SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FOR PRELIMS 2021

 1. INTRODUCTION
Definitions
➢ Biotechnology is the use of biological
processes . Organisms , or system to
manufacture products intended to
improve the quality of human life .
➢ E.g curd, alcohol, GM crops test tude baby
, developing a DNA vaccine or correcting a
defective gene , are all part of
biotechnology
➢ Depending on the tools and applications,
it often ovevlaps with the (related) fields of
bioengineering , biomedical engineering
,bio manufacturing , molecular enginerring
etc.
CHAPTER – 11 :
BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES
AND PROCESSES
Biotechnology deals with techniques of using
live organisms or enzymes from organisms to
produce products and processes useful to
humans. The definition given by EFB
(European Federation of Biotechnology) is as
follows; ‘The integration of natural science
and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and
molecular analogues for products and
services’.
 PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Among many, the two core techniques that enabled birth of
modern biotechnology are :

(i) Genetic engineering : Techniques to alter the chemistry of

genetic material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these into
host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host
organism.

(ii) Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free)

ambience in chemical engineering processes to enable growth
of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities
for the manufacture of biotechnological products like
antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.
You know the advantages of sexual reproduction over
asexual reproduction. The former provides opportunities
for variations and formulation of unique combinations of
genetic setup, some of which may be beneficial to the
organism as well as the population. Asexual
reproduction preserves the genetic information, while
sexual reproduction permits variation. Traditional
hybridisation procedures used in plant and animal
breeding, very often lead to inclusion and multiplication
of undesirable genes along with the desired genes. The
techniques of genetic engineering which include
creation of recombinant DNA, use of gene cloning and
gene transfer, overcome this limitation and allows us to
isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable
genes without introducing undesirable genes into the
target organism.
Do you know the likely fate of a piece of DNA, which is
somehow transferred into an alien organism? Most likely, this
piece of DNA would not be able to multiply itself in the progeny
cells of the organism. But, when it gets integrated into the
genome of the recipient, it may multiply and be inherited along
with the host DNA. This is because the alien piece of DNA has
become part of a chromosome, which has the ability to replicate.
In a chromosome there is a specific DNA sequence called the
origin of replication, which is responsible for initiating
replication. Therefore, for the multiplication of any alien piece of
DNA in an organism it needs to be a part of a chromosome(s)
which has a specific sequence known as ‘origin of replication’.
Thus, an alien DNA is linked with the origin of replication, so
that, this alien piece of DNA can replicate and multiply itself in
the host organism. This can also be called as cloning or making
multiple identical copies of any template DNA.
The construction of the first recombinant
DNA emerged from the possibility of
linking a gene encoding antibiotic
resistance with a native plasmid.

The cutting of DNA at specific locations

became possible with the discovery of the
so-called molecular scissors’– restriction
enzymes. The cut piece of DNA was then
linked with the plasmid DNA. These
plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the
piece of DNA attached to it.
You probably know that mosquito acts as an
insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite
into human body. In the same way, a plasmid The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic
can be used as vector to deliver an alien piece resistance gene in
of DNA into the host organism. The linking of E. coli was called cloning of antibiotic
antibiotic resistance gene with the plasmid resistance gene in E. coli.
vector became possible with the enzyme DNA You can hence infer that there are three
ligase, which acts on cut DNA molecules and basic steps in genetically
joins their ends. This makes a new combination modifying an organism —
of circular autonomously replicating DNA (i) identification of DNA with desirable
created in vitro and is known as recombinant genes;
DNA. When this DNA is transferred into (ii) introduction of the identified DNA into
Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to the host;
Salmonella, it could replicate using the new (iii) maintenance of introduced DNA in the
host’s DNA polymerase enzyme and make host and transfer of the DNA
multiple copies. to its progeny.
Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology:
Restriction Enzymes (Molecular Scissors):
• Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called Nucleases. There are of
two kinds; Exonucleases and Endonucleases. Exonucleases remove nucleotides from
the ends of the DNA whereas, endonucleases make cuts at specific position within the
DNA.
What are Palindromes?
These are groups of letters that form the same words when read both forward and
backward, eg. “MALAYALAM”. The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that
reads same on the two strands when orientation of reading is kept the same. Restriction
enzymes cut the strand of DNA a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites, but
between the same two bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single stranded portions
at the ends called Sticky ends. The same enzyme cuts both DNA (vector and foreign DNAs)
strands at the same site with sticky ends and these can be joined together using DNA-
ligase.
Separation and Isolation of DNA fragments (DNA
of interest):
• The cutting of DNA by restriction endonucleases results in the
fragments of DNA. These fragments can be separated by a
technique known as Gel Electrophoresis. The DNA fragments
are separated according to their size. The separated DNA
fragments can be visualized only after staining the DNA with
Ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation.

• Now DNA fragments appear bright orange coloured bands. The

separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and
extracted from the gel piece. This step is known as Elution .

