Chapter 4 - Climate

Geography notes

Introduction to Climate and Weather

●​ Three basic elements of natural environment: Landforms, drainage, atmospheric

conditions.
●​ Climate: Sum total of weather conditions over a large area for a long period (≥30
years).
●​ Weather: State of atmosphere over an area at any specific time.
●​ Elements of weather and climate: Temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind,
humidity, precipitation.
●​ Weather fluctuations: Frequent changes even within a day.
●​ Seasonal patterns: Based on general atmospheric conditions, e.g., winter, summer,
rainy seasons.
●​ Climatic regions: World divided into multiple climatic zones.

Climate of India

●​ Type: Monsoon type climate, found mainly in South and Southeast Asia.
●​ Regional variations: Despite general uniformity, significant differences exist.

Temperature Variations

●​ Summer extremes:
○​ Rajasthan desert: Can reach 50°C.
○​ Pahalgam (Jammu and Kashmir): Around 20°C.
●​ Winter extremes:
○​ Drass (Jammu and Kashmir): As low as -45°C.
○​ Thiruvananthapuram: ~22°C.

Precipitation Variations

●​ Forms:
○​ Snowfall: Upper parts of the Himalayas.
○​ Rainfall: Rest of the country.
●​ Annual precipitation:
○​ Meghalaya: Over 400 cm.
○​ Ladakh & western Rajasthan: Less than 10 cm.
●​ Seasonal distribution:
○​ Most parts: Rainfall from June to September.
○​ Tamil Nadu coast: Rain during October-November.
●​ Geographical patterns:
○​ Coastal areas: Less temperature contrast.
○​ Interior areas: Higher seasonal temperature contrasts.
○​ Northern Plains: Rainfall decreases from east to west.
Impact of Climatic Variations

●​ Lifestyles influenced:
○​ Food habits.
○​ Clothing styles.
○​ Types of houses.

Climate Controls
Six Major Controls of Climate

1.​ Latitude:
○​ Solar energy received varies with latitude due to Earth's curvature.
○​ Air temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles.
2.​ Altitude:
○​ Higher altitudes have less dense atmosphere and lower temperatures.
○​ Hills are cooler during summers.
3.​ Pressure and Wind System:
○​ Depend on the latitude and altitude of a place.
○​ Influence temperature and rainfall patterns.
4.​ Distance from the Sea (Continentality):
○​ Sea exerts a moderating influence on climate.
○​ Farther from the sea → Extreme weather conditions (hot summers, cold
winters).
5.​ Ocean Currents:
○​ Affect coastal climates with warm or cold currents.
○​ Onshore winds warm or cool coastal areas depending on the type of current.
6.​ Relief Features:
○​ High mountains:
■​ Act as barriers for cold or hot winds.
■​ Cause precipitation if high enough and in the path of rain-bearing
winds.
○​ Leeward side of mountains remains relatively dry.

Factors Affecting India’s Climate

Latitude
●​ Tropic of Cancer:
○​ Passes through the middle of India, from the Rann of Kutch (west) to
Mizoram (east).
●​ Tropical and Subtropical Zones:
○​ South of Tropic of Cancer: Falls in the tropical zone.
○​ North of Tropic of Cancer: Falls in the sub-tropical zone.
●​ Climate Characteristics:
 ○​ India's climate exhibits features of both tropical and subtropical climates
due to its latitude.

Altitude
●​ Mountains in the North:
○​ Average height: ~6,000 metres.
○​ Act as a barrier to cold winds from Central Asia.
○​ Contribute to milder winters in the Indian subcontinent compared to Central
Asia.
●​ Coastal Areas:
○​ Maximum elevation: ~30 metres.
○​ Influence the climatic conditions with their lower elevation and proximity to the
sea.

Pressure and Winds

Notes on Atmospheric Conditions Governing India's Climate

Governing Factors

1.​ Pressure and Surface Winds:

○​ India lies in the region of northeasterly winds.
○​ Origin: Subtropical high-pressure belt in the Northern Hemisphere.
○​ Direction: Southward, deflected right by the Coriolis force, toward the
equatorial low-pressure area.
○​ Characteristics:
■​ Carry little moisture as they blow over land.
■​ Bring little or no rain.
2.​ Upper Air Circulation:
○​ Includes jet streams and their influence on the climate.
○​ Contributes to the reversal of wind directions seasonally.
3.​ Western Cyclonic Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones:
○​ Impact specific regions during different times of the year.
○​ Contribute to seasonal rainfall variations.

Seasonal Pressure and Wind Patterns

●​ Winter:
○​ High-pressure area north of the Himalayas.
○​ Cold, dry winds blow from land to the low-pressure areas over oceans
(southward direction).
●​ Summer:
○​ Low-pressure area develops over interior Asia and northwestern India.
○​ Complete reversal of wind direction occurs.
○​ Winds originate from the southern Indian Ocean:
 ■​ Direction: Southeasterly winds cross the equator and turn right due to
the Coriolis force.
■​ Known as Southwest Monsoon winds.
■​ Characteristics:
■​ Gather moisture over warm oceans.
■​ Cause widespread rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.

