SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

Definition

A system is a set of organised components which interact in a given environment and within
a specified boundary to achieve collective goals and objectives that are emergent.

Description of a system

A system can be described as being either a soft system or a hard system.

Soft systems

Characteristics of soft systems

Human activity systems are said to be soft systems because of three main reasons:

Their boundaries may be fluid or keep on changing.

Their goals and objectives usually conflict and may not be captured clearly at any one time
because they are based on human factors like attitude and preferences.

It is difficult to precisely define exact measures of performance for them.

Examples of soft systems

Political system. It is very difficult for instance to model a system that will predict the
political mood over a period of time.

Sales tracking and prediction system in an organization. Sales in an organization depend on

human factors like attitudes in the market place.

Hard systems

Hard systems are systems whose goals and objectives are clearly defined and the outcomes
from the systems processes are predictable and can be modeled accurately. Hard systems are
based proven scientific laws like mathematical formulas or engineering solutions.

Characteristics of hard systems

Goals and objectives are clearly defined.

The exact measure of performance can be precisely pre-determined.

An example of hard systems

Stock management system in a supermarket. It is possible to know exactly the stock levels,
cost and sale price and to predict accurately the profit if all the stock is sold.

pg. 1
NB: A good system incorporates both hard and soft aspects of a system. For example, a stock
management system should be able to show when the demand for a certain item rises so that
a decision can be made to stock more. New demand is driven by soft aspects in people’s lives
like attitudes and seasons.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM

All systems have some common characteristics as discussed below.

Holistic thinking

In holistic thinking, a system is considered as a whole. The various components of that make
up a system may be simple in nature and process but their combination creates a complex
whole whose overall goals are more sophisticated than those of the individual components.
Hence, a system should be considered as a whole unit rather than considering its parts
individually.

Subsystems

A system is made up of different components (subsystems). Therefore a system does not exist
in solitude but it may be a component of a larger system. For example, the classroom system
is part of a school system, which is part of the ministry of education. The ministry of
education is part of the Government which is part of the global system.

Boundary an environment

Each system has a space (boundary) within which the components operate. Any entity that
falls outside the boundary but interacts with the system is part of the system environment.
Such entities are called external entities. External entities provide inputs into the system and
receive the outputs from the system. For example, the external entities to a school system
may include the parents, various suppliers and the society at large.

Purpose

The purpose of each system is to perform a particular task or achieve a goal. The objectives
that a system is supposed to achieve enable system developers to measure the performance of
a system during its operation. The main objective for a school system for instance is to enable
the students to excel in national examinations.

Process

A system usually will transform or process data from one state to another.

System entropy

The word entropy means decay. Systems undergo decay over a time. This means that a
system slowly becomes useless to the user either due to improvement in technology, new

pg. 2
management policies or change in user requirements. Therefore a system must be reviewed in
order to improve it or to develop a new one.

Inputs and outputs

A system communicates with its environment by receiving inputs and giving outputs. For
example, a manufacturing firm can be considered as a system that gets raw materials (inputs)
from the environment and transforms them into finished products (outputs) released into the
environment.

Open and closed systems

A system is described as open if it receives input from and gives output to the environment. A
closed system neither receives output from, nor gives output to the environment. Open
systems normally adapt to changes in the environment.

Has control mechanism

Control can be defined as the method by which a system adapts to changes in the
environment in order to give the expected output or to perform to the expected level.

Control is achieved through feedback which involves having outputs from the process of the
system being fed back to the control mechanism. The control mechanism in turn adjusts
control signals that are fed to the process which in turn makes sure that the output meets the
set expectations.

For instance, imagine a motor vehicle manufacturing company that is producing several
vehicles a day. Assuming that the demand rises, then feedback would show that the company

pg. 3
is underperforming. Hence, control signals that would speed up movement of units on the
assembly line can be issued to increase production.

Information System

Information system is a set of people, procedures, technologies and other resources that
collect, transform, store, secure and disseminate information.

It can also be defined as an arrangement of people, hardware, software, data processes and
procedures that work together to support and improve the day-to-day operations in a business
and decision making processes.

Purpose of an information system

The main purposes of an information system are:

To enable sharing of information.

To support processing of data to give out the required information.

To disseminate information.

To provide responsive service to meet the users’ needs.

Help in decision making by collecting operational data, analyzing it and generating reports
that can be used to support the decision making processes.

Support information processing by enhancing tasks such as data collection, processing and
communication.

Components that constitute and information system

Hardware

Software

Data/information

Procedures – are policies that govern the operation of a computer system.

People – They are the component that influence the success or failure of information
systems.

Why new information system are developed

The need for developing information systems is brought about by three circumstances:

When there is directives or order from those in authority.

When the existing system has problems.

pg. 4
When new opportunities to develop a system arises.