• These DNA fragments are purified and used in constructing

recombinant DNA with cloning vector.
Cloning Vectors (Vehicles for Cloning):
• Vector serves as a vehicle to carry a foreign DNA sequence
into a given host cell.
• Salient features of a Vector:
1. It should contain an origin of replication so that it is able to
multiply within the host cell.
2. It should incorporate a selectable marker (antibiotic
resistance gene), which will allow to select those host cells
that contain the vector from
3. amongst those which do not.
4. The vector must also have atleast one unique restriction
endonuclease recognition site to enable foreign DNA to be
inserted into the vector
5. during the generation of a recombinant DNA molecule.
6. The vector should be relatively small in size.
7. The most commonly used vectors are – Plasmids and
Bacteriophages.
1) BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF GENETIC MASTERIAL
➢ I) GENE
➢ It is basic physical and functional unit of hereditary .
It contains the code for a molecule that has a
function they act as instructions to make molecules
called proteins
➢ Genes are located on dna . It is a short section of
DNA DNA can be cut and separated , forming a sort
of bar code that is different from one person to the
next
➢ In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred
DNA basses to more than 2 million bases.
➢ The human genome project has estimated that
humans have between 20,000 and 25000 genes.
➢ Gene mapping
➢ Determining the gene’s
functionality and position of the
gene in the chromosome is
called gene mapping .
II) DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
➢ DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost
all other organisms . Nearly every cell in a person ‘s
body has the same DNA most DNA is located in the
cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA ). But a
small amount of DNA can also be found in the
mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or
mt DNA )
➢ DNA is long polyment of deoxyribonucleotides. Ie.
➢ A deoxyribonuleotide is the monomer , or single , unit
,of DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid .
➢ The lenth of the dna is usually defined as number of
nucleotides ( or a pair of nucleotides referred to as
base pairs) present in it .
➢ Human DNA is 3.3 *10 base pairs .
Structure of polynucleotide chain.
➢ A nucleotide has three components a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar ,
(deoxyribose in case of DNA ), and a phosphate group .
➢ There are two types of nitrogenous base .
➢ Purines (adenine and guanine )
➢ Pyrimidines (cytosine uracil and thymine
➢ Note : thymine is only found in DNA and uracil only in RNA .
➢ DNA bases pair up with each other , a with T and C with G, to form units called
base pairs .
➢ The bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bond (h – bound) forming
base pairs (bp) . Adenine from two hydrogen bonds with thymine from opposite
strand and pieces of the ladder.
➢ The two chains are coiled in right handed fashion .
How information is stored .:
➢ The information of DNA is stored as a code made up of the four chemical bases .
Adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
➢ Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases and more than 99% of those bases
are the same in all people .
➢ The order , or sequence of these bases determines the information available for
building and maintaining an organism.
➢ As the sequence changes. The protein which will be formed would also change .
What is DNA profiling / DNA fingerprinting / DNA testing or DNA typing .
➢ DNA profiling is a forensic technique used to identify individuals by characteristics
of their DNA .
➢ A DNA profile is a small set of DNA variations that is very likely to be different in
all unrelated individuals, thereby being as unique to individuals as are figerprints.
III) DARK DNA
WHY IN NEWS?
➢ Researchers have discovered a new type of mutation
of the non – coding parts of the genome that can
cause cancer. The study published in nature provides
a new potential target for therapies for cancer
including that of the brain, liver and blood .
Basics
➢ Some animal genomes seem to be missing certain
genes, ones that appear in other similar species and
must be present to keep the anImal alive . These
apparently missing genes have been dubbed “dark
DNA “
HOW WAS DARK DNA CONCEPTUALIZED FOR THE FIRST TIME ?.
➢ Scientists while studying the genome of the stand rat, a species of gerbil that lives in
deserts , to understand why the animal is particularly susceptible to type 2 diabetes, found
that the gene pdxl that controls the secrection of insulin was missing , as were 87 other
genes surrounding it . But these genes are so essential that animal cannot survive without it
. Further , the rat’s body tissues contained chemical products that the instructions from
missing gene would create. This was only possible if the genes were present somewhere in
the genome , indicating that they are not really missing but just hidden.
➢ DNA sequence of these genes are very rich in C and G molecules . It is already known that
GC rich sequence cause problems for certain DNA squencing technologies. This also makes
it likely that the genes scientists were looking for were hard to detect rather than missing .
➢ This is similar to the concept of dark matter a mysterious stuff that apparently makes up 27
% of the universe but can’t be detected by conventional means . On the same lines, the
hidden sequence of DNA is also called DARK DNA.
➢ This kind of dark DNA has previously been found in birds. Scientists that had found
that 274 genes are missing from currently sequenced bird genomes. These include
the gene of leptin (a hormone that regulates energy balance ) which scientists
have been unable to find for many years .
➢ Here also the genes are rich in GC content and their products are found in the
birds body tissues even though the genes appear to be missing from the genome
sequence .
➢ Significance of dark DNA
➢ Improved Understanding Of Evolution
➢ Fighting Diseases
➢ For instance , scientists have recently discovered that mutation in parts of non –
coding DNA are connected to cancers of blood , brain and liver. This thus presents
another opportunity to fight cancer using gene therapy.
➢ Need of better gene sequencing tools also gets highlighted by the presence of
these dark DNA which have been missed by conventional gene sequencing tools .
IV) CHROMOSOMES
➢ In the nucleus of each cell , the DNA molecule
is paked into thread like structure called
chromosomes.
➢ Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around protein called
histones that support the structure.
➢ The adjacent figure shows the relation
between chromosome and DNA molecule
➢ RNA stands for ribonucleic acid . It is a
molecule with long chain of nucleotides. A
nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base , a
ribose sugar , and a phosphate.
➢ Like DNA , RNA is also vital for living cells .
Shape and structure
➢ It comes in a variety of different shapes
➢ Unlike double stranded DNA RNA is a single
stranded molecule in many of its biological
roles and has a much shorter chain of
nucleatides .
➢ How ever , RNA can , by complementary base
pairing , form intra – strand (i.e singlre strand )
double helixes , as in RNA .
➢ Functions of RNA
➢ Carrying genetic material in some viruses
➢ The main job of RNA is to transfer the
genetic code needed for the creation of
proteins from the nucleus to the
ribosome. The process prevents DNA
from having to leave the nucleus . This
keeps the DNA and genetic code
protected from damage . Without RNA ,
proteins could never be made .
➢ Some RNA s act enzymes . Such RNA
enzymes are called ribozymes and they
exhibit many of the features of a
classical enzyme.
➢ Mrna Rrna, and trna
➢ RNA is central to protein synthesis.
➢ First a type of RNA called messenger RNA (Mrna) cames information from DNA to
structure called ribosomes.
➢ These ribosomes are made from proteins and ribosomat RNA (rRNAs).
➢ These all come together and from a complex that can read messenger RNAs and translate
the information they carry into proteins . This requires the help of transfer RNA and Trna
.
➢ RNA is fomed from DNA by a process called transciption . This uses enzymes like RNA
Polymerase .
➢ Transcriptome is the set of all messenger RNA molecules in one cell or a population of
cells .
➢ Because transcription includes all Mrna Tanscripts In The Cell , The Transciptome Reflects
The Genes That Are Being Actively Expressed At Any Given Time.
➢ Biotechnology makes it possible to move gene which is responsible for some particular
feature from one organism to another .
 Transgenic Animals
• Physiology and Development
Agriculture
• Study of disease • Alternative of conventional farming
• Vaccine safety • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
• Chemical safety testing • Genetically modified biopesticide
• Pest resistant plants

