Remediation scenarios for selenium contamination, Blackfoot

watershed, southeast Idaho, USA

Tom Myers

Abstract Extensive phosphate mining in the Blackfoot Nevada, USA (Tuttle et al. 2000), and the Blackfoot River of
watershed of Idaho (USA) has substantially increased the southeast Idaho, USA (Tetra Tech 2002; USFS 2009; IDEQ
selenium (Se) concentration in the river during both 2009). In general, wildlife and livestock are more sensitive to
snowmelt and baseflow when groundwater discharge Se in their water supply than are humans, as evidenced by
dominates. Phosphate mines create a linkage between the difference between the aquatic and drinking-water
Se-laden shale that occurs in the Phosphoria Formation standards (5 and 50 μg/l, respectively; IDEQ 2009).
and the underlying regional Wells Formation aquifer. Livestock deaths near historic phosphate mines
Using a reconnaissance-level transport model, mines in (Newfields 2005) initiated concern of Se contamination
the watershed were prioritized for remediation and for resulting from mining the Permian Phosphoria Formation
comparing the results of simulations of remediation in the Blackfoot watershed. Twelve major mines have
scenarios with a baseline of no remediation, for which operated within the watershed starting in 1906 (Fig. 1);
Se concentration in the river will exceed the aquatic investigations under the Comprehensive Environmental
standard along an extensive length. An accurate simula- Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980
tion of recharge distribution around the watershed and (CERCLA) have commenced at five of those mines, the
simulated flux to the river is essential. Remediation of Enoch Valley, Ballard, Conda, North Maybe and South
mines north of the river will substantially decrease the size Maybe Mines (BLM 2011).
of the Se plume, although significant Se will continue to Se concentrations have exceeded aquatic standards in
discharge to the river. Similarly, remediation of three the Blackfoot River during both snowmelt and baseflow
mines south of the river would decrease the Se discharge for years (IDEQ 2009). Exceedences during snowmelt are
to the river but allow substantial amounts to remain stored primarily due to runoff leaching Se from the soils. High
in the groundwater north and far south of the river. A lack Se concentrations during baseflow represent groundwater
of calibration data is not a reason to forgo remediation, but quality because baseflow is primarily groundwater dis-
rather ongoing data collection can be used to fine-tune charge from the regional aquifer, Pennsylvanian Wells
plans as they are implemented. Formation, which underlies the entire watershed (Ralston
and Williams 1979; Ralston et al. 1977 and 1979, 1983;
Keywords Contaminant transport . Groundwater modeling . Mayo et al. 1985), and the alluvium near the river. Mining
Blackfoot River . Phosphate mining . USA creates pathways both for surface (Newfields 2005;
Knudsen and Gunter 2004) and groundwater Se contam-
Introduction ination to reach the river.
Remediating abandoned mines should decrease the Se-
Selenium (Se) is a naturally occurring element in soils and laden runoff (Mars and Crowley 2003) if it decreases the
bedrock that often leaches due to agricultural and mining contact time with seleniferous waste. Even if the runoff
developments into surrounding water bodies such as ceased immediately, however, Se in the groundwater
occurred at the Kesterson Reservoir in California, USA would continue to discharge to the river due to continuing
(Schuler et al. 1990), the Stillwater Wildlife Refuge in seepage through the mine wastes, which are much more
difficult to eliminate, and the long groundwater flow path
to the river (Winter 1980). In a watershed with many
Received: 8 May 2012 / Accepted: 6 January 2013 contaminant sources, it is necessary to prioritize the
Published online: 25 January 2013
expenditure of remediation funds on the mines that would
* Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 lower Se concentrations on the river most quickly.
The goal of this study is to provide a tool that can
simulate Se transport to the river during baseflow and
T. Myers ())
Reno, NV, USA demonstrate its use in considering remediation of different
e-mail: tom_myers@charter.net mines. The study includes development of a conceptual
Tel.: +1-775-5301483 flow and transport model in the Blackfoot watershed

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656

Fig. 1 Blackfoot watershed showing the subwatersheds, rivers, Wells formation outcrops, alluvium, springs, 303(d) water-quality
monitoring sites on rivers and streams, flow measuring points along the river, mines, and conceptual flow direction

(Fig. 1) and a numerical model which implements the Blackfoot watershed and the Salt River watershed. The
conceptual models. It demonstrates the use of the model to Blackfoot watershed has four main subwatersheds—the
prioritize among three potential remediation scenarios. upper and lower Blackfoot, Slug and Dry Creek Valleys,
and Diamond Creek (Fig. 1), which may more appropriately
be referred to as the Upper Valley (Ralston and Williams
Method of analysis 1979; Ralston et al. 1977 and 1979). The Blackfoot River
effectively begins at the exit from Upper Valley where
Study area Diamond Creek and Lanes Creek converge (Fig. 1).
The Blackfoot watershed lies in southeast Idaho. It heads The climate of the watershed is marked by cold winters
in the Webster Range which forms a divide between the and moderately warm summers (Ralston et al. 1983).