System Analysis and Design

System Analysis:

System analysis is the process of examining an activity, procedure, technique or organization to

determine what must be accomplished and how best the operations may be accomplished in order to
achieve the predetermined objectives.

The process of collecting & analyzing facts that relate to an existing situation, diagnosing problems,
and using the facts gathered to design & implement an effective computerized system.

System Design:

System design is the activity that involves identifying possible solutions to a problem, and then
deciding on the most appropriate system to solve the problem.

System design is concerned with the design of a computerized application based on the facts disclosed
during the Analysis stage.

In system design, the nature & contents of inputs, files & outputs are formulated and described in
order to show how they are connected by processing procedures, and for the purpose of developing a
new (or, an improved) system.

Information system Analyst:

An Information system Analyst is a person who identifies the problems & needs of an organization,
then designs & develops algorithms and procedures on how to solve these problems on a computer.

Roles of an Information system analyst

Reviews the existing system & makes recommendations on how to improve or implement an
alternative system.

Works hand in hand with programmers to construct a computerized system.

Coordinates the training of new system users and owners.

He is the overall project manager of the information system being implemented. Some of his project
management duties include: assuring quality, keeping within schedule & budgeting.

Review Questions

Define the term information system.

Differentiate between soft systems and hard systems.

pg. 5
List five characteristics of a system.

What is system control?

Why do we need feedback in a system?

Explain the tem system boundary.

State and explain three purposes of information systems in organisations.

Draw a well labelled diagram that depicts a system that is controlled through feedback.

Define the term online analytical processing?

THEORIES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

There are 3 main theories or methods used in system development.

Traditional approach theory.

Rapid Application Development (RAD) theory.

Structured approach theory.

Traditional approach
In the Traditional approach, there is no formal documented methodology to be followed by all system
developers in the organization.

The method relies mostly on the skills & experience of the individual members carrying out the
project development.

Disadvantage of traditional approach

The structure of the old system is not changed in anyway; hence, the weaknesses of the old system are
not corrected, and are carried forward to the new system.

Example;

In a Bank, a manual system is characterized by long queues & poor controls. If the Traditional
approach is used, each Cashier will simply be given a computer. The long queues might remain and
lack of controls increase because no value was added to the old information system.

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

pg. 6
This theory is based on a belief that there is need for businesses or organizations to develop &
implement information systems quickly enough for them to maintain a competitive advantage in the
market.

Advantage of RAD

Ensures faster development of information systems, and as a result, increase production of an

organization.

Disadvantage of RAD

The working system may be weak due to quick development, i.e., a system may be working well but
may not have the necessary inbuilt security mechanisms.

Approaches used in Rapid Application Development.

There are 3 different approaches/techniques used in Rapid Application Development;

Prototyping.

Small team With Advanced Tools (SWAT).

Joint Application Development (JAD).

Prototyping

A Prototype is a small working model, which is developed to test ideas & assumptions about the new
system.

Like any computer-based system, a prototype consists of working software that accepts input,
performs calculations, produces printed or displayed information, or performs other meaningful
activities. The design & the information produced by the system are tested & evaluated by the users.

Note. Use of prototypes makes it possible for system developers to quickly capture user requirements
by designing system interfaces in the presence of the user.

Structured approach
In structured approach, there is a defined set of stages that should be followed when developing a
system.

Each stage is well documented and specifies the activities to be carried out by the system analyst and
his team while developing a system.

pg. 7
Revision Questions
Explain three system development theories and methods.

(a) State one disadvantage of the Traditional approach in system development.

(b) State the main advantage of Rapid Application Development method.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The stages of developing a system are called the System development life cycle (SDLC).

The 7 main stages in system development include:

Problem recognition and definition.

Information gathering.

Requirements specification.

System design.

System construction (coding).

System testing and implementation.

System review and maintenance.

The following diagram represents the 7 stages, which must be followed in the system development
life cycle: -

Problem Recognition and Definition.

Information gathering.

Requirements specification. System development stage

System Design.

System Construction (coding).

System Testing and Implementation. System operation and support stage

System Review and Maintenance

The life cycle of an information system is divided into 2 major parts: -

pg. 8
The development stage.

The operation and support stage.

Note. Each stage serves a role in the problem-solving process, and therefore they must be followed
systematically.

Problem recognition
Problem recognition is done during the Preliminary investigation. A preliminary investigation is
carried to find out if really there is need for change.

During the problem recognition stage, the system analyst seeks to answer two questions:

Is the proposed project worth looking at?

Is the project worth pursuing?

After this, the system analyst then defines the scope of the project and tries to establish the limitations
(risks involved), the budget (i.e., cost, resources/manpower involved) & time involved.

Some of the most common limitations are: Lack of finance and lack of appropriate technology
(expertise) to develop the system.

Problem definition (Problem analysis)

Problem definition is the process of identifying & understanding the problem, and finding out any
limitations that may limit the solution.

