categorisation,

Table of Contents Collaborative filters

Semantic networks index Communities
Dictionaries Trusted Advisor
Thesauri Expert identification
Linguistic analysis

Data extraction

Collaboration Value

Recommendations
Fig. 15.2: Semantic and Collaboration Dimensions

The above formulation provided by the Gartner group is obviously targeted to

text-oriented sources of knowledge. When it comes to multimedia products,
which knowledge-based products will predominantly be in the future, text
mining alone will not be adequate.

Knowledge products, as defined earlier, are products that utilise both the
semantic and collaborative dimensions for their development, albeit in a limited
and specific domain. In this sense, such knowledge products could well become
an ongoing and integral part of an organisation's ,knowledge resources. Such
knowledge products operate also along three other dimensions, viz., information
access, communication and collaboration. [Haravu and Neelameghan, 2003].

A mong the several tools and techniques used in KM, text mining has gained
popularity. It also aids knowledge discovery an important objective of
knowledge-based services in enterprises. Text mining is discussed in some
detail below.

These are meant to provide access to information, enable learning to take place,
enable collaboration and communication between like-minded people, and the
sharing of knowledge in a specific domain, ideally in an ongoing manner and
evolving with time.

Self Check Exercise

400 9) Discuss the collaborative dimension of KR function.

 Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below. Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

15.6 DATA MINING AND TEXT MINING

I
I- 15.6.1 Knowledge Discovery in Databases
During the past couple of decades many papers have been devoted to
Knowledge Discovery (KD) through information retrieval systems. Various
software packages for data and text mining and related processes are available
as aids to KD. Roy Davies (1989) has reviewed the literature on the relation
between information retrieval and classification and KD. Don Swanson in a
series of papers has argued "that some knowledge which has never been stated
explicitly or even implicitly (though it may be implicit in the literature as a
whole) may be readily inferred from what has already been published. Other
authors too have discussed similar ideas. They have used source linking, citation
indexes and related tools and methods in their studies. Application of statistical
techniques especially in citation studies, bibliometric coupling, correlation,
pattern recognition and other areas of informetrics and scientometrics helps in
KD.

"Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) revolves around the investigation

and creation of knowledge, processes, algorithms, and the mechanisms for
retrieving potential knowledge from data collections." [Norton, 1999].
"Classification schemes have properties that enable the representation of entities
and relationships in structures that reflect knowledge of the domain being
classified." In this context, hierarchies, trees, paradigms, and faceted
classification can reflect structures, discover, and create new knowledge
[Kwasnik, 1999]. How to find interesting previously unknown implicit
information in scientific literature is examined in the paper "Implicit text
linkages between medicine records: using Arrowsmith as an aid to scientific
discovery" by Swanson and Smallheiser (1999). "Extracting hidden knowledge
from humanities databases is especially problematic because the literature,
written in 'everyday' rather than technical language, lacks the precision required
for efficient retrieval, and because humanities scholars seek new analogies
rather than causes ... an illuminating new humanities analogy was found by
constructing a search statement in which proper names were coupled with
associated concepts [Cory, 1977]. Small (1999) presents a "methodology for
creating pathways through the scientific literature following eo-citation links."
Also discusses the "implications of information pathways for retrieval, the
unity of science, discovery, epistemology and evaluation." Quin He (1999)
discusses eo-word analysis. based on the eo-occurrence frequency of pairs of 401
 Knowledge and Society words or phrases, for discovering links among subjects. Such studies can also
help in tracing the development of science. Ahonen (1999) discusses "a method
of extracting Maximal Frequent Sequences [MFS] in a set of documents." An
MFS is a "sequence of words that is frequent in the document collection ...
that is not contained in any other longer frequent sequence ... A sequence is
considered to be frequent if it appears in at least n documents where n is the
frequency threshold given." The technique is used to discover other regularities
and similarity mapping in document collections. This could assist information
retrieval, hypertext linking, clustering, and discovery of frequent eo-
occurrences. Pinto and Lancaster (1999) conclude: "the wide availability of
complete text in electronic form does not reduce the value of abstracts for
information retrieval activities even in such more sophisticated applications
as knowledge discovery." In "Template Mining for Information Extraction
.
,
from Digital Documents", Chowdhury (1999) points out that with the rapid
growth of digital information resources, a number of information extraction
(lE) systems from natural language text particularly in the areas of news/fact
retrieval and in domain-specific areas, such as in chemical and patent
information retrieval, have been developed. Template mining approach
involving a natural language processing (NLP) technique to extract data directly
from text if either the data and/or text surrounding the data form recognisable
patterns. When text matches a template, the system extracts data according to
instructions associated with that template. Reviews template mining research
and also shows how templates are used in Web search engines (e.g. Alta Vista),
and in meta-search engines (e.g. Ask Jeeves) for helping end-users generate
natural language search expressions. Some potential areas of application of
template mining for extraction of different kinds of information from digital
documents are highlighted, and how such applications are used are indicated.
It is suggested that, in order to facilitate template mining, standardisation in
the presentation and layout of information within digital documents has to be
ensured, and this can be done by generating various templates that authors can
easily download and use while preparing digital documents. An overview of
KD literature and some case studies are presented by Neelameghan.