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Fig. 2 Cross section A–A′ from Fig. 1 showing stratigraphy and conceptual flow (blue arrows). Qal is alluvium, Trd is Thaynes formation,
PPwu is Wells Formation, Mb is Brazer Limestone, and Mn is Lodgepole Limestone. Adapted and simplified from Winter (1980)

Precipitation varies from less than 25 cm in the low

elevations just west of the watershed to more than 90 cm
on the ridge tops with the majority falling from October
through March as snow (Ralston et al. 1983). Snowmelt
occurs from April through June, depending on elevation.
The underlying geologic structure of the Upper
Blackfoot river basin results from thrusting associated
with the Bannock Thrust Zone which results in synclinal-
anticlinal folds and faulting of primarily sedimentary rock
(Mayo et al. 1985; Cannon 1980; Ralston and Williams
1979). Bedrock outcrops range from Pennsylvanian to
Triassic in age (Hein 2004; Johnson and Raines 1996;
Bond and Wood 1978). The oldest, and deepest, formation
considered herein is the up-to-800-m-thick Wells
Formation (Fig. 2). The Wells Formation consists of the
Grandeur Tongue, and the Upper and Lower Member of
Wells Formation and is the primary regional aquifer in the
Blackfoot watershed (Fig. 1). The aquifer system within
the thrust block is conceptually a bowl, bounded beneath
by a low angle thrust fault, with discharge to interior
springs and streams and to major springs along its edge.
The lithology of the Wells Formation is sandstone,
limestone, and dolomite, with more dolomite and lime-
stone on both the top and bottom of aquifer (Cannon
1980; Winter 1980).
Overlying the Wells Formation is the Phosphoria
Formation. The Phosphoria Formation includes the
Meade Peak and Rex chert members, which are primarily
phosphate-bearing mudstone, and the Center Waste Shale
(Hein 2004). The Center Waste Shale contains an average
65 ppm Se, with samples containing up to 1,040 ppm,
which is described as exceptional compared to a world-
wide average for shale (Herring and Grauch 2004). The
Meade Peak member is also an effective aquitard Fig. 3 a Monthly flow average and standard deviation and b average
separating the overlying local surface aquifers from the May and September flows, for gage 13063000, Blackfoot River, above
underlying Wells Formation (Ralston and Williams 1979) the Blackfoot Reservoir near Henry

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658
and preventing Se from leaching to the Wells Formation, faulting throughout so that fracture flow dominates over
before mining breaches the Meade Peak member. the domain (Ralston et al. 1983). Winter (1980) indicated
Throughout the watershed, Quaternary alluvial aquifers that the Wells Formation near the top of anticlines where
bound the river and streams extending up to 2 km from the formation is in tension, which causes fractures to be
the streams (Figs. 1 and 2). They are generally less than wider, and where outcrops have been weathered should
50 m thick (Winter 1980). have a higher K than at depth where it is compressed and
unweathered. Due to the prevalence of fractures through-
out, the system may be considered as equivalent porous
Conceptual flow model media.
Groundwater discharge from two hydrogeologic forma- The primary sources of flow data in the watershed
tions, alluvium and the Wells Formation, controls the include a flow gaging station located on the Blackfoot
baseflow in the Blackfoot River. The Wells Formation River above the Reservoir near Henry, Idaho (No.
receives distributed recharge and streamflow seepage on 13063000) and spot flow measurements collected for
outcrops throughout the watershed (Fig. 1 and 2). annual water-quality assessments, as required by section
Groundwater flows from recharge on the outcrops to 303(d) of the Clean Water Act (IDEQ 2009; Fig. 1).
discharge into basin fill and directly to the river and its During most years since 1914, the gage has operated only
tributaries. The alluvium receives recharge as stream during the irrigation season from April through
seepage, mountain-front recharge, and inflow from the September. The contributing area is 862 km2 including
Wells Formation and discharges to the Blackfoot River, irrigation diversions for 18.2 km2.
and other tributaries. Overall flow is from the Wells The maximum monthly flow which usually occurs in
Formation outcrops and stream percolation toward the May exceeds by 70 % the values in April and 80 % the
northwest where it discharges into springs and the values in June (Fig. 3a). Average flows are less than
Blackfoot River or flows out of the study area towards 2.4 m3/s from August through March, indicating that once
the Blackfoot Reservoir (Figs. 1 and 2). spring runoff ends, baseflow ensues as the flow becomes
Most data regarding hydraulic conductivity (K) of the relatively constant. This is also evidenced by the standard
Wells Formation resides in mine proposal environmental deviation of monthly flows (Fig. 3a). Monthly flows
documents. Whetstone (2009) assimilated most of the during the low flow months have also decreased with
available Wells Formation aquifer test data and found a time, with the 2001–2010 period being lower than during
range from 0.1 to 3.0 m/day with a significant horizontal previous periods (Fig. 3b). The year 1977 was one of the
anisotropy. The Wells Formation has very low primary lowest flow years of the century (Winter 1980), but the
porosity and permeability but is fractured by folding and drought was short-lived. During August and September

