Molecular-Biology

The Genetic Material
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a genetic

material stored in the nucleus.
- The nucleus is a part of the eukaryotic cell and
contains nucleic acids and it is responsible for
protein production.
Small segments of DNA are called genes.

- holds the instructions for how to produce a single
protein.
- molecular unit of heredity of all organisms
- often called the blueprint for life because they tell
each of your cells what to do and when to do it
Scientists estimate that humans have about 25,000

different genes
DNA controls heredity by containing the code or set of

instructions for building the functional and structural
proteins that make up your body.
Characteristics
1. DNA is a double-helix and has two strands running in opposite directions.
2. It is made up of building blocks called nucleotides, which consists of three parts:

- A deoxyribose sugar,
- A phosphate group, and
- A nitrogenous base
The nitrogenous bases are grouped into two

▪︎ two-ringed purines — Adenine (A) and Guanine
(G)
▪︎ single-ringed pyrimidines — Cytosine (C) and
Thymine (T)
▪︎In the double-stranded DNA, the two strands run

in opposite directions and the bases pair up such
that A
always pairs with T and G pairs with C.
- A-T base-pair has 2 hydrogen bonds
- G-C base-pair has 3 hydrogen bonds.
▪︎ Purines and pyrimidines form complementary

bases, expected that they have same ratios
known as Chargaff’s rule.
RNA
The ribonucleic acid or RNA is single-stranded and does not

have thymine.
- Named after the five-carbon sugar group that makes up its
backbone —ribose.
- RNA may also be found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of the

cell.
- In the single-stranded RNA, the bases pair up such that A

always pairs with U and G pairs with C.
Three kinds of RNA are the

1. messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
3. transfer RNA (tRNA).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA
Pentose Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Base Composition Adenine (A) and Thymine (T) Adenine (A) and Uracil (U)
Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
Number of strands Double-stranded Single stranded

(Forms a double helix)
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR GENETICS
Gene is a portion of the DNA. In genetics language, the material found inside the nucleus which
makes up an organism’s complete set of genes called genotype must be expressed as an
observable characteristic or phenotype.
The flow of genetic information is from DNA to messenger RNA(mRNA) to protein.

- This series of processes of protein production is called protein synthesis.
□ DNA Replication
Replication is a process by which a copy of the original genetic information is duplicated so that
each new cell receives the same information as that of the parent cell.
- This process is known as semi-conservative because one old strand is conserved and
used and a new strand is made.
▪︎The two parental DNA acts as a template to synthesize a new DNA.
▪︎The points where DNA is currently unwinding are called replication forks.
1. Helicase unwinds and then separates the two sides of the DNA molecule by breaking the
hydrogen bonds between their nitrogenous bases.
- Each separate half of the DNA can now serve as a template or pattern for the creation of
a new strand of DNA
- This separation exposes all of the nitrogenous bases on both sides of the DNA to the
environment within the nucleus where free nucleotides are present.
2. The creation of two new identical DNA strands.
- Free nucleotides pair with the base exposed as the template strand continuously unzip.
- The enzyme complex-DNA Polymerase attaches these nucleotides to form a
new strand similar to each template.
- DNA polymerase does this by creating new hydrogen bonds between the available
nitrogenous bases of the free nucleotides and those on both sides of the original DNA
molecule.
3. A sub-unit of the DNA polymerase proofreads the new DNA and the DNA ligase (enzyme)
seals up and joins sugar-phosphate backbones of DNA fragments into one long strand.
Other enzymes
▪︎Topoisomerase - relaxes the super-coiled DNA
▪︎DNA Primase - Provides the starting point for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new
strand
Two similar double-stranded molecules of DNA result from replication. The new copies
automatically wind up again.
Leading Vs. Lagging Strands
The issue with this directionality thing is that DNA polymerases on each of the DNA strands will
move in opposite directions.
▪︎leading strand — When it moves TOWARDS the replication fork