Biotechnology
Applications Medicine
• Genetically Engineered Insulin
• Gene Therapy
• Curing adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
• Molecular Diagnosis
• Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR)
• CRISPR technology
1) GM CROPS
WHY IN NEWS?
➢ Haryana governmemt had identified and
uprooted GM brinjal plants from a farm in
fatehabad district . India had banned BT brinjal
in 2010. but activists claim that the crops is still in
circulation in many states (may 2019)
➢ Shetkari sangathan , a farmers body in
maharashtra have called for lifting of ban on GM
crops in india which could have many benefical
impacts for farmers. As a non – violent protest
against the current system they also sowed seeds
of GM brinjal and banned GM cotton in a village
in akola district (june 2019).
➢ GM crops , advantages and controversies
➢ Crops whose DNA has been altered are known as GM crops . This genetic
modification of crops can add or remove certain characteristics from the plant and
thus can bring many advantages .
➢ Make crops more tolerant to anti – biotic stresses (cold , drought , salt , heat ) etc.
➢ Make plants pest tolerant
➢ Reduces reliance on chemical pesticides .
➢ E.g. BT cotton, BT brinjal ( in bangladesh)
➢ Help to reduce post – harvest losses
➢ Enhance the nutritional value of food , e.g. vitamin a enriched rice
➢ Tailor – made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of
starches, fuels , and pharmaceuticals.
➢ But in india , the cultivation of GM crops has been a controversial issue right from
the beginning BT cotton is the first GM crops which is being commercially cultivated
in the country . But food crops like BT brinjal and GM mustard have still not been
approved because of various environmental and health concerns .
➢ despite this , BT brinjal have found its way into the fields of haryana , punjab,
andhra pradesh etc. these are all unapproved sowing and cultivation which may
pose severe environmental and health risks.
Understanding BT cotton
➢ Some strains of soil bacteria bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain
insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) beeties etc.
➢ Specific BT toxic gene (cry1Ac) were isolated from bacillus thuringiensis and
incorporated into several crops plants such as cotton.
Situation in india
➢ In 2002, government allowed BT cotton cultivation since farmers had started
growing it in spite of lack of approval .
➢ BT cotton had a lot of positive impact on india ‘s cotton sector productivity and
area under cotton cultivation have increased over the past 17 years .
➢ But activists have also raised many concers . BT cotton is very water consuming and
hence only those farmers have benefitted who had irrigation facility .
➢ Similarly over the year pest resistant to BT (e.g. pink bullworm) have also come up
which has led to increase in highly toxic pesticides . This had caused over 50 deaths
due to pesticide poisoning in vidarbha in 2017.
GOLDEN RICE

➢ Why in news ?
➢ International rice research institute (IRRI) and its partners , the philippines rice
reseach institude and the bangladesh rice research institude . Have successfully
cultivated golden rice in controlled environment on (IRRI) campus (may 2019)
➢ What Is Golden Rice ?
➢ The IRRI and its national research partners have developed golden rice to
complement existing interventions to address vitamin . A deficiency (VAD) . It is a
serious public health problem affecting millions of children and pregnant women
globally .
➢ Golden rice is variety of rice produced through genetic engineering to
biosynthesize beta carotene . Beta carotene is a nutrient similar to what is found
in orange colored fruits and vegetables and is converted into vitamin – A as
needed by the body .
➢ Thus , golden rice can help
south and south east asian
countries . Where two – thrirds
or more of daily calorific intake
is obtained from rice . Research
has indicated that the goldren
rice can provide upto 50% of the
daily requirement of an adult for
vitamin a.
➢ Golden rice was one of the 7
winners of the 2015 patents for
humanity awards by the united
states patent and trademark
office .
Safety evaluation by international rice research insitute
➢ The safety evaluation of goldren rice has shown that it is as safe and nutritious as
conventional rice but comes with added benefit of beta – carotene .
Other facts for pre
About international rice research institute:
➢ IRRI is the world’s premiere research organization dedicated to reducing poverty and
hunger through rice science , improving the health and welfare of rice farmers and
consumers : and protecting the rice growing environment for future generation .
➢ It is an independent , non – profit research and eductional institute , founded in 1960 by the
ford and rockefeller foundations with support from the phillipines government .
➢ The institute is headquartered in los banos , philippines and has offices in 17 rice growing
countries in asia and africa .
➢ It works with in country partners to develop advanced rice varieties that vield more grain
and better withstand pests and disease as well as flouding , drought , and other harmful
effects of climate change.
DNA TECHNOLOGY (USE AND APPLICATION)
REGULATION BILL,2019
•It seeks to establish a national data bank and regional DNA
data banks.
•It envisages that every databank will maintain indices like the
crime scene index, suspects' or undertrials' index, offenders'
index, missing persons' index and unknown deceased persons'
index.
•It also seeks to establish a DNA Regulatory Board. Every
laboratory that analyses DNA samples to establish the identity of
an individual, has to be accredited by the board.
•The bill also proposes a written consent by individuals be
obtained before collection of their DNA samples. However,
consent is not required for offences with punishment of more than
seven years in jail or death.
•It also provides for the removal of DNA profiles of suspects on
the filing of a police report or court order, and of undertrials on the
basis of a court order. Profiles in the crime scene and missing
persons' index will be removed on a written request.
 Immunity Types