Fig. 4 Springflow measurements (Ralston et al. 1983) and faults

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1977, daily flows varied from about 0.57 to 0.93 m /s, less
3
Conceptual transport model
than half of the monthly mean (Fig. 3). However, some Two processes control the Se loading to the Blackfoot
daily flows in August and September during 2001–2003 River. First, runoff erodes Se from the ground surface and
and again in 2007 dropped to less than half of the range rapidly transports it to the streams. The most severe Se
observed during August and September of 1977 (Fig. 3b), contamination is associated with watersheds that have
which could reflect increased irrigation and/or the effects large mine dumps that tend to obstruct stream flow and
of a longer drought. The return flow through the alluvial also have larger gradients and little streambank storage
groundwater from irrigation recharge has a short lag time, (Mars and Crowley 2003). Second, groundwater discharge
based on low flow in months subsequent to the irrigation includes Se derived both from seepage through the
periods, and does not significantly support the baseflow Phosphoria Formation and Se recharged from runoff.
during the autumn, in contrast to the findings of Kendy Phosphate mining increases these sources by disturbing
and Bredehoeft (2006) in the much larger Gallatin the ground, thereby making it more erosive, and by
drainage in Montana. increasing direct recharge through the waste to the Wells
During September 1999, the only year with sufficient Formation (Newfields 2005; Knudsen and Gunter 2004).
303(d) measurements during baseflow, the flow exiting With seasonal variation, both low and high Se
Upper Valley was about 41 % of that exiting the entire concentrations in the Blackfoot River have trended
watershed. The increase below Upper Blackfoot River and upward since 2001, the first year occasional Se samples
Diamond Creek valleys was inflow, both groundwater and have been collected (Fig. 5a). The higher concentrations,
baseflow from small perennial streams, including which occur during May, are double the aquatic Se
Rasmussen, Dry, Wooley, and Slug creeks in the lower standard. The lower concentrations, which occur during
valleys (Fig. 1). The Upper Valley generates about 80 % baseflow both in March and July–October, have increased
of the spring runoff, more during dry years, as evidenced through the period, almost doubling between 2006 and
by flow during 2007. Within the Upper Valley, both 2009, and most recently have ranged from 1 to 2 μg/l.
Diamond Creek and a short tributary named Spring Creek This trend suggests an increase in Se sources affecting
(not shown) provide approximately equal proportions.
Discharge from the Wells Formation also includes
springs on the edge of the Meade thrust block allochthon
(Mayo et al. 1985) and internal to the watershed (Ralston
et al. 1983; Fig. 4). Seven springs along the thrust fault
that delineates the west edge of the allochthon, just west
of the Aspen Range (Fig. 4) discharge approximately
0.99 m3/s of warm water (Ralston et al. 1983). Four other
springs discharge approximately 1.02 m3/s of cool water
near a cluster of faults just south of the Aspen Range, near
Georgetown Canyon (Fig. 4); this flow likely emanates
primarily from recharge in the 210.0 km2 Georgetown
Creek watershed (IDEQ 2007). Thirteen springs discharge
warm water north of the Blackfoot watershed (Fig. 4),
suggesting a long flow path from within the Blackfoot
watershed. Six other springs discharge southeast from the
watershed into Crow Creek, located outside the watershed
east of the Webster Range (Fig. 4) from a Wells Formation
outcrop that slopes under the topographic divide (Ralston
1979; Ralston et al. 1977).
The total discharge from the Wells Formation, includ-
ing the Blackfoot River, Georgetown Canyon, and springs
west of the Aspen Range, is 4.27 m3/s. The average
recharge is 0.13 m/year over a 1,002 km2 area, assuming
that baseflow represents average annual groundwater
recharge, a valid assumption in a regional-scale system
(Cherkauer 2004) dominated by spring snowmelt and
baseflow. This exceeds the 0.05 to 0.10 m/year range
found by Ralston et al. (1977) for several valleys internal
to the watershed, but this study ignored flow from those
basins to formation-bounding springs. The recharge
exceeds 25 % of the average annual precipitation at
nearby stations located at Soda Springs, Conda, and Henry
(40, 48, and 52 cm/year, respectively) (Desert Research Fig. 5 a Se concentration with time for Gage 1306300 and b for
Institute Climate Center 2010). select mine dump seeps. See Fig. 1 for the location of mines

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Fig. 6 Distribution of Se concentration in seeps and springs from around the Blackfoot watershed, with data collected generally in the
spring as part of Idaho water quality monitoring (IDEQ 2009). The pink shaded areas are Wells Formation outcrops. See Fig. 1 legends for
mine names and descriptions for other features

groundwater, which would take much longer to manifest Se can exist in multiple oxidation states (−2, 0, +4, and
because of long flow paths, although fractures and faults, +6) with different geochemical characteristics affecting
mapped (Fig. 4) and unmapped, could reduce the transport fate and transport (Herring and Grauch 2004; Newfields
time or change the concentration as compared to transport Inc 2005). Selenate is the most mobile state, but if
in unfractured formations in portions of the watershed reduced, precipitation or adsorption to small charged soil
(Nordqvist et al. 1996). River concentrations could also particles can attenuate transport (Drever 1997). In the
fluctuate as different parts of the heterogeneous alluvium Wells Formation, the upper several hundred meters have
contribute load to the river (Osiensky et al. 1984). oxidizing conditions, but at depth Se species may be
Dozens of phosphate mines have been constructed reduced causing attenuation of any Se transport to those
through time in the Blackfoot watershed since 1906, with levels (Newfields Inc 2005).
the Georgetown Canyon Mine being the first (Lee 2000), Tributaries below many mines have elevated Se
thereby increasing the potential Se sources (Mayo et al. concentration (Fig. 6), with the highest levels occurring
1985; Winter 1980; Ralston and Williams 1979; Herring during the runoff period (IDEQ 2009). Most high
and Grauch 2004; Tetra Tech 2002). Contaminants move concentrations occur downstream of Diamond Valley and
through groundwater by advection, dispersion, and diffu- in all tributary valleys that contain phosphate mines. Other
sion toward the sinks, primarily the rivers and springs of measurements are of springs and seeps directly below the
the watershed. mines (Fig. 5b).