At this stage, the system analyst is required to find out much about the existing system (whether
manual or computerised) in order to come up with a good & relevant proposal for the new system.

A special study called a feasibility study is carried out. Feasibility study is a study carried out to
establish the costs & benefits of the proposed new system.

Purpose of feasibility study

To justify the new system in terms of the capital to be employed, equipment required, personnel, and
the procedures necessary for the new system.

To determine whether the existing system, be it manual, mechanical or computerized, is adequate, or

it should be modified, updated or replaced.

Types of feasibility studies

pg. 9
Technical feasibility.

This study establishes whether the existing technology can be upgraded or is sufficient to support the
new system.

It also tries to find out whether the staff has relevant technical skills to develop & use the new system.

Economic feasibility.

This study establishes whether the development and implementation of new system is cost effective
by comparing all the costs & benefits of the proposed system.

Operational feasibility.

It establishes whether the management, employees, customers, suppliers & other users are happy,
willing and able to operate, use and support the proposed new system.

When carrying out operational feasibility study, the analyst tries to:

Ask the users whether they accept the new system?

Find out whether the staff has the necessary skills or manpower? If they don’t have the necessary
skills, how are they going to acquire them? Do they require training or not?

Look at the kind of job assignments that will be affected.

Look at how the firm will be reorganized to accommodate the new system, e.g., office space, comfort,
etc.

Schedule feasibility.

It establishes whether developing of the proposed system will be accomplished within the available
time.

Note. This cost-benefit analysis study will then indicate whether the proposed system is viable or not.
Otherwise, a new system should only be developed if its benefits are more than its costs.

After the feasibility study, a feasibility study report is produced, which outlines the following:

Recommendations on whether to continue or abandon the project.

The performance of the new system in relation to the existing system.

Limitations & benefits expected.

pg. 10
The development plan for the new system, etc.

The recommendations contained in the report are carefully evaluated by the personnel involved in the
system study, i.e., the management, user departments, steering committee, finance department, etc.
who will then decide on whether to commence a detailed investigation or not.

Revision Questions
Define the term System development life cycle.

Outline the seven steps followed in structured system development.

What is ‘Problem definition’ in the context of system development?

Define the term Feasibility study as used in system development.

Information gathering (Fact-finding)

After the feasibility study report has been approved by the management, the system analyst then
proceeds to identify the techniques that will help the management to gather enough information
relating to the starting of the system.

The collection/gathering of all information required to implement a computer system is referred to as

fact-finding.

Objectives of fact-finding

The main objectives of fact-finding are:

To find out what the present system is attempting to do, its scope and objectives.

To collect information about the input of the present system.

To find out the volume of input. This directly affects the design of the new system.

To find out about the files maintained by the present system.

To find out about the processing carried out by the system.

To find out how the files are updated & outputs produced.

To find out what equipment are used.

To find out about the accuracy checks performed during processing.

To find about time limitations, if any.

To find out about the organization structure of the departments and the sections presently carrying out
the processing tasks.

pg. 11
To find out the problems & difficulties presently encountered as the system operates, with special
reference to the barriers, duplication, and weakness.

To ascertain the cost of the present system.

Revision Questions
What do you mean by fact-finding?

State the objectives of fact-finding?

Fact-finding techniques
The following are some of the common methods/techniques used to collect data:

Document review (study of available documents or records).

Use of questionnaires.

Interviewing.

Automated methods.

Use of workshops.

Note. Before the system analyst chooses the most appropriate technique, he/she should compare the
merits & demerits of each technique. This will ensure that the technique chosen will be able to meet
all the requirements, which will assist the management in achieving its goals.

Document review (study of available documents):

This involves going through all the existing documents/records, which relate to the system being
investigated in order to find out information that describe the data & procedures of the current system.

Examples of such documents are: -

Organizational charts – they illustrate or describes the formal structure of the parts of the
organization relevant to the investigation.

Reports, e.g., financial reports, review & evaluation reports.

Procedure manuals, formal job descriptions & job specifications – they describe how tasks should be
carried out.

Standard & technical manuals.

Strategy & policy documents.

Forms used within the system.

pg. 12
Backup files that the system maintains.

Card catalogues.

Receipts.

Records inspection involves studying all the manuals maintained in connection to the system being
studies. This helps the analyst understand the structure of the organization, its operation, and history.

Advantages of documents review

It helps the analyst to gather basic background information about the system.

It assists the analyst in designing interview questions & questionnaires.

It helps the analyst in deciding whom to interview.

Disadvantages of documents review

The documents may not have been modified to reflect the current status of the system, i.e., they may
be obsolete. This is because; documents such as organizational charts & procedure manuals may have
been documented when the information systems were set up.

Human systems are dynamic. This implies that, after sometime, the real system will have changed
greatly from the documented one. Therefore, reading such documents will give the analyst a false
picture of the system.