Self Check Exercise

10) What are the techniques used for KDD?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below .
. ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

15.6.2 Data Mining

Data mining is a step within the Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD)
402 proce~s through which an organisation's data assets are processed and analysed
to gain insights to assist decision-making. KDD originates with data held in Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
the organisation's data management systems or data warehouses. The steps to
knowledge discovery include data selection, processing, transformation, data
mining, interpretation and evaluation leading to discovery of new intelligence
or knowledge. In an institution, the internal data assets and those obtained
from external sources and warehoused are processed and analysed in depth to
gain insights on the research object, event or situation.

Data mining techniques used have to be specific to the domain and also depend
on the area of application. Important requirements are that the data collected
should be relevant and of a high-quality. (See also Text Mining). Analytical
techniques used in data.mining include statistical methods, such as, regression
analysis, discriminant analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis,
word usage and eo-occurrence analysis, and time-series - as well as
mathematical modeling. In-depth classification and related indexes are also
helpful in data mining. ,

15.6.3 Text Mining

Text .mining is receiving considerable research and development attention.
Content searching using a search engine based on a search term - keyword or
string - does not address the information overload problem adequately enough
even with methods that list the retrievals according to one or other ranking
methods. This has led to the need to differentiate between search and discovery.
A search engine's main function is to locate documents based on the user's
keywords. A discovery engine on the other hand attempts to extract relevant
textual data from a corpus of text and then provides a graphical, dynamic and
navigable index. The visual presentation of concepts is aimed at promoting a
better understanding of the underlying content and structure of the textual data,
leading hopefully to improved retrieval and hence productivity of the knowledge
worker. Fig. 15.3 shows the difference between a search engine and a discovery
engine.