Key Outcome

●​ Despite the dominance of dry northeasterly winds, the reversal of wind direction in
summer and the moisture-laden Southwest Monsoon prevent India from becoming
an arid land.

The Seasons
Characteristics of Monsoon Climate

●​ Distinct seasonal pattern: Noticeable variation in weather conditions across

seasons.
●​ Interior regions: Significant seasonal changes.
●​ Coastal areas:
○​ Minimal temperature variation.
○​ Variation mainly in rainfall patterns.

Four Main Seasons in India

1.​ Cold Weather Season (Winter):

○​ Cooler temperatures.
○​ Regional variations in intensity.
2.​ Hot Weather Season (Summer):
○​ Marked by high temperatures in most regions.
3.​ Advancing Monsoon (Rainy Season):
○​ Moisture-laden Southwest Monsoon winds bring widespread rainfall.
4.​ Retreating Monsoon (Post-Monsoon):
○​ Withdrawal of monsoon winds.
○​ Variation in rainfall, particularly in certain regions like Tamil Nadu.

Regional Variations

●​ Some regions experience slight deviations in the timing and intensity of seasons.

The Cold Weather Season (Winter)

Duration

●​ Begins: Mid-November in northern India.

●​ Ends: February.
 ●​ Coldest months: December and January (northern parts).

Temperature

●​ Decreases from south to north:

○​ Chennai (eastern coast): 24°–25°C.
○​ Northern plains: 10°–15°C.
●​ Days: Warm.
●​ Nights: Cold.
●​ Frost: Common in northern regions.
●​ Snowfall: Experienced in higher slopes of the Himalayas.

Winds and Rainfall

●​ Northeast Trade Winds:

○​ Prevail across the country.
○​ Land to sea movement → Dry season for most regions.
○​ Exception: Tamil Nadu coast:
■​ Winds blow sea to land, causing rainfall.
●​ Northern Plains:
○​ Feeble high-pressure region develops.
○​ Light winds blow outward, influenced by relief, through the Ganga valley from
the west and northwest.
●​ Cyclonic Disturbances:
○​ Originate over the Mediterranean Sea and Western Asia.
○​ Move into India with the westerly flow.
○​ Effects:
■​ Winter rains in northern plains.
■​ Snowfall in mountains.
■​ Locally known as ‘mahawat’.

Importance of Winter Rainfall

●​ Though small in amount, crucial for rabi crop cultivation.

Peninsular Region

●​ No well-defined cold season.

●​ Minimal seasonal temperature changes due to the moderating influence of the
sea.

Weather Characteristics

●​ Clear skies.
●​ Low temperatures and humidity.
●​ Feeble and variable winds.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
Causes and Temperature Patterns

●​ Reason: Apparent northward movement of the sun shifts the global heat belt
northwards.
●​ Temperature Variations:
○​ March: Highest temperature ~38°C on the Deccan Plateau.
○​ April: Temperatures ~42°C in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
○​ May: Temperatures ~45°C in northwestern India.
○​ Peninsular India: Lower temperatures due to moderating influence of
oceans.

Atmospheric Conditions

●​ Rising temperatures and falling air pressure in northern India during summer.
●​ By late May:
○​ Elongated low-pressure area forms from the Thar Desert to Patna and
Chotanagpur Plateau.
○​ Air circulation begins around this trough.

Key Features of the Season

1.​ Loo:
○​ Strong, gusty, hot, and dry winds.
○​ Blow during the day in north and northwestern India.
○​ Can persist until evening.
○​ Direct exposure may be fatal.
2.​ Dust Storms:
○​ Common in May, particularly in northern India.
○​ Effects:
■​ Temporary relief by lowering temperatures.
■​ May bring light rain and cool breeze.
3.​ Localised Thunderstorms:
○​ Characteristics:
■​ Violent winds.
■​ Torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail.
○​ Known as ‘Kaal Baisakhi’ in West Bengal.
4.​ Pre-Monsoon Showers:
○​ Common towards the end of the summer season.
○​ Occur mainly in Kerala and Karnataka.
○​ Known as ‘Mango Showers’:
■​ Help early ripening of mangoes.

Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)

Onset and Wind Patterns
 ●​ Timing: Early June, low-pressure conditions intensify over northern plains.
●​ Winds:
○​ Origin: Southeast trade winds from warm subtropical southern oceans.
○​ Direction: Cross the equator, deflected southwest due to the Coriolis effect,
becoming southwest monsoon winds.
○​ Characteristics:
■​ Abundant moisture.
■​ Strong winds, averaging 30 km/h.
○​ Coverage: Monsoon winds cover India (except extreme northwest) in ~1
month.