Table 1 Average of Se concentration from seeps underlying dumps and overburden piles compiled from various sources (JBR 2006; Tetra
Tech 2002; MWH 2010; IDEQ 2009; Formation Environmental 2010). SD standard deviation
Location Mean (μg/l) SD (μg/l) No. of observations Comments
Ballard Mine Dump Seep 773 469 26
Conda Mine Dump Seeps 901.6 888 14 Highly variable but no trend
Conda/Woodall Mine Seeps 1,017 8
Dry Valley Mine Dump Seeps 19 16 13
Enoch Valley Mine Seeps 164 368 24
Henry Mine Seeps (not including waste 69 63 3 Several dry observations not counted
rock dump)
North Maybe 262 2
South Rasmussen Seeps 152 73 14
Wooley Valley Dump Seeps 163 411 11 Highly variable but no trend

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Mine seepage concentrations are best represented in the discharge is to the river in the Upper Valley divided
seeps and groundwater within the backfill (BLM 2011; equally between Diamond Creek and the river, based on
Formation Environmental 2010), as shown in Table 1, discharge to the river as discussed in the preceding. Below
which lists the average and standard deviation of mine the Upper Valley, the remaining 59 % of the discharge was
seep concentrations observed throughout the study area. divided between river reaches based on Wells outcrops,
That the range (not shown) includes some very low values the narrow canyon section 1 km downstream from the
in addition to the high standard deviations demonstrates confluence of the Blackfoot River and Diamond Creek,
the high variability of conditions within mine waste and the tributaries so that three river reaches and
backfill. Mine seep concentrations may be trending tributaries each received 0.06 m3/s and 1.0 m3/s dis-
upward with time, based on data from the Ballard Mine charged into the longer reach 11 (Fig. 7). Simulated
Seep and Enoch Valley (Fig. 5b). discharge should be slightly higher than the targeted
values to account for groundwater supporting riparian
evapotranspiration (ET). Springs discharging from the
Numerical flow and transport model Wells Formation have targeted flows as specified in
Long-term forecasts and planning require a flow and Ralston et al. (1983; Fig. 6). The GHB that simulates
transport model to estimate discharge and Se load groundwater flowing north toward the Blackfoot
during baseflow to the Blackfoot River and various Reservoir does not have a targeted flux.
tributaries. MODFLOW-2000 (McDonald and Harbaugh Recharge averaging 0.135 m/year provides the entire
1988; Harbaugh et al. 2000) was used to simulate flow model flux as specified flux to the domain. The recharge
and MT3D (Zheng and Wang 1999), which uses an distribution depends on the precipitation, soils, and
existing MODFLOW flow solution, was used to geology (Dribbs et al. 2006; Flint et al. 2004; Stone et
simulate Se transport. al. 2001). Wells Formation outcrops and alluvium are
The model domain (Fig. 7) is the Wells Formation and receptive to seepage and recharge, while precipitation
connected alluvium within the Upper Blackfoot watershed
and extending over the watershed boundary to coincide
with the Mead thrust block, or allochthon, west of the
Aspen Range. The boundary is also west of the Webster
Ridge topographic divide to coincide with the western-
most Wells Formation outcrop on the Webster Ridge
(MWH 2010; Cannon 1980).
The grid consists exclusively of 152-m square cells to
implement mine seepage as recharge through one or more
cells. The grid is rotated 22.8° to the northwest to parallel
the main axis of the tributary valleys. The model has four
layers that represent the cross-section as illustrated in
Fig. 2. The top layer includes Wells Formation outcrops,
alluvial fill around the river and tributaries, and undiffer-
entiated bedrock. Layer 1 has a variable thickness equal to
the difference between the ground-surface elevation,
determined with 30-m digital-elevation models, and the
top of the Wells Formation. If the Wells Formation
outcrops at the location, the layer 1 thickness is 30.5 m.
The depth to the top of the Wells Formation was estimated
from water well logs and from the various published
geologic cross-sections (Winter 1980). Layers 2, 3, and 4
simulating the Wells Formation, or undifferentiated
bedrock, were set 30.5, 152 and 460 m thick, respectively,
with adjustments to avoid significant offsets in steep areas,
to facilitate the simulation of vertical flow.
This model used head-controlled flux boundaries
(Anderson and Woessner 1992), including river bound-
aries to simulate an interchange of water between the river
and aquifer, drain boundaries for springs and river
tributaries, and general-head boundaries (GHBs) for flow
to the northwest (Fig. 7). Boundary reaches were chosen
to be the discharge zones from the aquifer so that the flux
Fig. 7 Groundwater model domain showing the Blackfoot
and Se discharge rates would represent flow or transport watershed and subwatersheds (black line), Wells Formation outcrop
from a tributary basin (Lemly 1999). The total discharge (pink area) and flux boundary conditions. GHB general head
into the river is 2.27 m3/s partitioned so that 41 % of the boundary. R reach number