Descriptive
Words '& Phrases Engine Documents

~~~
Unstructured
Search
Engine
~
D····... ••
•
•
•

~~

Structured
Discovery
Engine ~CJ~~J •
•

Fig.lS.3: Difference between Search Engine and Discovery Engine

Source: Semio Corporation

Text mining is best suited for "discovery" purposes, i.e., learning and
discovering information hidden in the documents of an organisation's
unstructured repositories. Reasons for using text mining include:
403
• Uncovering a "narrative" in an unstructured mass of text;
 Knowledge and Society • Learning about a topic;

• Exploring how an environment, e.g. market, is evolving; and

• Looking for new ideas or relations in topics.

Text mining is useful because of the enormous amount of knowledge, either

within an organisation or outside of it, that resides in text documents. Since
most organisations rely on textual information, both from outside and inside
the organisation, working with this sea of text can become extremely difficult.
The whole collection of text is simply too large to read and analyse easily.
Furthermore, it changes constantly and requires ongoing review and analysis
if one is to stay current. Text mining addresses these problems, providing
tools to analyse and learn from this kind of dynamic information.
.• However, text mining is not an end in itself; it is a support tool and complements
search engines. A text-mining product supports and enhances the knowledge
worker's creativity and innovation with open-ended exploration and discovery.
The individual applies intelligence and creativity to endow meaning and
relevance to information, turning information into knowledge. Text mining
advances this process, empowering the knowledge worker to explore and gain
knowledge from a knowledge base.

There are several types of industry players in text mining: IR vendors, such as,
Verity, Excalibur, and Dataware are refining their product functionalities from
text retrieval to text mining. There are also niche document management
players, such as, PCDOC and Documenturn who have developed successful
products for managing document content and workflows. Large IT platform
companies such as Oracle, Lotus, and Microsoft are aiming to improve the
KR functionalities of their database or workgroup products. These companies
may lack in significant linguistic and analytical abilities. The last type of vendor
consists of small, new companies such as Autonomy, Perspecta, InXight, Semio
and KCC. These have new analytical and Iinguistic technologies but may lack
in execution experience and integration ability.

According to Chen, the approaches of consultants and refinements bemg sought

by IT vendors, described briefly above, are evidence of the trend away from
the use of simple and basic search and retrieval techniques to KR using text-
mining technologies.

Text processing and analysis is significantly more difficult than processing

and analysis of structured data as in DBMS systems. The status of text mining
today is much like that of DBMS twenty years ago. The real challenges and
the potential payoffs for an effective universal text solution are equally
appealing. It is inevitable that whoever dominates this space will become the
Oracle (in text).

The above formulation is obviously targeted to text-oriented sources of

krrowledge. When it comes to multimedia products, which are likely to be
predominant in the future, text mining alone will not be adequate.

Self Check Exercise

11) What are the techniques used for data mining':'
404
12) Distinguish between search engine and discovery engine. Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
13) Describe the usefulness of text mining.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

...........................................................................................................................
/

15.6.4 Text Analysis and Mining Techniques

First, text mining requires natural language processing abilities. Second, while
data mining attempts to .identify causal relationships through classification or
supervised learning techniques, text mining aims to create organisational
knowledge maps or concept yellow pages. Third, text mining deals more with
diverse and eclectic collections of systems and formats (email, web pages,
Notes databases, f\ewsgroups, etc.). Both data mining and text mining adopt
significant analytical methods and their results and are often highly visual and
graphical. Data visualisation and information visualisation techniques attempt
to create an interface that is well suited for human decision-making.

At the heart, text mining is a cross between IR and AI. IR has gone through
several generations of development. In the 1970s, computational techniques
based on inverted indexes and vector spaces were developed and tested on
computer systems. Also, probabilistic retrieval methods based on Bayesian
statistics were developed. Although more than 30 years old, this still forms the
basis of modern IR systems. In the 1980's, coinciding with the developments
of new AI techniques, know ledge-based and expert systems that aim to emulate
domain specialists were developed. User modeling and natural language
processing (NLP) techniques were developed to assist in representing users
and documents. These were applied to improve online searching.

Haravu and Neelameghan (2003) discuss the limitations of text mining in

knowledge mapping.

Realising the difficulties of creating domain-specific knowledge bases and heuristics,

researchers in the 1990's adopted new machine-learning techniques for information
analysis. AI techniques such as neural networks, genetic algorithms, and symbolic
leamingwere tested in IR [Chen, 2001], Text analysis includes such features as
natural or statistical language processing, indexer or phrase creator, entity extraction,
conceptual associations (automatic thesauri), domain-specific knowledge filter (using
vocabulariesor ontologies),automatictaxonomy creation (clustering),multi-document
and multi-language support. Core text mining analysis can be classified into four
main layers:linguisticanalysisand NLp, statisticalor eo-occurrenceanalysis,statistical
and neural networks clustering/categorisation, and visualisation. (Fig. 15.4)

405
 Knowledge and Society

c.:=:::>Clustering/Categorisation

c.:=:::>Co-occurrence Analysis

c:::=::> Linguistic analysis

Fig. 15.4: Layers of Core Text Mining

, At the lowest level, linguistic analysis and NLP techniques aim to identify key concept
• descriptors (who/whatlwherelwhen) embedded in textual documents. Different types
of linguistic analysis techniques have been developed. Word and inverted indexing