▪︎lagging strand — When it moves AWAY from the replication fork
□ DNA TRANSCRIPTION
This process rewrites the genetic code in DNA into a messenger RNA (mRNA).
Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination
Step 1: Initiation — beginning of transcription.
It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase

binds to a region of a gene called the promoter.
- This signals the DNA to unwind so the
enzyme can ‘‘read’’ the bases in one of
the DNA strands.
The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of

mRNA with a complementary sequence of
bases.
Step 2: Elongation — addition of nucleotides to

the mRNA strand.
RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand

and builds the mRNA molecule, using
complementary base pairs.
- There is a brief time during this process
when the newly formed RNA is bound to
the unwound DNA.
- During this process, an adenine (A) in
the DNA binds to uracil (U) in the RNA.
Step 3: Termination — ending of transcription
occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA
strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.
□ DNA TRANSLATION
It is the process that takes the information passed from DNA as messenger RNA and turns it into
a series of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds.
- essentially a translation from one code (nucleotide sequence) to another code (amino
acid sequence).
The ribosome is the site of this action, just as RNA polymerase was the site of mRNA synthesis.
- it matches the base sequence on the mRNA in sets of three bases (called codons) to
tRNA molecules that have the three complementary bases in their anticodon regions
.
- Again, the base-pairing rule is important in this recognition (A binds to U and C binds to
G).
The ribosome moves along the mRNA, matching 3 base pairs at a time and adding the amino
acids to the polypeptide chain.
- When the ribosome reaches one of the "stop" codes, the ribosome releases both the
polypeptide and the mRNA.
- This polypeptide will twist into its native conformation and begin to act as a
protein in the cell's metabolism.
The steps in the translation are:

1. The ribosome binds to mRNA at a specific area.
2. The ribosome starts matching tRNA anticodon sequences to the mRNA codon
sequence.
3. Each time a new tRNA comes into the ribosome, the amino acid that it was carrying gets
added to the elongating polypeptide chain.
4. The ribosome continues until it hits a stop sequence, then it releases the polypeptide
and the mRNA.
5. The polypeptide forms into its native shape and starts acting as a functional protein in
the cell.
SUMMARY:
▪︎mRNA copies DNA’s code and carries the genetic information to the ribosome, it is made in the
nucleus and leaves through nuclear pore, it contain nitrogen bases A, G, C and U
▪︎sequence of 3 bases are called codon

● AUG - methionine or start codon
● UAA, UAG or UGA - stop codon
▪︎rRNA along with other protein, makes up the ribosomes

▪︎tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where proteins are synthesized

Molecular-Biology

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The Genetic Material

Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a genetic

Small segments of DNA are called genes.

Scientists estimate that humans have about 25,000

DNA controls heredity by containing the code or set of

1. DNA is a double-helix and has two strands running in opposite directions.

2. It is made up of building blocks called nucleotides, which consists of three parts:

The nitrogenous bases are grouped into two

▪︎In the double-stranded DNA, the two strands run

▪︎ Purines and pyrimidines form complementary

The ribonucleic acid or RNA is single-stranded and does not

- RNA may also be found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of the

- In the single-stranded RNA, the bases pair up such that A

Three kinds of RNA are the

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

Pentose Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Number of strands Double-stranded Single stranded

THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR GENETICS

The flow of genetic information is from DNA to messenger RNA(mRNA) to protein.

▪︎The two parental DNA acts as a template to synthesize a new DNA.

2. The creation of two new identical DNA strands.

Leading Vs. Lagging Strands

▪︎leading strand — When it moves TOWARDS the replication fork

Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination

Step 1: Initiation — beginning of transcription.

It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase

The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of

Step 2: Elongation — addition of nucleotides to

RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand

Step 3: Termination — ending of transcription

The steps in the translation are:

▪︎sequence of 3 bases are called codon

▪︎rRNA along with other protein, makes up the ribosomes

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