Documents relating to a system are usually bulky. Therefore, reading all the documents will be time-
consuming.

The documentation may be poor or incomplete, thus the analyst may not obtain all the information he
would require.

Observation:

This method requires the analyst to participate in or watch closely as a person performs some
activities for a period of time in order to see for oneself what exactly happens in the system.

In Observation, the analyst asks no questions. Instead, he observes the actions in which he is
interested, and records the desired information. This method gives the analyst first-hand experience
about the problems and exposes him/her to the system requirements.

Advantages of observation

pg. 13
Data collected is highly reliable, since the method gives the real picture of the system.

Concepts or tasks that are too difficult for non-technical staff to explain in words can be clearly
observed.

The analyst is able to see clearly what is being done. He can also identify tasks, which have been
omitted or inaccurately described by other fact-finding techniques.

Allows the analyst to do some measurements.

It is relatively cheap compared to other techniques.

Disadvantages of observation

The presence of the analyst may make the person being observed perform differently (or change
behaviour) leading to wrong requirements being observed.

The work being observed may not involve the level of difficulty or volume normally experienced
during that time period.

The need to be on the site where the activities are taking place consumes a lot of time.

Tasks being observed are subject to various types of interruptions.

Some system activities may take place at odd times causing a scheduling inconveniences for the
analyst.

Use of Questionnaires:

A Questionnaire is a special-purpose document that allows a person to collect information & opinions
from respondents.

The method involves sending out forms containing questions with spaces for response to a group of
people, and collecting the forms back after they are completed. This method allows the analyst to
collect facts from a large number of people while maintaining uniform responses.

Circumstances in which a questionnaire is used for gathering information

The questionnaires method is used in situations where:

The information to be gathered is located over widely spread geographical areas.

A large number of people are to be questioned, and the questions to be asked require short answers, or
are limited to Yes/No.

pg. 14
100% coverage is not essential.

Privacy (anonymity) of the respondents is to be maintained.

Note. In a situation where a large population is to be questioned, the analyst may spend a lot of time
analyzing the questionnaires. In such cases, a sample of people (who are assumed to represent the
overall population), can be given the questionnaires.

Advantages of questionnaires

Questions can be answered quickly, since respondents can complete & return the questionnaires at
their convenient time.

Use of questionnaires gives the respondents privacy; hence, there is likelihood that the information
given is sincere & real.

Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap means for data being collected from a large number of
individuals.

Responses can easily be tabulated & analysed quickly.

Disadvantages of questionnaires

Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare.

Number of respondents is usually low.

The respondent may not fully understand the questions because of ambiguity of language; hence,
he/she may end up giving wrong responses.

No guarantee that an individual will answer or explain on all the questions.

No immediate opportunity to clarify an unclear or incomplete answer to any question.

Not possible for the analyst to observe & analyse the body language of the respondents.

Questionnaires are inflexible, i.e., no opportunity for the analyst to obtain voluntary information from
a respondent.

Procedure for developing a questionnaire

pg. 15
Determine the facts & opinions, which must be collected and from whom you should get them. If a
large number of people is involved, then select a sample.

Depending on the facts required, decide whether to use free-format or fixed-format questions.

Write the questions & edit them such that they do not offer your personal bias or opinions.

Test the questions on a sample of respondents, then edit if necessary.

Duplicate & distribute the questionnaires.

Interviewing:

Interviewing is the process of obtaining information from another party by means of conversation.

Interviews enable the system analyst (who is the Interviewer) to collect information from the affected
individual (Interviewee) through face-to-face communication. The Interviewer asks questions and the
Interviewee responds with answers.

The analyst should carry out interviews with the relevant stakeholders in order to get views about the
current system, and gather information about the requirements for the proposed system.

Interviewing provides facts and also enables the analyst to verify the facts. It also provides an
opportunity to meet & overcome any possible user resistance.

A good interview should be planned, and should be carried out at the most appropriate time for the
parties involved.

When executing an interview, the following guidelines should be followed:

The interviewee must be informed in good time, and the topic of discussion communicated
accordingly to allow for adequate preparation.

Avoid personal biasness in your questions and perspectives.

Be careful about body proxemics. Proxemics refers to issues related to physical contact such as sitting
arrangement or body closeness during an interview.

At the end of the interview, the analyst should read what he/she has recorded to the interviewee for
further clarification before the final notes can be taken.

Advantages of interviews

An interview provides the analyst with an opportunity to motivate Interviewees to respond freely &
openly to questions. This removes the rigidity that exists in questionnaires.

pg. 16
It allows the analyst to rephrase/frame questions for each person.

It allows the analyst to prompt/urge for more feedback from the Interviewee.

It gives the analyst an opportunity to observe the verbal & non-verbal communication such as facial
expressions of the interviewee.