can be combined with stemming, morphological analysis, Boolean, proximity, range
and fuzzy search. The unit of analysis is 'word' . Phrasal analysis, on the other hand,
aims to extract meaningful noun phrase units or entities (e.g., people names,
organisation names, location names). Both linguistic and statistical analysis techniques
are plausible. In addition, semantic analysis based on techniques, such as, semantic
grammar and case grammar can be used to represent semantics (meaning) in
sentences. Semantic analysis is domain specific and lacks scalability. This often
requires a significant knowledge base or a domain lexicon creation effort and hence
it may not be suitable for general-purpose text mining across a wide spectrum of
domains.
Based on significant research in the IR and the computational linguistics communities,
it is generally agreed that phrasal-level analysis is more suited for coarse but scalable
text mining applications. Word-level analysis is noisy and lacks precision. Sentence
level is too structured and lacks practical applications. It is not coincidental that
most of the subject headings and concept descriptors adopted by library classification
schemes are noun phrases. Based on statistical and eo-occurrence techniques, link
analysis is performed to create automatic thesauri or conceptual associations of
extracted concepts. Existing human-created thesauri can also be integrated with
system-generated thesauri.
Statistical and neural network-based clustering and categorisation techniques are
often used to group similar documents, queries or communities in subject hierarchies,
which could then serve as corporate knowledge maps. Hierarchical clustering (single
link or multi link) and statistical clustering (multi-dimensional scaling, factor analysis)
techniques are precise but often computationally expensive. Neural network clustering
by Self-Organising Map (SOM) technique (cf.Teuvo Kohonen's self-organising
.networks, and visualisation), performs well and is fast and is most suited for large
scale text mining tasks. In addition, SOM lends itself to intuitive graphical visualisation
based on such visual parameters as size (a large region represents a more important
topic) and proximity (related topics are grouped in adjacent regions).

Visualisation and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) help to reveal concept

associations and visualise knowledge maps. Different representation structures
(tree, network) and interaction techniques (e.g., zooming, spotlight) can be
adopted to reveal knowledge more completely.
406
 Self Check Exercise Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
14) Enumerate the characteristic features of text analysis.
15) Enumerate the different clustering techniques.

i Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
I-

I
...........................................................................................................................

. . .

15.7 SUMMARY
This Unit, to begin with, briefly discusses the emergence of 'Management' as a
discipline; differentiates data and information from knowledge, and different
categorisations of knowledge.

Following consideration of what is knowledge management (KM), discussed

the changing socio-economic environment in a knowledge society and the
impact of information and communication technologies especially on
enterprises.

After presenting the characteristics of of knowledge management systems,

discusses practical approaches and strategies of KM

Following discussion on the need and characteristics of knowledge-based

product; outlines the architecture of knowledge products.

Concludes with a discussion on data mining, text analysis and text mining -
their usefulness and limitations in developing knowledge products

15.8 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) Knowledge is what the know er knows. It is specific to the knower, created
from information, integrated with experience, reflected upon and
interpreted in a particular context. Outside it exists as embodiments in the
form of documents, man- made artifacts, cultural practices etc. Knowledge
is renewable, reusable, increasing in value with Use. It is intangible,
boundary less, dynamic, and of no use if not used at a specific time.

2) Knowledge is of two types, viz., tacit and explicit. Explicit knowledge

can be communicated and expressed in the form of documents. Tacit
knowledge, on the other hand, is highly personalised and subjective. It is
inherent to an individual embedded in his actions and experiences. It is
difficult to formalise and document.

3) KM refers to managing the knowledge of individuals to be used as an

organisational resource. From an information system perspective, it implies 407
Knowledge and Society capturing and storing employees' knowledge to use by making accessible to
others in the organisation.
4) KM helps an organi -ation in quicker problem solving, better decision making,
reduced R&D costs, increased worker independence, enhanced customer
relations, and improved services to customers.
5) The processes taking place in the knowledge subsystems are: acquisition,
creation, storage, transfer, and utilisation of knowledge.
6) KM from a two-dimensional perspective involves:
Activities involved in building a learning organisation, viz., creating,
collecting, exchanging, using, and internalising knowledge for innovation
and development.
The second dimension refers to activities that enable knowledge creation.
These are: I

a) Strategy: for alignment of corporate and KM strategies;

b) Measurement: of the benefits of KM;

c) Policy: guidelines for KM provided by the organisation;
d) Content: subset of corporate knowledge base in electronic form;
e) Process: includes the processes used by employees to achieve the
goals of the organisation;
f) Technology: includes the lCT elements used for KM;
g) Culture: Refers to the organisational environment for KM
7) KM products refer to a variety of software products that have been designed
to overcome the information overload problem in KM products. These
help to provide better quality of products and thus, improved services to
users.
8) Tacit knowledge is specific to an individual embedded in his actions and
behaviour. lCT helps to capture these through microphones, cameras, etc.

9) The collaborative dimension of KR helps to place a value on the KP. It is

done through domain experts, collaborative filters, trust advisers, and
community building activities.
10) The techniques used for KDD include: faceted classification that helps to
draw hierarchies, trees; statistical techniques, e.g., eo-word analysis, eo-
occurrence frequency of pairs of words; and bibliometric, and