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

Active immunity results when exposure to a Passive immunity is provided when a person
disease organism triggers the immune system to is given antibodies to a disease rather than producing
produce antibodies to that disease. Exposure to the them through his or her own immune system.
disease organism can occur through infection with A newborn baby acquires passive immunity from its
the actual disease (resulting in natural immunity), mother through the placenta. A person can also get
or introduction of a killed or weakened form of the passive immunity through antibody-containing blood
disease organism through vaccination (vaccine- products such as immune globulin, which may be given
induced immunity). Either way, if an immune when immediate protection from a specific disease is
person comes into contact with that disease in the needed. This is the major advantage to passive immunity;
future, their immune system will recognize it and protection is immediate, whereas active immunity takes
immediately produce the antibodies needed to fight time (usually several weeks) to develop.
it. However, passive immunity lasts only for a few weeks or
Active immunity is long-lasting, and sometimes life- months. Only active immunity is long-lasting.
long.
1) GM CROPS
WHY IN NEWS?
➢ Haryana governmemt had identified and
uprooted GM brinjal plants from a farm in
fatehabad district . India had banned BT brinjal
in 2010. but activists claim that the crops is still in
circulation in many states (may 2019)
➢ Shetkari sangathan , a farmers body in
maharashtra have called for lifting of ban on GM
crops in india which could have many benefical
impacts for farmers. As a non – violent protest
against the current system they also sowed seeds
of GM brinjal and banned GM cotton in a village
in akola district (june 2019).
➢ GM crops , advantages and controversies
➢ Crops whose DNA has been altered are known as GM crops . This genetic
modification of crops can add or remove certain characteristics from the plant and
thus can bring many advantages .
➢ Make crops more tolerant to anti – biotic stresses (cold , drought , salt , heat ) etc.
➢ Make plants pest tolerant
➢ Reduces reliance on chemical pesticides .
➢ E.g. BT cotton, BT brinjal ( in bangladesh)
➢ Help to reduce post – harvest losses
➢ Enhance the nutritional value of food , e.g. vitamin a enriched rice
➢ Tailor – made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of
starches, fuels , and pharmaceuticals.
➢ But in india , the cultivation of GM crops has been a controversial issue right from
the beginning BT cotton is the first GM crops which is being commercially cultivated
in the country . But food crops like BT brinjal and GM mustard have still not been
approved because of various environmental and health concerns .
➢ despite this , BT brinjal have found its way into the fields of haryana , punjab,
andhra pradesh etc. these are all unapproved sowing and cultivation which may
pose severe environmental and health risks.
Understanding BT cotton
➢ Some strains of soil bacteria bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain
insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) beeties etc.
➢ Specific BT toxic gene (cry1Ac) were isolated from bacillus thuringiensis and
incorporated into several crops plants such as cotton.
Situation in india
➢ In 2002, government allowed BT cotton cultivation since farmers had started
growing it in spite of lack of approval .
➢ BT cotton had a lot of positive impact on india ‘s cotton sector productivity and
area under cotton cultivation have increased over the past 17 years .
➢ But activists have also raised many concers . BT cotton is very water consuming and
hence only those farmers have benefitted who had irrigation facility .
➢ Similarly over the year pest resistant to BT (e.g. pink bullworm) have also come up
which has led to increase in highly toxic pesticides . This had caused over 50 deaths
due to pesticide poisoning in vidarbha in 2017.
UNDERSTANDING BT BRINJAL

➢ Transgenic brinjal created by inserting a crystal protein gene (cry1 AC) from the soil
bacterium bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal cultivar .
➢ The bt brinjal has been developed to give resistance agains lepidopteron insects in
particular the brinjal and shoot borer (BFSB) , the most common pest which affects
30-50% of the brinjal crop
➢ Two supporting gene (nptill and aad)
➢ Nptill and aad are selectable marker genes . Nptill is used to identify transgenic
plants from non – transgenic .
History of BT brinjal in india ?
➢ The Crop Cleared The GEAC’ S Biosafety Test In 2009 .
➢ But Government Vielded To Pressure From The Anti GM Lobby And Declared A
Moratorium In 2010 On The Transgenic Crop Developed By Mahyco (Monsanto Has 26%
Share In This Company )
➢ BUT , THE CASES OF Gm BRINJAL CULTIVATION IN HARYANA WAS REPORTED IN 2019 .
➢ Why Some Groups Are Demanding Allowing Of Bt Brinjal In India ?
➢ It had cleared the GEAC’s biosafety test in 2009.
➢ Increased benefit for farmers : it is popular all over the world . Bangladesh has given good
results after BT brinjal was allowed there in 2013. studies by bangladesh agriculture
research institude (BARI) shows that the GM brinjal has performed far better than the
traditional variety – zero borer infestation was reported in 2017 and farmers cut pesticide
use by 60% . Similary , a study by IFPRI found that farmers income from the crop saw a rise
by 55 % since the introduction of BT brinjal . Therefore , farmers should be allowed to reap
the benefits of modern technology , which would help them boost their income by fetching
better returms
➢ When GM crops are not officially available , farmers turn to unapproved knock offs that
may not conform to accepted biosafety standards .
What genetic modification was achieved and what are its benefit ?
➢ Pental ‘s team has used a barnase gene isolated from a soil bacterium called
bacillus amyloliquefaciens
➢ It codes for a protein that impairs pollen production and renders the plant in
which it has been introduced male sterile .
➢ The male sterile plant is crossed with a fertile parental line , containing , in turn ,
another gene , barster from the same bacterium that blocks the action of the
barnase gene . The resultant progeny , having both the foreign genes , is a hybrid
mustared plant that is not only high vielding , but also fertile and capable of
producing seed / grain.
➢ This genetic modification makes mustard – generally a self – pollinating plant –
better suited to hybridization than current methods .
Why BT brinjal is not allowed in india ? Why is it opposed by various activists?
➢ There are fears that it may impact india ‘s plant biodiversity india has more than
3,000 natural varities of brinjal and activists are worried that if BT brinjal is
allowed in india all varieties will be contaminated .
➢ Further , cross pollination may lead to herbicide resistant super weeds that can
further threaten environment and biodiversity .
➢ Health impact is something that needs to be studied more .
➢ Not so obvious benefits : a recent study from surveys of farmers indicate that 2/3rd
of the farmers who moved to bt brinjal have had a bed or very bad experience .
Claim of higher yield :
➢ Claims around 30% more yield than the traditional varieties .
GOLDEN RICE