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662
mostly runs off the other rock outcrops and flows across (Schulze-Makuch et al. 1999). Undifferentiated rock
and recharges Wells outcrops or alluvium. primarily represents the Phosphoria or younger formations
Recharge can be estimated by assuming the recharge to (Ralston 1979) which are above the Wells Formation in
the contributing area above a point equals the baseflow layer 1 (Fig. 9a). Alluvial zones were subdivided by
discharge to that point. The strategy used to distribute total subwatershed (Figs. 1 and 7). Wells Formation K zones
recharge around the model domain is to set recharge zones correspond with anticlines (where K should be higher),
based on the three outcrop types, broken into zones by synclines (where K should be lower), outcrops (where K
mountain range or valley (Fig. 8). The rates were set by should be higher due to weathering), and intermediate
calibrating so that boundary fluxes best match their target zones (Fig. 2). Wells Formation K also reflects an
fluxes; this method has been shown to substantially reduce expected depth decay of the fractures, with fractures
the error in estimating flux in similar-sized basins (Juckem becoming smaller with depth (Belcher 2004) mostly
et al. 2006). Recharge through undifferentiated rock was between layers 1 and 2 and between layers 3 and 4.
set equal to 0.005 m/year based on the low rate expected Final Kh and Kv values were determined as part of
through the Mead Peak aquitard. steady-state calibration.
The model simulates flow through three primary units Faults can be a flow barrier or conduit (Caine et al.
—the Wells Formation, alluvium, and undifferentiated 1996); fault conductance (Harbaugh et al. 2000) across the
rock —modeled as equivalent porous media using various mapped faults (Fig. 4) was set as part of
parameter zones (Anderson and Woessner 1992); the calibration, with lower values set at thrust faults between
Wells Formation outcrops (Figs. 7 and 9a) and all of bedrock and fill due to a likely significant fining of the
layers 2–4 consist of Wells Formation K zones (Fig. 9b fault core (Caine et al. 1996). Faults were simulated as
and c); layer 4 consists of just one K zone with a flow conduits where indicated by spring flow
conductivity of 0.09 m/day. Some K zones have values (Georgetown Canyon) by increasing the K of the cells
higher than found by Whetstone (2009), discussed in the adjacent to the fault, a method which could help to direct
preceding, due to scale effects; the K of larger areas is the flow to the springs where necessary (Dettinger et al.
often higher than the values determined using pump tests 1995; Ralston and Williams 1979).

Fig. 8 Groundwater model recharge zones and rates. White areas are the mines; see Fig. 1

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Model calibration accurate in basins without substantial groundwater develop-

Steady-state calibration involved adjusting the recharge, K ment (Myers 2009). Depth to water at two mine pits and
and boundary flux conductance so that the simulated piezometer observations near Diamond Creek (Ralston et al.
heads would match the observed heads and the simulated 1977 and 1979) were also used for calibration. Head-
flux at various boundaries matched the observed or dependent flux boundaries also control the head at those
estimated fluxes. Target fluxes were measured and points. Because calibration data is limited, qualitative
estimated flows and target heads were the static water techniques as described by ASTM (1998) including simu-
levels observed during well completion for wells in the lating the potentiometric surface according to the conceptual
Wells Formation and alluvium. This assumes that static model and having reasonable simulation of the vertical
water levels approximate steady-state conditions, which is exchange of groundwater among layers were also utilized.

Fig. 9 Calibrated hydraulic conductivity values by zone for a layer 1, b layer 2, and c layer 3

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Calibration was completed in three stages. First, recharge with the contaminants introduce with the new seepage.
rates among the various recharge zones (Fig. 8) were For the comparison of remediation scenarios, the mine
adjusted to match target fluxes. Second, using the calibrated seeps are the only Se source in the watershed, an
recharge rates, K and conductance were calibrated using assumption justified by the naturally low Se concentra-
both trial and error and automated routines including tions at both springs and wells (Newfields 2005).
sensitivity analysis within MODFLOW-2000 (Harbaugh et Dispersion coefficients can be difficult to estimate
al. 2000) to match steady-state head while maintaining the because they depend on the scale of the modeling
flux values found while calibrating recharge. MODFLOW- (Anderson and Woessner 1992). Two models prepared
2000 calculates a composite scaled sensitivity for each for minesites in the area had set longitudinal, transverse,
parameter, which reflects the total information about the and vertical dispersivity in the Wells Formation as 20, 6
parameter available in the observations; see Hill and and 2 m, respectively (Myers 2007) and 30, 10, and 3 m,
Tiedeman (2007) for a description of how the value is respectively (JBR 2007). Fetter (2001) recommends an
calculated. Third, storage coefficients were estimated by equation derived by Xu and Eckstein (1995) for relating
simulating well driller’s pump tests assuming that pumping the apparent longitudinal dynamic dispersivity to the
and recovery lasted for 0.1 and 0.9 days, respectively, so that length of the flow path. For a flow path equal to the cell
average simulated drawdown approximated about half the length used in this model, the Xu and Eckstein equation
measured drawdown in the well. This adjustment accounts yielded a longitudinal dispersivity equal to 2.7 m. The
for the effect of averaging head over the cell area when the transverse and vertical dispersivity values equal 0.2 and
reality is that the pump tests are very short term and the 0.1 times the longitudinal values (Schulze-Makuch et al.
drawdown at a well would be substantially greater than over 1999). Dispersivity was verified by comparing the
the cell. All annual recharge was assumed to occur within a simulated river concentration to the 2010 303(d) concen-
90-day seasonal period, an assumption which implicitly trations and by completing a sensitivity analysis using the
accounts for the soil-water balance by season, in the spirit of higher values.
Jyrkama et al. (2002). The calibration target was for seasonal
fluctuation in the Wells outcrop areas to be less than 9 m and
for river and drain fluxes to fluctuate not more than plus or
minus 10 %, as observed at the gaging station (Fig. 3). Scenario modeling
Transient simulation included mine development in the
watershed from 1960 through 2010, which establishes
initial conditions for simulation of the future, 416 years
Contaminant transport modeling beyond 2010, and verification of the dispersivity coef-
Mining introduces contaminants to the aquifer as seepage, ficients. Historic mine development required five stress
which may be simulated as a new recharge boundary with periods with seepage from historic mines simulated as
a contaminant concentration, with recharge zones at and starting in 1960, 1969, 1977, 1987, or 1991 (Lee 2000;
below the mines (Figs. 1 and 8). The contaminant, Se, is Table 2). Simulation of the future required four additional
treated as conservative, an assumption justified by the fact periods; two were 6 and 10 years to simulate projected
that selenate (measured as Se6+) is by far the most development of the Blackfoot Bridge Mine (BLM 2011;
common Se species in a groundwater sample in the Arcadis 2009) followed by two 200-year periods for a
Wells Formation (Newfields Inc 2005). Simulating the longer-term consideration of mine remediation. The
seepage starts with an accurate transient flow simulation 200-year simulation periods are a simplification of the
of the overall flow in the system and the new mine time periods necessary for the Se concentration from
seepage (Bredehoeft and Pinder 1973). Therefore, simu- the seepage to be decreased by an order of magnitude,
lating new Se sources involves two steps, a flow as determined from leaching tests (BLM 2011;
simulation of the new seepage and a transport simulation Whetstone Associations 2009). Simulation of several