Rainfall Distribution

●​ Western Ghats:
○​ Windward side receives heavy rainfall (>250 cm).
○​ Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh receive less rain (rain shadow
area).
●​ Northeastern India:
○​ Maximum rainfall of the season.
○​ Mawsynram, in Khasi Hills, holds the record for the highest average rainfall
in the world.
●​ Ganga Valley:
○​ Rainfall decreases from east to west.
●​ Rajasthan and Gujarat:
○​ Scanty rainfall.

Monsoon Breaks and Trough Movement

●​ Breaks in Monsoon:
○​ Wet and dry spells: Rain occurs for a few days, interspersed with rainless
intervals.
○​ Related to the movement of the monsoon trough:
■​ Trough over plains: Good rainfall.
■​ Trough near Himalayas: Dry spells in plains, heavy rains in
mountainous areas → Floods.
●​ Tropical Depressions:
○​ Form at the head of the Bay of Bengal.
○​ Cross mainland following the monsoon trough.
○​ Influence the amount and duration of rainfall.

Monsoon Characteristics

●​ Uncertainties:
○​ Variation in intensity, frequency, and duration of dry and wet spells.
○​ Causes floods in one region and droughts in another.
●​ Irregularity:
○​ Timing of arrival and retreat is inconsistent.
○​ Impacts farming schedules, affecting millions of farmers.
Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)
Movement of the Monsoon and Transition Period

●​ Timing: October-November.
●​ Movement:
○​ The monsoon trough over the northern plains weakens and is replaced by a
high-pressure system.
○​ Southwest monsoon winds weaken and gradually withdraw by early
October.
●​ Transition:
○​ Period between the hot rainy season and dry winter conditions.
●​ Weather:
○​ Clear skies.
○​ Rise in temperature.
○​ Day temperatures: High, but nights are cool and pleasant.
○​ ‘October heat’: Weather becomes oppressive during the day due to high
temperature and humidity.
○​ By second half of October, temperatures in northern India begin to fall
rapidly.

Cyclonic Depressions and Rainfall

●​ Low-pressure conditions in northwestern India shift to the Bay of Bengal by

early November.
●​ Cyclonic Depressions:
○​ Form over the Andaman Sea.
○​ Cross eastern coasts of India, leading to heavy and widespread rainfall.
●​ Destructive Cyclones:
○​ Frequently affect the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri deltas.
○​ Cause severe damage to life and property.
●​ Eastern Coasts:
○​ Cyclones also arrive at the coasts of Odisha, West Bengal, and
Bangladesh.
●​ Coromandel Coast Rainfall:
○​ Rainfall is mostly derived from cyclonic depressions.

Distribution of Rainfall
Rainfall Distribution

●​ Western Coast and Northeastern India:

○​ Receive over 400 cm of rainfall annually.
●​ Western Rajasthan and Adjoining Areas:
○​ Receive less than 60 cm of rainfall.
●​ Interior of Deccan Plateau and East of the Sahyadris:
○​ Low rainfall due to rain shadow effect caused by mountain ranges.
 ●​ Leh, Jammu and Kashmir:
○​ Receives very low precipitation (including snowfall in Himalayas).
●​ Moderate Rainfall:
○​ Covers most of the rest of the country.

Causes of Low Rainfall

●​ Rain Shadow Effect:

○​ Areas like western Rajasthan and Gujarat receive little rainfall due to
mountain ranges blocking the moisture-laden winds.
●​ Leeward Side of Western Ghats:
○​ Also experiences low rainfall due to the mountains blocking moisture.

Annual Rainfall Variability

●​ Monsoons:
○​ The nature of monsoons leads to high variability in rainfall from year to
year.
●​ High Variability:
○​ Regions like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and interior parts of the Deccan Plateau
experience low and fluctuating rainfall.
●​ Floods vs. Droughts:
○​ Areas of high rainfall (e.g., western coast, northeast) are prone to flooding.
○​ Areas of low rainfall (e.g., western Rajasthan, Gujarat) are drought-prone

Monsoon as a Unifying Bond

Himalayan Influence on Temperature

●​ The Himalayas protect northern India from cold winds from central Asia.
●​ This results in uniformly higher temperatures in northern India compared to other
areas at the same latitudes.

Peninsular Plateau and Sea Influence

●​ The Peninsular Plateau is surrounded by the sea on three sides.

●​ This moderates temperatures, making them less extreme compared to inland
areas.

Variations in Temperature

●​ Despite the moderating influences, there are great variations in temperature due
to geography, elevation, and proximity to water bodies.

Monsoon Influence on Seasons

●​ The monsoon provides a rhythmic cycle of seasons through seasonal wind

changes and associated weather conditions.
 ●​ The uncertainty of rainfall and uneven distribution are characteristic of the
monsoon.

Impact of Monsoons on India

●​ The Indian landscape, animal and plant life, agriculture calendar, and people’s
lifestyles revolve around the monsoons.
●​ Festivities in India are often tied to the monsoon season.
●​ Monsoon winds provide water, setting agricultural activities into motion.
●​ The river valleys formed by monsoon rains unite the country, creating a single river
valley system.