➢ Why in news ?
➢ International rice research institute (IRRI) and its partners , the philippines rice
reseach institude and the bangladesh rice research institude . Have successfully
cultivated golden rice in controlled environment on (IRRI) campus (may 2019)
➢ What Is Golden Rice ?
➢ The IRRI and its national research partners have developed golden rice to
complement existing interventions to address vitamin . A deficiency (VAD) . It is a
serious public health problem affecting millions of children and pregnant women
globally .
➢ Golden rice is variety of rice produced through genetic engineering to
biosynthesize beta carotene . Beta carotene is a nutrient similar to what is found
in orange colored fruits and vegetables and is converted into vitamin – A as
needed by the body .
➢ Thus , golden rice can help
south and south east asian
countries . Where two – thrirds
or more of daily calorific intake
is obtained from rice . Research
has indicated that the goldren
rice can provide upto 50% of the
daily requirement of an adult for
vitamin a.
➢ Golden rice was one of the 7
winners of the 2015 patents for
humanity awards by the united
states patent and trademark
office .
Safety evaluation by international rice research insitute
➢ The safety evaluation of goldren rice has shown that it is as safe and nutritious as
conventional rice but comes with added benefit of beta – carotene .
Other facts for pre
About international rice research institute:
➢ IRRI is the world’s premiere research organization dedicated to reducing poverty and
hunger through rice science , improving the health and welfare of rice farmers and
consumers : and protecting the rice growing environment for future generation .
➢ It is an independent , non – profit research and eductional institute , founded in 1960 by the
ford and rockefeller foundations with support from the phillipines government .
➢ The institute is headquartered in los banos , philippines and has offices in 17 rice growing
countries in asia and africa .
➢ It works with in country partners to develop advanced rice varieties that vield more grain
and better withstand pests and disease as well as flouding , drought , and other harmful
effects of climate change.
8) GENE MAPPING / GENOME
WhySEQUENCING
in news ?
➢ CSIR offers free mapping of india genome through indigen initiative
(oct2019)
➢ Introduction
➢ Genome sequencing is figuring out the order of DNA nucleotide , or bases, it
a genome – the order of As, Cs, Gs, and Ts that makes up an organism ‘s DNA
. The human genome is made up of 3 billion of these genetic litters.
➢ Determining the gene’s functionality and position of gene in the
chromosome is called mapping .
➢ Uses / application / significance of gene mapping
➢ Predictive and preventive medicine
➢ Around 10,000 known diseases such as thalassemia are known to by the result of
a single gene malfunctioning
➢ Faster and efficient diagnosis of rare genetic diseases.
➢ Gene mapping is also help in understanding diversity within the same species.
➢ indiGen initiative
➢ Indigen program aims to undertake the whole genome sequencing of thousands of
individuals representing diverse ethic group from india.
➢ The objective is to enable genetic epidemiology and develop public health
technologies using population genome data.
➢ It is a program managed by the CSIR institute of genomics and intergrative biology
(IGIB).
➢ Under this program a free mapping of indian genomes is offered by CSIR . Anyone
can sign up for the initiative .
➢ Those who get there genes mapped under the intiative will get a card and access to an app . Which
will allow them and doctors to access , clinically actionable material on their genomes .
➢ Not everyone , who signs up will be guaranteed a scan . There is already a backlog of at least 4,00
individuals.
➢ The program is a culmination of a six – month project by the CSIR in which 1,000 indian , had their
genomes scanned in detail .
➢ The aim of the exercise was two – fold
➢ To test whether it was possible to rapidly and reliably scan several genomes and advise people on
health risks that are manifest in their gene .
➢ To understand the variation and frequency of certain genes that are known to be linked to certain
diseases.
➢ Long term aim of the project is to involve private sectors so that affordable genetic tests are available
from private sector and accurate diagnostics can be brought to people at an affordable price .
Presently , the full human genome sequencing costs around RS 1,00,000.
➢ The CSIR exercise also ties into a larger program coordinated by the department of bio technology ,
which plans to scan nearly 20,00,000 indian genomes over the next five years , in a two phase
exercise and develop diagnostic tests can be used to test for cancer.
 10. Other recent developments
1) STEM CELL RESEARCH
➢ Introduction
➢ Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells
that are able to differentiate into specialized
cell types. Stem cells are body natural
reservoirs . Replenishing stocks of specialized
cells that have been used up or damaged
➢ In addition , in many tissues they serve as a
sort of internal repair system , dividing
throughout the lifespan to replenish other
cells.
Two important characteristics of stem cells
There are two important characteristics of a stem cell which separates them from other
types of cells.
a. They are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division
sometimes after long period of inactivity.
b. When cell division takes place , the new cell has the potentail either to remain a
stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function , such
as muscle cell, red blood cell , or a brain cell..
two categories of stem cells (1. embryonic stem cells and non – embryonic
“someatic” or “adult” stem cells)
1. Embryonic stem cells
2. 2. someatic or adult stem cells
a. Induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs)
➢ In 2006 researchers made another breakthrough by identifying conditions that
would allow some specialized adult cells to be ‘’reprogrammed’’ genetically to
assume a stem cell like state.
Where are stem cell found and when do they divide ?
➢ Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after eembryonic
development and are found inside different types of tissues.
➢ These are found in tissues such as brain, bone marrow , blood , blood vessels ,
skeletal muscles , skin , and the liver . They remain in a quiescent or non living
state for years until activated by diseases or tissue injury .
➢ Adult stem cells can divide or self renew indefinitely , enabling them to generate
range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire
original organ.
➢ In some organs , such as the but and bone marrow , stem cells regularly divide to
rapair and replace worn out or damaged tissues.
➢ In other organs , such as pancreas and hearts . Stem cells only divide under special
conditions
➢ Embryonic stem cells are derived from a four or five day old human embryo that is
in the blastocyst phase of development
Recent research in stem cells technologies
➢ Every cell in the body is derived from the first few stem cells formed in the early
stage of embryonic development . There force , stem cells extracted from embryos
can be induced to become any desired cell type . This property makes stem cells
powerful enough to regenerate damaged tissues under right conditions therefore ,
scientists and researchers are interested in stem cells.
A. Organ and tissue regeneration
➢ Probobly the most important possible application of stem cell research
➢ Shortage of donated organs in india . Makes this potential of stem cell very
desirable
➢ e.g. stem cells that lie just beneath the skin , for example , have been used to
engineer new skin tissue that can be grafted onto burn victim.
b. Cardiovascular disease treatment
➢ Using stem cells to tissues have the potential to treat brain diseases such as
parkinson’s and alzhelmer ‘s by replenishing damaged tissue .
c. Brain disease treatment
➢ Replacement cells and tissues have the potential to treat brain diseases such as
pakinson ‘s and alzheimer’s by replenishing damaged tissue.
d. Cell deficiency therapy
➢ Healthy heart cells developed in laboratory may one day be transplanted into
patients with heart disease. Repopulating the heart with healthy tissues.
➢ Similarly, people with type 1 diabetes may receive pancreatic cells to replace the
insulin producing cells that have been lost or destroyed by the patient ‘s own
immune system.
e. Blood disease treatment
➢ Right now, blood diseases are treated mostly by invasive bone marrow extraction
➢ Through invasive bone marrow transplants .
➢ However, hematopoietic stem cell have also been found in the umbilical cord and
placenta . This has led some scientists to cell for an umbilical cord blood bank to
make these powerful cells more easily obtainable and to decrease the chances of
