199926745-Modern-Mathematics

MODERN MATHEMATICS
(19th century – today)

19th century
• throughout the 19th century
mathematics became increasingly
abstract
• Carl Friedrich Gauss -
revolutionary work on functions of
complex variables, geometry and
the convergence of series
• he gave the first satisfactory
proofs of the fundamental
theorem of algebra and of the Carl Friedrich Gauss
quadratic reciprocity law (1777–1855)
• development of the two forms of
non-Euclidean geometry
• Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky

Nikolai Ivanovich
(Russian) and his Hungarian rival Lobachevsky (1792 – 1856)
• János Bolyai - independently János Bolyai (1802 – 1860)
defined and studied hyperbolic
geometry, where the sum of angles
in a triangle add up to less than
180°
• Bernhard Riemann –
developed elliptic
geometry, where the
angles in a triangle
add up to more than
180°
• Riemann also
developed
Riemannian
geometry, which
unifies and vastly
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann generalizes the three
(1826 - 1866)
types of geometry
• beginning of a great deal
of abstract algebra
• George Boole devised an
algebra that soon
evolved into what is now
called Boolean algebra,
in which the only
numbers were 0 and 1
• Boolean algebra - the
starting point of
mathematical logic with
important applications in
George Boole computer science
(1815 – 1864)
• Augustin-Louis
Cauchy,
Bernhard
Riemann, and
Karl Weierstrass
reformulated the
calculus in a
more rigorous
fashion
Baron Augustin-Louis
Karl Theodor Wilhelm
Cauchy
Weierstrass (Weierstraß)
(1789 – 1857)
(1815 – 1897)
• Georg Cantor -
foundations of set
theory
• Cantor's set theory, and

the rise of mathematical
logic in the hands of
Peano, L. E. J. Brouwer,
David Hilbert, Bertrand
Russell, and A.N.
Whitehead, initiated a
long running debate on
the foundations of Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp
mathematics Cantor
(1845 – 1918)
20th century
• mathematics became a
major profession
• in a 1900 speech to the

International Congress of
Mathematicians, David
Hilbert set out a list of 23
unsolved problems in
mathematics
David Hilbert
• there are still 7 partially (1862 – 1943)
solved and 2 unsolved ones
• in 1976, Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel used a
computer to prove the four color theorem
• Andrew Wiles, building on the work of others, proved
Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995
• Paul Cohen and Kurt Gödel proved that the continuum
hypothesis is independent of the standard axioms of set
theory
A four-coloring of a map
of the states of the
United States (ignoring
lakes) - an example of a
four color theorem put
in use.
• mathematical collaborations of
unprecedented size and scope took
place
• an example is the classification of
finite simple groups (also called the
"enormous theorem"), whose proof
between 1955 and 1983 required
500-odd journal articles by about
100 authors, and filling tens of
thousands of pages
• differential geometry came into its
own when Einstein used it in Albert Einstein
general relativity (1879 - 1955)
I know you’re wondering who the man on
the last photograph was. To answer what
everyone is thinking - yes, there are some
pictures where he doesn’t look like this:
• entire new areas of mathematics such as mathematical
logic, topology, and John von Neumann's game theory
changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by
mathematical methods
• some of the areas that experienced breakthroughs:

category theory, measure theory, probability theory,
ergodic theory, knot theory, functional analysis, Laurent
Schwarz's distribution theory, fixed point theory,
singularity theory and René Thom's catastrophe theory,
model theory, Mandelbrot's fractalsand Lie theory (which
became one of the major areas of study)
• improvement of computers allowed industry to deal with larger
and larger amounts of data to facilitate mass production and
distribution, communication, and new areas of mathematics
were developed to deal with this: Alan Turing's computability
theory; complexity theory; Claude Shannon's information
theory; signal processing; data analysis; optimization and other
areas of operations research
Graph theory
• in the preceding centuries much
mathematical focus was on
calculus and continuous functions
• increasing importance of discrete
concepts and the expansion of
combinatorics including graph
theory
• the speed and data processing abilities of computers also enabled
the handling of mathematical problems that were too time-
consuming to deal with by pencil and paper calculations, leading
to areas such as numerical analysis and symbolic computation
• some of the most important methods and algorithms of the 20th
century are: the simplex algorithm, the Fast Fourier Transform,
error-correcting codes, the Kalman filter from control theory and
the RSA algorithm of
public-key cryptography
• at the same time,

deep insights were
made about the
limitations to
mathematics
• Srinivasa Aiyangar
Ramanujan (1887–1920)
(Indian) - proved over 3000
theorems, including
properties of highly
composite numbers, the
partition function and its
asymptotics, and mock theta
functions
• he also made major
investigations in the areas of
gamma functions, modular
forms, divergent series,
hypergeometric series and
prime number theory Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887 – 1920)
• Paul Erdős published
more papers than any
other mathematician
in history, working
with hundreds of
collaborators
• Emmy Noether has

been described by
many as the most
important woman in
the history of
mathematics, she
revolutionized the Amalie Emmy Noether
(1882 – 1935)
Paul Erdős
theories of rings,
(1913 – 1996) fields, and algebras
• by the end of the century there were
hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics
• more and more mathematical journals were

published and, by the end of the century, the
development of the world wide web led to
online publishing
21st century
• in 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced the
seven Millennium Prize Problems meaning a valid
solution to any of the problems results in a
US$1,000,000 prize
• the problems are:

1. P versus NP
2. The Hodge conjecture
3. The Poincaré conjecture (proven by Grigori Perelman who
refused an award in 2010)
4. The Riemann hypothesis
5. Yang–Mills existence and mass gap
6. Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness
7. The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
Future of mathematics
• there are many observable trends in

mathematics, the most notable being that the
subject is growing ever larger
• computers are ever more important and powerful
• the application of mathematics to bioinformatics
is rapidly expanding, the volume of data to be
analyzed being produced by science and industry,
facilitated by computers, is explosively expanding
Since the future of
mathematics depends
partially on us, we
should at least try not to
look like this before
every preliminary exam.
Instead, cope with it!

THE END
Enjoy the rest of the day! Authors:
• Dorić Martina
• Karaula Mislav
• Katić Ivan
• Kuzminski Marin

199926745-Modern-Mathematics

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MODERN MATHEMATICS

(19th century – today)

• Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky

• Cantor's set theory, and

• in a 1900 speech to the

• some of the areas that experienced breakthroughs:

• at the same time,

• Emmy Noether has

• more and more mathematical journals were

• the problems are:

• there are many observable trends in

Instead, cope with it!

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