scientometric techniques.
11) Statistical techniques, e.g., regress ional analysis, discrimination analysis,
factor analysis, principal component analysis, word usage, eo- occurrence
analysis, and time series analysis is used for data mining.
12) A search engine locates documents in response to a user's request whereas
discovery engine extracts relevant information from a corpus of text and
then provides a graphical, dynamic, and navigable index.

408
13) Text mining provides tools to analyse the vast sea of textual information, which Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
is dynamic and difficult to handle and analyse for a learning organisation.

14) The characteristic features of text analysis are: Natural or statistical language
processing, indexer or phrase creator, entity extraction, conceptual associations,
domain specific knowledge filter, automatic taxonomy creation, and multi-
document and multi-language support.

15) The different clustering techniques are: Hierarchical clustering, Statistical

clustering, and Neural network clustering.

15.9 KEYWORDS
Abstract Knowledge ' The form of knowledge that is
characterised into essential features of
meaning and' cause- and - effect
relationships that can be communicated
and codified. Abstraction provides
structure and meaning to phenomena.
Concrete Knowledge , - Knowledge can be made concrete when it,
is embedded in physical artifacts like
products, production processes,
equipments, and technology.
Data Mining (DM) Data Mining (DM) is part of a process by
which information can be extracted from
data and databases and used to iriform
decision-making in a variety of contexts
.DM includes a range of tools and methods
for extracting' information. DM
incorporates not only data analysis but also
involves determining appropriate
questions and interpreting the results.
Declarative Knowledge The .basics of a shared and explicit
understanding of concepts, ideas,
relationships, and categories that enables
effective communication among people in
organisations. It is characterised by know-
what of an event or task.
Explicit Knowledge Knowledge that is transmittable in formal,
systematic language. '
Knowledge Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed
experience, values, contextual information,
expert in and grounded intuition that
provides environment and framework for
,evaluating and integrating new experiences
and information. It originates and is
applied in the minds of the knower. In
organisations, it often becomes embedded
not only in documents and repositories but 409
 13) Text mining provides tools to analyse the vast sea of textual information, which Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
is dynamic and difficult to handle and analyse for a learning organisation.

14) The characteristic features of text analysis are: Natural or statistical language
processing, indexer or phrase creator, entity extraction, conceptual associations,
domain specific knowledge filter, automatic taxonomy creation, and multi-
document and multi-language support.

15) The different clustering techniques are: Hierarchical clustering, Statistical

clustering, and Neural network clustering.

15.9 KEYWORDS
Abstract Knowledge The form of knowledge that is
characterised into essential features of
•
meaning and' cause- and - effect
relationships that can be communicated
and codified. Abstraction provides
structure and meaning to phenomena.
Concrete Knowledge Knowledge can be made concrete when it,
is embedded in physical artifacts like
products, production processes,
equipments, and technology.
Data Mining (DM) , Data Mining (DM) is part of a process by
which information can be extracted from
data and databases and used to inform
decision-making in a variety of contexts
.DM includes a range of tools and methods
for extracting information. DM
incorporates not only data analysis but also
involves determining appropriate
questions and interpreting the results.
Declarative Knowledge The basics of a shared and explicit
understanding of concepts, ideas,
relationships, and categories that enables
effective communication among people in
organisations. It is characterised by know-
what of an event or task.
, Explicit Knowledge Knowledge that is transmittable in formal,
systematic language. '
Knowledge Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed
experience, values, contextual information,
expert in and grounded intuition that
provides environment and framework for
'evaluating and integrating new experiences
and information. It originates and is
applied in the minds of the knower. In
organisations, it often becomes embedded
not only in documents and repositories but 409
 Knowledge and Society also in organisational routines, processes,
practices, and norms. (Davenport and
Prusak).
Knowledge Base A computer accessible collection of
knowledge about a subject in a variety of
forms such as facts, rules of inference,
frames, and objects.

Knowledge Management The process of organising and sharing the

diverse forms of business information
created within an organisation. KM can
include managing enterprise document

.
•
•
libraries, intranet websites, and other types
of knowledge bases .

Knowledge Management Knowledge - based systems that support

Systems (KMS) the creation, organisation, and
dissemination of business knowledge
within the organisation.

Knowledge Workers People in an organisation whose primary

activities include creating, using, and
distributing information and knowledge.

Organisational Learning The process improving actions through

better knowledge and understanding and
the process of detecting and correcting
errors. It occurs through shared insights,
knowledge, and mental models. It builds
on past knowledge and experience.

Procedural Knowledge Is how an activity is performed or happens.

Procedural knowledge shared among
people in organisations enables their
actions to be coordinated smoothly.

Tacit Knowledge Is personalised, context specific, and hard

to formalise and communicate.

15.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

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Ackerman, Mark S. [et al.]. (2003) Sharing Expertise: Beyond Knowledge

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Ahonen, Helena (1999). Knowledge Discovery in Documents by Extracting

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AI-Ali, Neermien (2003). Comprehensive Intellectual Capital Management:

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410
Albrecht, K. (2003). The Power of Minds at Work: Organisational Intelligence Knowledge Management:
Concepts and Tools
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