body ‘s rejecting therapy .
General scientific discovery
Stem cell research is also important for learning about human development
Controversies associated with stem cells
➢ Life : controversies are primarily driven by methods concerning embryonic stem
cell research . The main critique of the research is that it repuired the destruction
of a human blastocyst i.e. a fertilized egg was not given the chance to develop into
a fully developed human.
Debates surrounding chimeras
➢ A chimera is an organism that has both human and animal cell tissues .
➢ Often in stem cell research. Human cells are inserted into animals (like mice or rat
) and allowed to develop . This creates an opportunity for researches to see what
happens when stem cells are implanted . Many , however, object to the creation
of an organism that is “ part human”
2) MANAV – HUMAN ATLAS INITIATIVE
Why in news ?
Department of biotechnology
(DBT) launched MANAV.
Human atlas initiative on 10th
may 2019
What is the initiative ?
➢ The project named MANAV has been launched by the department of
biotechnology and persistent systems. A biotechnology company . In this public
private partnership DBT will invest rs 13 crore and persistent system will invest rs 7
crore .
➢ The project will be executed by indian institute of science eduction and research
(IISER) And National Center For Cell Sciencers (NCCS) based at pune.
➢ It aims at creating a database of molecular network of all the tissue in the human
body from the available scientific research . It will provide a holistic picture of
working human body . The project wants to understand and capture the human
physiology in two stages – in a normal stages and while in a diseased stage . It will
thus act as an atlas or a reliable collection of human body tissues.
➢ Project will depend on already existing research papers. It will collate and integrate
molecular information on human tissues and organs that currently lies hidden in
research articles in an unstructured and disorganized form.
➢ It will utillze large biological community . Both students and scientists . For
extracting and adding the information from scientific literature at the level of
cells and organs
➢ The student community any potent elements or molecules that have been used
in the form of durgs , to target specific cells or tissues.
➢ Four stages of the project
➢ First will be creation of a robust online data annotation platform
➢ Second step would involve data annotation and curation by students on the
platform
➢ Evaluation of generated data and model by faculty and then senior scientists for
quality check will form the third step
➢ Finally , there will be integration of data. Model building and visualization.
Significance :
➢ Such a detabase on individual tissues, once ready , can come handy in tracing the
causes of disease , understanding specific pathways and ultimately decode the
body’s disease stage linked to tissues and cells.
➢ The atlas will be useful for future researchers and will also help the clinicians and
drug developers , who finally handle human body in disease conditions .
➢ This platform will impart key skills to the student community to read classified
literature , on individual tissue – basis , and perform annotation and curation . This
will produce a trained population of biologists.
7) UMMID INITIATIVE AND NIDAN KENDRAS
Why in news ?
➢ Government launched UMMID initiative and inaugurated NIDAN kendras to
tackle inherited genetic diseases of newborn babies (sep 2019)
➢ UMMID (unique method of management and treatment of inherited disorders )
initiative
➢ The UMMID is designed on the principle that prevention is better than cure
➢ The initiative aims at.
➢ 1. establishing NIDAN kendras to provide counselling , prenatal testing and
diagnosis, management and multidisciplinary care in government hospitals
where in the influx of patients in more .
➢ 2.to produce skilled clinicians in human genomics.
➢ 3.to undertake screening of pregnant women and newborn babies for inherited
genetic diseases at aspirational districts.
NIDAN (national inherited diseases administration ) kendras
Here comprehensive clinical care will be available
In phase 1 five NIDAN Kendras will be established
1. Lady Hardinge medical college (LHMC) Delhi
2. Nizam’s Insitute of medical science (NIMS ) Hyderabad
3. ALLMS Jodgpur
4. Army hospital research camp Delhi
5. Mil ratan sircar (MRS) medical college and hospital , kolkata
8) GENE EDITING
Why in news ?
➢ A chinese scientist , he jianku , at southern university of science and technology
in shenzen, china has claimed that he has altered the genes embryos of twin
girls born in november , creating the first gene edited babies. He reportedly was
alming to bestow on gene edited babies lifetime protection against HIV the virus
that cause AIDS .
➢ What is (CRISPR/CAS9)
➢ CRISPR CAS9 is a new genome editing tol, which is simpler, faster, cheaper more
versatile and more accurate than the previous techniques of editing DNA and has
wide range of potential applications
➢ In popular usage ,”CRISPR” (Pronounced “crisper”) is shorthand for “CRISPR – Cas9)
How does CRISPR CAS9 work? (clustered regularly interspaced short polindromic
repeats)
➢ The CRISPRs are specialized stretches of DNA .
➢ The CRISPR CAS9 System Consists Of Two Key Molecules That Introduce A Change
Into The DNA.
➢ There are
➢ Enzyme called Cas9 . This sacts as pair of molecular scissors that can cut two
strands of DNA at a specific . Location in the genome so that bits of DNA can
then be added or removed .
➢ A piece of RNA called guide RNA (GRNA) . This Consist Of A Small Piece Of Pre –
Designated Rna Sequence (20 bases long ) located within the longer RNA
scaffoid . The scaffoid part binds to DNA and pre- designated sequence ‘guides ‘
cas9 to the right of the right part of the genome this makes sure that the Cas9
snzyme cuts at right point in genome .
What are some potential application?
➢ Its potential applicated include correcting genetic defects , treating and preventing the
spread of diseases and improving crops .
➢ Scientists believe that it will ony day be used to selectively remove genes that results in
medical problems such as HIV , sickle disease and cancer .
Limitation
➢ More collateral damage : a recent study ( published on 16th july 2018 in the journal
nature biotechology ) finds that CRISPR ‘s cellular swordsmanship may result in much
more collateral damage than previously thought . Scients have found that huge chunks
of DNA were unintertionally being deleted . Rearranged and otherwise mutated so
severely that the cells lost functions in about 15% cases .
➢ Study’s finding shouldn’t discredit CRISPR – Cas 9 as a promising genetic research tool
but should make scientists cautious when thinking about using the gene editing tool in a
clinical setting .
➢ Further , we are not aware of knock on effect a gene would have .
➢ For one thing , it is known that knock on effect of editing a gene would have .
➢ For one thing , it is known that modifying CCRS to resist HIV could increase susceptibility
to west nile virus .
Ethics of CRISPR
➢ Easy And Accurate Gene Editing Tool Like CRISPR will, we’re told , change everything . But
all that, of course , depends on how far we take it.
➢ The advent of the CRISPR technique means that fixing and retooling gene using gene
therapy seems to be on horizon at last .
Us of CRISPR on twin embryos in china (nov 2018)
➢ Implication : if the claims of the scientist are true , then it would be first time scientist have
changed the human germline - the genes that could be passed on for centuries to come .
It would also be the first time where genetic engineering has been used for some kind of
enhancement on humans father than just to correct a genetic disorder .
Criticisms:
➢ Scientist claim that use of CRISPR technology to edit the genes of human embryos was
risky and unjustified and has thus harmed the reputation and development of the
biomedical community . He broke the scientific and regulatory protocol by not vetting his
experiments , which involved embryos and hopeful parents .
➢ There are criticisms such as unknown knock off effect of this mutation and the experiment
being done in an unregulated environment futher , there are issues of consent as well as
it’s not clear whether parents really understood what they were signing for .
Genetically Modified Organisms
as Imported Food Crops
The Food Safety and Standards Authority
of India (FSSAI) in a recent order has set
1% threshold for Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO) in food crops imported
into India.
Earlier in August 2020, FSSAI had issued
the order that 24 food crops the country
imports would need a ‘non-GM-origin-
cum-GM-free certificate’ issued by a
competent authority.
Key Points
➢ Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs):