Table 2 Blackfoot watershed mines, and relevant mining and modeling year. For modeling, the seepage continues until it is remediated
Mine First mining Start open pit End open pit Model start year
Georgetown Canyon 1906 1958 1964 1960
North Trail/Woodall 1956 1984 1960
Ballard 1946 1946 1994 1960
Maybe Canyon 1951 1951 1996 1960
Wooley Valley 1955 1955 1989 1960
Diamond Gulch 1957 1957 1960 1960
Mountain Fuel Mine 1965 1987 1993 1987
Henry Mine 1969 1969 1989 1969
Lanes Creek 1977 1977 1989 1977
Champ 1993 1993 1996 1991
Rasmussen Ridge 1991 1991 Present 1991
Dry Valley 1993 1993 Present 1991

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hundred years into the future is imprecise because of
uncertainties in conceptual model of the flow, but the

Fig. 11 Simulated 2010 Se concentration along the Blackfoot

River reaches from upstream to downstream. Combination terms,
such as R1+R2, means the combination of two or more reaches

purpose of this modeling is to prioritize remediation

scenarios; the model establishes a baseline against
which remediation is compared therefore the impreci-
sion should not bias the results.
Three mine remediation scenarios, in which speci-
fied mines stop seeping Se-laden recharge at the
beginning of the first 200-year simulation period, were

Fig. 10 Steady-state calibration figures of a recharge zone

composite sensitivity (Hill and Tiedeman 2007), b comparison of
target flux with simulated flux for various river and drain
boundaries, and c vertical flux among layers. Bottom in and bottom
out means flow into and out of a layer through its bottom,
respectively. River flux is from the model domain to the river; Fig. 12 Comparison of 1 μg/l selenium-concentration contours for
recharge from the river is negligible. GHB is general head boundary the baseline scenario in 2230 with the longitudinal dispersion
flow to the northwest (Fig. 7). Total recharge is 373,079 m3/day. See coefficient D02.7 m and D030 m. The ratio among longitudinal,
Fig. 8 for recharge zones transverse, and vertical dispersion coefficients is 1:0.2:0.1

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666
considered. Scenario 1 is the baseline, without any Results and discussion
remediation; scenario 2 remediates Ballard, Enoch
Valley, and Henry Mine; scenario 3 remediates North Calibration
and South Maybe Canyon; and scenario 4 adds the Recharge rates around the domain (Fig. 8) were established
Mountain Fuel and Champ Mines to scenario 3. with automated calibration. Recharge in the fill aquifers
The number of time steps per stress period was generally yielded the highest composite sensitivity
established so that the first time step was near a (Fig. 10a), which reflects the connection between alluvial
critical value of about 3 days (Anderson and Woessner recharge and discharge to the river; for example, recharge in
1992). For flow modeling, there are 20 time steps for the alluvium of the Upper Valley was set equal to 0.556 m/
the first six periods and 40 time steps for the 200-year day to reflect runoff from the mountains. Four of the five
period with a time step multiplier of 1.2. For MT3D, least sensitive recharge zones were in the Wells Formation,
the time step size is 0.5 days and the maximum time which indicates that recharge does not vary much among the
step is 80 days, to keep it less than the limit implied Wells outcrops. This probably is due to the long flow paths
by the Courant number (Anderson and Woessner 1992) from recharge in the outcrops to discharge. Long flow paths
for a maximum flow velocity of 0.6 m/day (observed tend to diminish the effect of seasonal and annual recharge
near some springs). amounts (Cherkauer 2004; Myers 2009).