Disadvantages of interviews

It is difficult to organize interviews. This makes the method time-consuming & costly.

Many system analysts are poor interviewers, thus there is a possibility of failure.

The interviewee may not fully open up on some issues that may be personal or sensitive.

Interviewing may not be practical due to the location of the interviewees.

Automated methods:

Automated data collection is mostly used when actual data is required but difficult to get through
interviews, observation, or questionnaires.

Such data may be collected using devices that automatically capture data from the source such as
Video cameras, Tape recorders, etc.

Revision Questions
State and explain four methods that can be used to gather information during system development.

Identify three disadvantages of the observation method used in fact-finding.

Outline three disadvantages of Questionnaires

State two advantages and two disadvantages of the interview method when used for information
gathering.

Explain the concept of proxemics in interviews.

(a) Explain the importance of using automated methods in fact finding.

(b) Give one example of automated information gathering technique.

Fact recording:

pg. 17
Fact recording takes place at the same time the analyst is gathering the facts. Facts relating to staff,
operations, and processing tasks are recorded.

Fact recording is necessary because; the subsequent stage of system development shall depend on the
facts recorded, i.e., the facts recorded will form reference material for the analyst during system
design.

The various methods of fact recording are:

Procedure descriptions (narrative).

Clerical procedure charts.

Flow process charts.

Decision tables.

Grid charts.

Preparing and presenting the fact-finding report:

After gathering the information/facts, the system analyst must come up with a requirements definition
report, which must contain the following details:

Cover letter addressed to the management and the IT task force written by the person who gathered
the facts.

Title page, which includes; the Name of the project, Name of the analyst, and the Date the proposal is
submitted.

Table of contents.

Executive summary, which includes recommendations of the system analyst of how the new system is
to be implemented. This is because; some people only read the summary to make decisions.

Outline of the system study, which provides information about all the methods used in the study, who
and what was studied.

Detailed results of the study, which provides details of what the system analyst has found out about
the system, e.g., problems, limitations, and opportunities that call for an alternative.

Summary – a brief statement that reflects the contents of the report. It also stresses on the importance
of the project.

pg. 18
This report is then presented to the Management for evaluation and further guidance.

Requirements specification
In requirements specification, the system analyst must come up with detailed requirements for the
new system.

The following requirements specifications are considered:

Output specification.

Input specification.

File/data structures.

Hardware & software requirements.

Output requirements
In system development, the output requirements of the new system are considered first. This is
because; the main interest from a system is information (output), e.g., the main concern of a library
management system is whether the system can generate reports on overdue books, charges of late
return, inventory reports, etc.

The output is usually in the form of reports either in the form of hardcopy or softcopy.

The following factors should be considered when designing the output:

Target audience: - a user report may show only the transactions to be carried out, while the
management would require a summary of the overall performance in the organization.

Frequency of report generation (i.e., the time at which the output is required): - some reports are
required daily, others weekly, monthly or annually.

Quality and format of information to be generated.

Cost of producing the output: - the output should be at reasonable cost.

Mode of output & devices used for output, e.g., softcopy mode of output is produced through the
screen.

After designing the output, it should be approved by the users, the management, and other staff within
the organization who are affected by the change.

Input specifications.

pg. 19
Once the system analyst has identified the output requirements for the new computerised system,
he/she then identifies the input needed to obtain the relevant information from the system.

The input to the system is necessary because the contents input are used to maintain the master files.

The system analyst should therefore decide on:

The contents & volume of input, and whether these contents can grow.

The mode of input, the devices of input selected and their suitability.

The format & sequence of input.

The nature of the system, which determines the frequency of input, e.g., for Batch processing, the
frequency would be periodical, and for Real-time systems, it would be on-demand.

After identifying all the inputs, the analyst designs the user interface by designing data entry forms or
screens.

When designing the user interface, the following guidelines should be observed:

Objects such as Textboxes, Labels, and Command buttons placed on the forms must be neatly aligned
& balanced on the form.

The size of the form should not be too small for the user to read or too big to fit on the screen.

The colour of the interface should not be too bright to avoid hurting the eye.

File requirements specification.

This involves identifying the files required to store data & information in the system.

The system analyst should:

Identify the number of files that will be needed by the system.

Determine the structures of each of the files, e.g., will the files allow direct access? Will they be
sequential files stored on a magnetic tape?

Identify the attributes of the records in a file.

An Attribute is a unique characteristic of a record for which a data value can be stored in the system
database.

Note. These attributes are used when designing tables in a database, and each attribute becomes a
field in the table.

For example;

pg. 20
A Books table will have the following attributes/fields: Book ID, ISBN number, Title, Author’s name,
Year of publication, Date of issue and Date of return.

Book ID ISBN No. Title Author’s Name Year of Date issued Date of return
publication

Factors to consider when designing a good file

Record key field: - this is usually an attribute that is unique for each record.