➢ These are living organisms whose

genetic material has been
artificially manipulated in a
laboratory through genetic
engineering.
➢ This creates combinations of
plant, animal, bacteria, and virus
genes that do not occur in nature
or through traditional
crossbreeding methods
Genetically Modified Crops:
➢ Conventional plant breeding involves crossing of species of the same genus to
provide the offspring with the desired traits of both parents.
➢ Genus is a class of items such as a group of animals or plants with similar traits,
qualities or features.
➢ Bt cotton is the only Genetically Modified (GM) crop that is allowed in India. It has
alien genes from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that allows the crop
to develop a protein toxic to the common pest pink bollworm.
➢ Herbicide Tolerant Bt (Ht Bt) cotton, on the other hand is derived with the
insertion of an additional gene, from another soil bacterium, which allows the
plant to resist the common herbicide glyphosate.
➢ In Bt brinjal, a gene allows the plant to resist attacks of fruit and shoot borers.
➢ In DMH-11 mustard, genetic modification allows cross-pollination in a crop that
self-pollinates in nature.
Legal Position of GM crops in India:
➢ In India, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the apex
body that allows for commercial release of GM crops.
➢ Use of the unapproved GM variant can attract a jail term of 5 years and fine of
Rs. 1 lakh under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
Regulation of Imported Crops:
➢ The task of regulating GMO levels in imported consumables was initially with
the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).
➢ Its role was diluted with the enactment of the Food Safety and Standards Act,
2006 and FSSAI was asked to take over approvals of imported goods.
Arka Shubha:
New Marigold Variety
Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research
(IIHR) has developed a
new marigold variety
named Arka Shubha
• High Carotene Content: Arka Carotene
Shubha has carotene content of • Carotenes are carotenoid pigments that
are oxygen-free. Mostly they are
around 2.8% (for all marigolds, unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain
it's maximum upto 1.4%) which only carbon and hydrogen.
is the highest among all plant • Their color varies from yellow to orange
to red. The color is attributed to the chain
sources. of alternating single and double bonds.
• Used after Spoiled: This new • Carotene is responsible for the orange
variety of marigold can be used colour of carrots.
• α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene are
for extraction of crude carotene examples of carotenes.
even if spoiled after full bloom, • Carotene is used in the pharmaceutical
unlike that of other varieties. sector, there is always a high demand for
it.
Cytokine Storm Syndrome
• Cytokine Storm Syndrome is
characterised by the
overproduction of immune
cells and the cytokines
themselves because of a
dysregulation in the process.
• Cytokines are a large group of
proteins that are secreted by
specific cells of the immune
system.
Cytokine Storm Syndrome
• Reasons: A cytokine storm can occur due to an infection, auto-
immune condition (when the body's immune system attacks
healthy cells as in case of coeliac disease- an immune disorder
that primarily affects the small intestine), or other diseases.
• Signs and symptoms include high fever, inflammation (redness
and swelling), severe fatigue, and nausea.
• In the case of any flu infection, a cytokine storm is associated
with a surge of activated immune cells into the lungs, which,
instead of fighting off the antigen, leads to lung inflammation
and fluid build-up, and respiratory distress.
Saffron and Heeng
• The Institute of Himalayan Bioresource
Technology (CSIR-IHBT) and the Government
of Himachal Pradesh, have jointly decided to
increase the production of the two spices
namely, Saffron and Heeng (asafoetida).
• Under this plan, IHBT will be introducing
new varieties of saffron and heeng from the
exporting countries and will be standardized
under Indian conditions.
• IHBT is the only laboratory of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in
Himachal Pradesh.
BBX11 Gene
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) has recognized the BBX11 gene that
facilitates the greening of crops
• BBX11 plays a vital role in
regulation of the amount of
protochlorophyllide synthesized by
the plant.
• Protochlorophyllide is an
intermediate in the synthesis of
chlorophyll.
• If it is less, plants are unable to
efficiently green in order to harvest
sunlight and if the amount of
protochlorophyllide is more, then
photobleaching occurs.
 BBX11 Gene
• Photobleaching is loss of colour
by a pigment.
• The quantity of
protochlorophyllide synthesised
needs to be proportional to the
variety of enzymes available to
transform them to chlorophyll.
• It is very important to regulate
the amount of
protochlorophyllide synthesized
by the plant.
Synthesis of Chlorophyll:
• Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that
absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to synthesise carbohydrates from Carbon-
di-Oxide (CO2) and water.
• The synthesis of chlorophyll in plants is a lengthy, multi-step process.
• When a seedling emerges from under the soil it must quickly synthesise
chlorophyll to start supporting its own growth.
• In order to facilitate quick synthesis of chlorophyll, plants make a precursor of
chlorophyll called ‘protochlorophyllide’ in the dark, which glows red in blue
light.
• As soon as the plant comes out into the light from under the soil, light-
dependent enzymes convert protochlorophyllide to chlorophyll.
Precision Agriculture
• Precision agriculture (PA) is an approach where
inputs are utilised in precise amounts to get
increased average yields, compared to traditional
cultivation techniques such as agroforestry,
intercropping, crop rotation, etc.
• Sustainable PA is this century’s most valuable
innovation in farm management that is based on
using Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs).
• It is based on sustainable agriculture and healthy
food production and it consists of profitability and
increasing production, economic efficiency and
the reduction of side effects on the environment.
Benefits:
• Increases agriculture productivity.
• Prevents soil degradation.
• Reduces chemical application in
crop production.
• Efficient use of water resources.
• Disseminates modern farm
practices to improve the quality,
quantity and reduced cost of
production.
• Changes the socio-economic
status of farmers.
ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability
of a microorganism (like bacteria, viruses, and
some parasites) to stop an antimicrobial
(such as antibiotics, antivirals and
antimalarials) from working against it. As a
result, standard treatments become
ineffective, infections persist and may spread
to others.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs naturally, but
misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
is accelerating the process. Poor infection
prevention and control further accelerate it.
 The WHO vision for WASH
• To substantially improve health through the safe
management of the water, sanitation and hygiene
services in all settings.