Fig. 13 Se concentration contours in layer 2 in 2010. Contours are 1, 10, and 100 μg/l. See Fig. 1 for mine identification. The map also
shows the simulated monitoring points used in Fig. 14

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 667
With the recharge rates set, adjusting K and conduc- negative residuals occurred adjacent to one another,
tance resulted in a good fit of simulated and targeted suggesting significant faulting or other low K units
fluxes and an adequate fit of water level observations. The between the wells.
most important fit, due to the goal for the model to Calibrated K ranged over seven orders of magnitude, with
simulate discharge to the river, was with the targeted the highest K in the alluvium, which exceeded 3 m/day in all
fluxes, including along the river and tributaries for reaches zones and approached 50 m/day in some areas (Fig. 10a). The
10–19, with one exception (Fig. 10b). Reach 18 flux, Trail Wells Formation is less conductive and Kh ranged from
Creek, exceeded the target flux by about three times. The about 0.0001 to 16 m/day, as expected, with one area draining
model also simulated Woodall and Formation springs, to a spring being much higher (Fig. 10b), and with good
reaches 22 and 23, which lie on the far west and northwest correspondence with models simulating smaller portions of
of the domain (Fig. 4), poorly (Fig. 10b). Their flux may the area (Arcadis 2009; Myers 2007; JBR 2007). Higher K
be underestimated due to the failure to account for values in localized areas reflect weathered rock in anticlines
sufficient connections between the recharge zones and and the highest represents a zone which channels groundwa-
the springs. Georgetown Canyon Tailings Spring (reach ter to various springs including the Georgetown Canyon and
28, Fig. 10b), near the similarly named mine (Fig. 1) and Georgetown Canyon Tailings springs (IDEQ 2007).
near the accurately simulated Georgetown Canyon Vertical flux among layers demonstrates that the
springs, was poorly simulated which could be due to vertical circulation of groundwater, a primary qualitative
conflicting measurements in Ralston et al. (1983). calibration target, is reasonable (Fig. 10c). The vertical
The average residual for head with 26 observations flux into layer 1 is a little less than half of the combined
equaled −3.2 m and the standard error and deviation flux to the drain and river boundaries in that layer and
equaled 6 and 7 %, respectively, of the total 311-m head about a third of the total recharge to the model; the total
range. The average was negative because of the tendency flux into and out of layer 2 is substantially more than the
for near-surface water levels to be simulated high, due to discharge to drains from that layer (Fig. 10c). The model
not modeling ET near the rivers. Large-value positive and accurately simulates deep circulation at reasonable rates,

Fig. 14 Se concentration for a baseline scenario monitoring wells for the baseline scenarios, b river reach (R) endpoints and inflows for
the baseline scenario, c scenario 2, and d scenario 3. See Fig. 13 for monitoring well sites and Fig. 7 for reach numbers. DS is downstream
end, referring to a river reach. Scenario 4 is not shown

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668
as conceptualized. About 5 % of the recharge leaves the to monitored groundwater quality at nearby mines
model domain through GHBs to the north. (Newfields 2005). Much of the simulated Se plume is
Flux to Blackfoot River reach 11 (Fig. 10b) is most north of the Blackfoot River and a smaller plume
sensitive to variability in conductance, with flux varying emanates from the North and South Maybe Canyon
from 61,500 to 114,000 m3/day, for a conductance Mines (Fig. 13). Se plumes appear less extensive in layer
multiplier varying from 0.5 to 2.0. Reaches 15 and 16 1 because the layer is dry in places and are more extensive
vary over a range up to 40 %, and the remaining flux in layer 3 because of the vertical dispersion along the long
boundaries vary by 20 % or less for similar conductance flowpaths.
variations (not shown). The Se concentration often varies among model layers
The calibrated specific yield is 0.2, 0.1, and 0.05 for reflecting the vertical circulation, as demonstrated by the
alluvium, Wells outcrops, and undifferentiated rock, selected monitoring wells in Fig. 14a. Along the long river
respectively. The specific storage is 3.1×10−6, 2.7×10−6, reach 11 (Fig. 13), Se concentration is slow to increase but
and 2.5×10−6 m−1 for bedrock in layers 2, 3, and 4, does so first at depth, in layer 3. Further upstream at the
respectively. The sensitivity of the model to changes in confluence of Diamond Creek and the river, layer 3 also
specific storage was tested by increasing and decreasing has higher concentration. However, in the Aspen Range,
the calibrated value by 50 %; this altered the water level in layer 2 has higher concentration because of the nearby
the unconfined aquifer monitoring wells by less than recharge and downward flow in the area. Deep circulation
0.4 m, with water levels in most of the wells changing less initially decreases the concentration reaching the river
than 0.1 m. Water levels in monitoring wells in the highest because the aquifer lengthens the transport time of the Se,
confined layers were changed less than 11 m, although all thereby releasing it more slowly.
but two changed less than 3 m. Deeper confined layers The concentration in flux to the river requires up to
experienced less fluctuation, except for one on Dry Ridge 80 years to approach steady state from break-through to
for which the change was almost 30 m; at this point, layer the time the hydrograph becomes horizontal (Fig. 14b).
1 was dry so the recharge flux was added to confined layer Monitoring points close to Se sources may have small
2. Because layer 1 was dry on many ridges, this was not shifts in the Se concentration as the simulated load from
unusual and is representative of actual recharge reaching those sources change. Monitoring points further from Se
the aquifer through fractures. Layer 4 varied almost not at sources have longer times to break-through and to level
all. Similar sensitivity analyses completed for the pump off and multiple sources complicate the hydrograph. Sites
test results caused a difference in pumping drawdown under high concentration sources such as the Aspen
generally less than 0.5 m. However, two wells both
completed in a model zone with Kh00.2 m/day, fluctuated
from the baseline by up 9 m due to pumping. Changing
the specific yield by 15 %, positive or negative, affected
water levels in both types of aquifer by less than 0.2 m.
The simulated 2010 Se concentrations in the river
during baseflow ranged from 2.2 to 3.1 μg/l (Fig. 11),
which are close to the 303(d) observations and verify the
model as accurate with regard to seepage from past
mining. The increased discharge to the river due to mine
seepage is negligible.
Larger dispersivity coefficients (JBR 2007) caused the
1 μg/l Se contour to spread further than for the baseline in
certain areas (Fig. 12) but overall the difference is slight.
The spread is greatest in the southeast portion of the
domain where the plume moved 3 km further in 270 years
due to the higher dispersivity. Transport to deeper layers
may cause the lack of apparent differences in some areas
and some river and drain boundaries limit the plume by
providing a sink for the Se. The relatively small sensitivity
to dispersivity coefficient indicates that advection is more
important in controlling the plume shape (Konikow 2011).