Data type for each field: - each field has a data type. In a database, the data type of book titles can be
stored as ‘Text’, while the Date of borrowing a book can be stored as ‘Date/Time’.

Length of each field: - a field used to store names can be specified to be 30 characters long, while a
field used to store numbers/integers can be specified to be 10 characters long.

Backup and recovery strategies: - the updated copies of data & information files need to be stored in a
different place other than the location of the current system. This ensures that, if the current file gets
corrupted, the backed up data can be used to recover/reconstruct the original file.

Hardware & software requirements

The system analyst should specify all the hardware & software requirements for the new system.

The hardware & software used to develop the system mainly depends on Input, Output & File
requirements, e.g., if the system requires data in picture format, then an image capturing device such
as a Digital camera or a Scanner must be used.

Some of the factors to consider in hardware & software specification are:

Cost (price)

Method of acquisition.

Reliability & security features.

Upgradeability.

Compatibility with the existing resources.

User friendliness.

User requirements (user needs)

Portability, etc

pg. 21
Revision Questions
Outline the four areas that are considered during the requirements specification stage.

Explain at least three factors that should be put into consideration during output design.

(a) State four factors that may be considered in order to design a good file.

(b) Define the term ‘Attribute’.

(c) Explain why it is important to consider the file backup and recovery strategies during file
design.

Outline the factors that should be considered when sourcing for hardware and software resources
required for a new system.

System Design
In the design stage, the analyst must come up with ways of solving the problem.

The following are some of the tools used for designing an information system:

System flowcharts.

Data flow diagrams.

Entity relationship models.

Structured charts.

System flowcharts
A system flowchart is a tool that can be used for analysing processes. It allows one to break a process
down into individual events/activities, and also display these events in a short form showing the
sequential or logical relationships between them.

A system flowchart has its own set of symbols. The following are some of the common system
flowchart symbols:

- Start or Stop - Decision

- Rectangle with rounded corners: - it - Disk master file

represents an event which occurs automatically &
usually triggers a chain of other events, e.g., a book
lending process is triggered by a student request. - Disk transaction file
- Flow direction
- Physical flow of goods - Tape file

- Data input device (keyboard) - Offline file

pg. 22
 - Rectangle with sharp corners: - represents - Kite: - represents a sort operation
a computerized process

- Manual process Monitor screen (CRT)

Report or document - On page connector

- Off page connector

 - Telecommunication link

Designing a system flowchart

A system flowchart gives a summary of how particular processes are done within the business
organization.

The following are some of the important guidelines when designing a system flowchart:

Start by writing the title of the flowchart.

If possible, start drawing the flowchart with the trigger event.

List down the actions taken in their logical order until the process is concluded. Use few words to
describe the actions.

In case there are many alternatives at the decision stage, follow the most important and continue with
it. The less important alternatives can be drawn elsewhere and reference made to them using the On-
page or Off-page connectors.

After drawing the system flowchart, other design tools such as pseudocodes and program flowcharts
can be used to extract the processing logic for each module in the system before system construction.

Revision Questions
State two methods that a system analyst may use to design a system.

(a) Differentiate between a system flowchart and a program flowchart.

(b) Draw four system flowchart symbols and explain their functions.

System construction
System construction refers to the coding, installation and testing of the modules and their components
such as outputs, inputs & files.

The purpose of the construction stage is to develop & test a functional system that fulfills the design
requirements of a particular organization.

System construction is done by programmers.

pg. 23
System construction methods

To construct a system, the programmer can use the following programming techniques:

Use the high-level structured languages, e.g., Pascal, COBOL, etc

Use the 4th generation languages, e.g., Visual Basic, Visual COBOL, Delphi Pascal, etc

Customise & use a ready-made standard package such as a database software, financial package or
enterprise management system.

System testing
After constructing the system, it is tested by entering some test data to find out whether its outputs are
as expected.

When the system is newly developed, it can be first tested using dummy (assumed) data, while
real/live test data can be used for normal circumstances to find whether the system can detect &
report errors.

System testing is carried out in order to achieve the following aims:

To test the programs further to detect any errors. This is because; after testing the programs, some
errors might have gone unnoticed.

To find out whether the system meets all requirements specified.

To establish whether the programs work interactively as a suite of programs.

To find out whether there is a link between the clerical & computer procedures.

During system testing, the following details should be checked:

Files maintained in connection to the information requirements of the system.

Input to the system, for the maintenance of the existing files.

Processing tasks.

Reports generated by the system.

Controls incorporated within the system.

NB: System testing is an iterative process, and it ends only when the analyst & the other personnel
involved are satisfied that when operational, the system will meet the objectives and the growing
demands of the organization.

Revision Questions

pg. 24
(a) Explain system testing.

(b) State the importance of system testing.

(c) Name three groups of people who are involved in system testing.