• The WHO WASH Strategy has been developed in

response to Member State Resolution WHA64.4 and
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

• The 2025 end date of the WASH Strategy is proposed

to allow both a reasonably manageable forward-
looking time period as well as time to adopt a new
WHO strategy in 2025 to enable course corrections in
the final five-year period of the SDGs.
Nutrients ?
• Nutrients are the components of food which are need by our body.
• Major Nutrients :
1. Carbohydrates : Rice, Bread & Beans
2. Proteins : Beans & peas
3. Fats : Milk, cheese & butter
4. Vitamins : cereals, dairy products
Roughage
fibres
E.g: Dalia,
Makkah
• Food contains water & dietary fibres also needed for our body.
How to check the presence of nutrient in our
food ?

PROTEINS
CARBOHYDRATES
(COPPER SULPHATE & CAUSTIC
(IODINE TEST)
SODA)

FATS
(OILY TEST)
Carbohydrates
"Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning
they are one of the three main ways the body
obtains energy, or calories.

The American Diabetes Association notes that

carbohydrates are the body's main source of
energy.

They are called carbohydrates because, at the

chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.
Test for Carbohydrates- IODINE TEST
• Adding iodine solution to the sample gives blue-black colour indicates
the presence of starch.

2-3 drops
of Iodine
solution

Blue to
black
 Proteins
Proteins are large biomolecules, or
macromolecules, consisting of one or more
long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins
perform a vast array of functions within
organisms, including catalysing metabolic
reactions, DNA replication, responding to
stimuli, providing structure to cells and
organisms, and transporting molecules from
one location to another. Proteins differ from
one another primarily in their sequence of
amino acids, which is dictated by the
nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which
usually results in protein folding into a specific
3D structure that determines its activity.
Test for Proteins : copper sulphate & caustic
soda test
• By adding 2 drops of copper sulphate solution and drops of caustic
soda solution to diluted food item the colour turns violet, then it has
proteins .

2 Drop Copper 10 Drop Caustic

violet
Sulphate soda

E.g : Meat, Egg, Soya bean

 FATS
Fat is essential for several bodily functions. It
is an energy source, and it protects the
skeleton and nerves. Fat also makes it possible
for other nutrients to do their jobs.

However, not all dietary fats are equally

beneficial:

• Saturated and trans fats can raise

cholesterol levels and increase disease risk.
• Unsaturated fats support health and may
be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
Test for Fats
• Wrap a small amount of food of food item in a piece of paper and
crush it.

• Straighten the paper and hold it against light. If it has an oily patch,
then it contains fat.
E.g: Ghee, Butter, milk, meat.
What do various nutrients do for our body?
• Carbohydrates : Provide energy to our body.
• Fats : give energy (more energy than carbohydrates)
• Proteins : needed for growth & repair for our body.
• Vitamins : Protect our body against disease keep our eyes, bones ,
teeth and gums.
1. Vitamin A – Keeps our skin & eyes healthy.
2. Vitamin C – helps our body to fight against many diseases.
3. Vitamin D – helps our body to use calcium for bones & teeth.
• Minerals : helps in growth of body & maintain good health.
TRANS FATS
Trans fat, or trans-fatty acids, are
unsaturated fatty acids that come
from either natural or industrial
sources:
o Naturally occurring trans-fat occurs
naturally in some dairy and meat
products.
o Industrially produced trans-fat are formed
in an industrial process that
adds hydrogen to vegetable oil converting
the liquid into a solid,
resulting in “partially hydrogenated” oil
(PHO).
FOOD ADULTERATION
Food adulteration is an act of adding or
mixing of poor quality, inferior, harmful,
substandard, useless or unnecessary
substances to food (added substances
may be food or non-food item).
• Food items, medicines, vegetables,
paste,
creams, products of
famous brands etc. are
adulterated.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance As per an investigation
(NMR) Test carried out by the Centre
It is a test that can ascertain the composition of a product at
for Science and
the molecular level.
It is an analytical chemistry technique used in quality control
Environment (CSE), honey
and research for determining the content and purity of a
sample as well as its molecular structure.
sold by several major
The NMR test is not required by Indian law for honey that is
being marketed locally but is needed for export.
brands in India has been
Recent NMR tests, while being able to detect additives, were
not able to detect the quantity of adulteration.
found adulterated with
sugar syrup.
Plasma
The liquid state of blood can be contributed to plasma as it makes up ~55% of blood. It is pale yellow
in colour and when separated, it consists of salts, nutrients, water and enzymes. Blood plasma also
contains important proteins and other components necessary for overall health. Hence, blood plasma
transfusions are given to patients with liver failure and life-threatening injuries.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Red blood cells consist of Haemoglobin, a protein. They are produced by the bone marrow to primarily
carry oxygen to the body and carbon dioxide away from it.
White Blood Cells (WBC)
White blood cells are responsible for fighting foreign pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi) that
enter our body. They circulate throughout our body and originate from the bone marrow.
Platelets
Tiny disc-shaped cells that help regulate blood flow when any part of the body is damaged, thereby
aiding in fast recovery through clotting of blood.
What are ABO and Rh blood groups?
During the blood transfusion, the two most important
group systems examined are the ABO-system and
the Rhesus system.
The ABO blood group system consists of 4 types of
blood group – A, B, AB, and O and is mainly based
on the antigens and antibodies on red blood cells
and in the plasma. Both antigens and antibodies are
protein molecules in which antigens are present on
the surface of Red Blood Cells and antibodies are
present in the plasma which is involved in defending
mechanisms.
On the other hand, the Rh blood group system
consists of 50 defined blood group antigens. In the
Rh system, the most important antigens are D, C, c,
E, and e. The ABO and Rh blood systems are
discussed in detail below.
Rh Blood Group System
In addition to the ABO blood grouping system, the
other prominent one is the Rh blood group system.
About two-thirds of the population contains the third
antigen on the surface of their red blood cells known
as Rh factor or Rh antigen; this decides whether
the blood group is positive or negative. If the Rh
factor is present, an individual is rhesus
positive (Rh+ve); if an Rh factor is absent individual
is rhesus negative (Rh-ve) as they produce Rh
antibodies. Therefore, compatibility between donor
and individual is crucial in this case as well.