Comparison of baseline with remediation scenarios

In 2010, the simulated Se contour near some of the mines
is 100 μg/l although Se concentration may be much higher
directly under the mine footprint (Fig. 13). These Fig. 15 Se plume, 5 μg/l, for baseline and scenario 3. Scenario 2
simulated Se concentrations are similar to seep concen- is essentially the same as the baseline and scenario 4 is essentially
trations as observed in the 303(d) data (IDEQ 2009) and the same as scenario 3. See Fig. 1 for mine names

Hydrogeology Journal (2013) 21: 655–671 DOI 10.1007/s10040-013-0953-8

 669
Range, experienced break-through quickly but still took contribute additional Se load, the plumes could expand. If
up to 50 years to reach equilibrium. Other monitoring sites the waste rock is capped to decrease seepage, it could
(not shown) required from about 30 to nearly 100 years to even decrease the inflow to the river that dilutes the Se-
reach equilibrium, also demonstrating that long periods laden flow from other parts of the watershed. The peak
could be required to remediate the sources. concentration does or will exceed 5 μg/l for a long time
The Se plume will expand through the watershed and period over a substantial portion of the Blackfoot River,
along the Blackfoot River west of Dry Valley (Fig. 15), but cleaner inflow dilutes it to below that level by the time
which increases the Se loading to the river (Fig. 14), it reaches the downstream end of the river.
without any remediation. With time, Se concentrations All of the remediation scenarios could help to
will exceed the aquatic standard over much of the remediate Se contamination in the watershed and down-
Blackfoot River and in the flux to most river reaches stream of the watershed. Scenario 2 would reduce the Se
(Fig. 14b). Groundwater from undeveloped tributary reaching the downstream portions of the river, thereby
valleys may dilute the river near the outlet but not preventing Se concentrations from exceeding the aquatic
simulating ET may cause the model to underestimate the standard at the outlet. Scenario 3 would reduce the Se
concentration. At the downstream end of reach 12, Se concentration in the river and inflow through several
concentrations could exceed 5 μg/l for about 200 years reaches substantially compared to baseline and more than
beginning about 80 years after the beginning of the scenario 2. It would prevent Se concentrations from
simulation (Fig. 14b). About 75 years was required to exceeding 5 μg/l throughout. However, remediating these
reattain equilibrium after source concentrations were mines had almost no effect on the load leaving the domain
reduced at the beginning of period 9, at year 260 through the GHB due to the long distance, and transport
(Fig. 14b), which reflects the time for the contributory time, from the boundary. Scenario 4, which added two
area to fully affect the river concentrations. It will also mines to scenario 3, did not discernibly change river Se
require longer to naturally remediate due to the large loading, but it reduced the Se concentration around the
amount of Se in storage. additional mines.
Scenario 2 remediates mines located in the northwest The analysis presented herein is reconnaissance level
portion of the watershed, just north of Blackfoot River due to the lack of data for calibrating the model. The lack
reaches 10 and 1, where it removes Se as indicated by Se of data and uncertainties should not be used as an excuse
contours (Fig. 15). The Se concentration at the down- to forgo remediation; rather data collection as remediation
stream end (DS End in Fig. 14c) is slightly less than for proceeds could provide additional data to improve the
the baseline scenario, only reaching about 4 μg/l. model. It could be used to consider additional permuta-
Remediation does not decrease Se concentration at the tions of remediation and better focus the remediation
DS end of reach 12 or in the inflow to reaches 12, 13, 14, dollar.
or 19 (Fig. 14c).
Scenario 3 substantially changes the Se concentration
hydrograph (Fig. 14d). Se concentrations at neither station Acknowledgements Roger Congdon and John Bredehoeft provid-
ed valuable review and helpful comments on the first version of the
DS End nor DS End R12 exceed 5 μg/l at any time manuscript. The Greater Yellowstone Coalition funded this work.
(Fig. 14d). Inflow concentrations on reaches 12, 14, and
19 still peak above 5 μg/l (Fig. 14d), but they do not
achieve the apparent equilibrium observed in the baseline
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