System implementation
System implementation is the process of putting the new system in day-to-day operating environment
for the users to start using it.

A system is put into use after it has been fully tested, well documented, and after training the staff
who will be involved in the running of the new system.

In most cases, the implementation phase is faced with various problems. They include:

Staff problems in the user department, e.g., in case the confidence levels are low, ignorance, etc

Security aspects, e.g., inadequate controls, are there any standby arrangements in case of failure, etc

Administrative problems.

The areas to be addressed during system implementation include:

File creation & conversion.

Staff training.

Changeover strategies.

File creation and conversion:

Every time a new system is implemented, the format of data files might change or might require
modification.

The files can either be created from scratch or those that were used in the old system can be converted
to be used in the new system.

Therefore, file creation & conversion involves setting up of the master files that are to be used to
support the information requirements of the new system.

The factors to consider during file conversion include:

Whether the new system requires a new operating system & hardware.

pg. 25
Whether there is need to install new application software, e.g., if the new system will be developed by
customising database application software, then there is need to install the software if it is not
installed.

Whether there is need to create new database files for the new system, e.g., if the files previously used
were manual, then electronic ones will have to be created.

Staff training
After designing a new system, all the staff affected by the change should be trained properly on how
to use/run the system.

The aims of the training are:

To remove the fear of change in them.

To convince the staff of the user department on the effectiveness & efficiency of the new system.

To enable the staff to cope with the processing tasks of the new system.

The following methods of training can be used depending on the requirements:

Demonstrations.

Film shows.

Group discussions.

Lectures or seminars.

Visits.

Reference from the available documents such as User manuals, etc.

NB: The training should be well planned & the most suitable method that can meet the needs for all
the stakeholders selected. Otherwise, if the staffs are not trained properly, the system implementation
can fail leading to great loss of company resources.

Changeover strategies:
Changeover is simply how to move from the old system and start using the new system.

The changeover should be planned & effected at the most suitable time for a smooth transition to the
new system.

The following are some of the common methods/ways of system changeover:

Direct (straight) changeover.

pg. 26
Parallel running.

Phased changeover.

Pilot running.

Direct (straight) changeover:

Straight changeover is a complete replacement of the old system with the new system in one bold
move.

In this approach, the old system is stopped & abandoned and the new system starts operating
immediately.

This sudden change from old to new can be very inconveniencing in case the new system fails, faces
problems, or in a situation where the users have not gained enough confidence to run the new system.

Direct changeover is likely to be used in situations where:

The users have a very high level of confidence with the system.

The new system bears little resemblance to the old.

The system is relatively small.

Personal resources are unavailable for any other method.

Advantage of Direct changeover

It is usually cheap because; two systems are not run in parallel.

Parallel running:

Both the old & the new systems are run side by side (parallel) to each other for some time until users
have gained confidence in the new system.

Data is processed on systems in order to compare their performance, and the results are cross-
checked. The old system is only abandoned if the new system proves to be satisfactory.

Advantages of parallel running

It promotes user confidence since it allows the results of the old & new system to be compiled side-
by-side.

It is reliable because it enables thorough testing.

The users are given time to familiarize themselves with the new system.

Disadvantages of parallel running

pg. 27
The cost of operating & maintaining the two systems would be high.

Resources are duplicated over the two systems, i.e., extra resources have to be engaged to run the two
systems in parallel.

It is difficult for the staff to carry out clerical operations for two systems during the time available,
which is just enough for one system.

Phased changeover:

In phased changeover, the new system is implemented in stages, e.g., one department after the other,
while the other departments are still being processed by the old system. When each new phase is
proved satisfactory, another one is brought in.

For example;

Changing of the education system from the old curriculum to the new curriculum. Each year, at least
one class level changes over to the new syllabus.

Advantage of phased changeover

It ensures slow but sure changeover, and also tends to prolong the implementation period. In this
case, users/analysts are able to learn from their mistakes.

Disadvantage of phased changeover

The various elements (i.e., hardware & software) of the same system may be incompatible.

Pilot running:

In pilot running, the overall system is put into use bit-by-bit, e.g., on department basis.

Usually, data from a previous period is first run on the old system and then on the new system. The
results from the new system are then compared with the results from the old. When the new system is
considered as correct, a double sequence in one processing run may be tried to convert the pilot run
into a parallel run.

Advantage of pilot running

Pilot running offers gradual change to the overall new system. During this time, the staff gains
enough experience & confidence.

Disadvantage of pilot running

pg. 28
It is difficult for the staff to carry out clerical operations for two systems.

Security control measures

The data & information in an information system must be kept secure. This is because; if not well
protected, the information can be illegally accessed or disclosed to unauthorized parties.

Therefore, the system implementers must make sure that the security features built in the system are
properly configured during the implementation stage.

Revision Questions
Define the term ‘system implementation’.

Explain three tasks that are carried out during system implementation.

List two main aims of staff training.

Define the following terms:

File conversion.

Changeover.

Give an advantage of Straight changeover over Parallel running.

System review
System review is a formal process of going through the specifications, and testing the system after
implementation to find out (establish) whether the system meets the original objectives, or whether it
performs as predicted in the designed framework.

If the system does not meet/achieve the stated objectives, system development might start all over
again.

System review is conducted by the Data processing team of users & auditors. After the review, a post
implementation review report is produced, which contains recommendations on how to overcome the
problems identified during the review.

System maintenance
Once the system becomes operational, it should be maintained throughout its life.

System maintenance is the process of adjusting & enhancing of requirements, or correcting of errors
that may be detected after the system has been implemented in order to keep the system functioning at
an acceptable level.

Maintenance functions mainly involve: -

Correcting errors due to program bugs.

Changing the procedures & algorithms used to develop the original programs.

pg. 29
Adding new routines & removing the obsolete routines.

Hardware & software maintenance.

Adjusting the existing routines so that the system may adapt to enhanced functional environments.

Reasons for system maintenance

System maintenance is carried out to ensure that: -

System efficiency is maintained for the changing functional environment & requirements.

User expectations are satisfied.

The system caters for growth in application requirements.

The system adapts to new changes in the company’s organization.

System operation is based on the facilities of the current technological development.

External influences beyond the organization’s control are adhered to by the system, e.g., Government
policies on taxation, allowances, etc.

NB: System maintenance runs parallel to the maintenance of the system documentation, i.e., any time
maintenance is carried out on the system, the documentation should also be updated to convey the
right image of the system.

Revision Questions
(a) What is ‘system maintenance?’

(b) Why is system maintenance necessary?

System documentation
Documentation is the process of describing all what the analyst was doing during the system
development stages.

Documentation is done by the analyst who developed the system, and is used as a means of
communication between the system analyst & the end-users of the system.

NB: System documentation takes place throughout the system development life cycle. After a
system has been implemented, any maintenance work must be documented & the analyst modifies or
updates the system documents (manuals) so as to reflect the current image of the system.

A comprehensive system documentation consists of the following:

pg. 30
Report on fact-finding.

Requirement specification.

System flowchart and module flowcharts.

Table/file structures description.

Sample test data & expected output.

Output reports.

Report on fact-finding.
At the end of the fact-finding stage, the system analyst should prepare a well detailed report that
mainly outlines:

The methods used to collect data.

The weaknesses of the current system as indicated by the collected data.

Recommendations, i.e., why there is need to replace or upgrade the current system.

Requirement specification
The report on requirement specification mainly outlines the:

Output requirements for the new system, e.g., reports.

Input requirements.

Hardware & software required to develop the new system, and also support the processing of an
existing system.

System flowchart
The system flowchart shows the overall functionality of the proposed information system. Therefore,
at the end of the system design stage, the analyst should write a report that contains:

The system flowchart or data flow diagrams that shows the processing logic of the information
system.

Any module flowchart that may help programmers in constructing the required subsystem or modules.

Table/file structures description

Depending on the approach used in system construction, the report should contain file or table
structure definitions, e.g., if you customised a standard package to construct a system, details on table
structures should be well documented.

Sample test data

pg. 31
To test whether the new computerized information system is working as expected, test data is used for
every module.

Output reports
To prove that the system is working & giving the desired result, a number of sample outputs from
various system modules should be provided.

User manual
User manuals are used to help a person use the system with little or no guidance.

The manual must contain information such as:

How to install, start and run the system.

How the system appears when running (interface).

How to carry out various tasks, e.g., how to include a new entry, data entry, how to modify a record,
etc

A troubleshooting guide, which describes error correction & how to get help when faced with
problems.

Revision Questions
State the meaning of the following terms with reference to system development;

Information gathering

System design

Outline three key points to remember when using the observation method of data collection.

List items that are contained in a feasibility report.

Differentiate between parallel running and direct change over.

Under which circumstances should the following changeover methods be applied?

Phased changeover

Pilot changeover

List four contents of the following documentations:

Technical documentation;

User documentation.

Differentiate between system review and maintenance.

State four reasons that can necessitate system review.

pg. 32
State the reason why staff training is necessary before a new system is fully implemented.

Give three advantages of using a questionnaire over the other methods of fact finding.

When developing a new computer system, state four tasks performed in the design stage.

The diagram below is a representation of stages of system analysis. Complete it by placing the
following five states in their correct position:

INVESTIGATION

IDOCUMENTATION

The following systems flowchart shows the update of a company’s payroll system and the production
of payslips. Using the following statements, label the diagram appropriately:

Calculate pay Validation Printed payslips

Update Sorted transaction file Payroll transaction files

pg. 33
Error report Updated master file Sort

Validated
payroll
Payroll
transaction Master file

pg. 34