CROP-SCI

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Republic of the Philippines

Province of Cotabato
MAKILALA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Municipality of Makilala

AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

COURSE TITLE PRACTICES OF CROP SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT


COURSE NO. Crop Science 2
COURSE DESCRIPTION Basic concept and practices in crop production applicable for annual and
perennial crops from land preparation to postharvest operations and
farming systems including current trends.
COURSE CREDIT 3 units
CONTACT HRS/WK 2 hours lecture and 3 hours laboratory
PREREQUISITE Crop Science 1

I. LEARNING CONTENT(S):
1. Land Preparation

II. LEARNING OUTCOME(S):


1. Define what is land preparation
2. discuss the importance of land preparation;
3. evaluate the validity of the statements about tillage system and cultivation
practices for crop production
4. determine the characteristics of quality of seeds and seedlings; and
5. explain the importance of planting material selection.
III. DISCUSSION
LAND PREPARATION
Land preparation is the process of clearing, breaking up, and otherwise preparing
land for cultivation. Land preparation involves making the soil ready for planting: The soil
can be prepared in many ways, including plowing, harrowing, and tilling. This can be done
with a variety of tools, including hand tools such as hoes and plows, as well as heavy
machinery like tractors. Land preparation is a very important practice to enhance good
yield from crops grown. It is one of the measures used to control crop diseases and pest
invasion.
The main objective of land preparation is to break up soil clods, remove stones
and weeds, incorporate fertilizer, and adjust the moisture content. Land preparation helps
to improve soil aeration and drainage as well as increase seedbed quality. The final result
of good land preparation is healthier crops with higher yields.
A. Importance
Timeless and quality of land preparation may in influence the growth and yield of
crops. Poor and ultimately land preparation may result to:
1. Uneven growth of the crop causing difference in development and stage of
maturity from one part of the field to another.
2. Weeds, insects and other pests are likely to be worse and

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3. If organic matter is not well decomposed by the time of planting, the seedlings are
likely to suffer from toxic substances given off during decomposition.

For these reasons, land preparation should be started at least 15 days before
planting.

Field crops require a well-prepared soil to:


1. Provide a soil surface that is weed-free granulated/soft and level to make planting
easier
2. Mix organic matter with the soil and encourage decomposition
3. Level the field for uniform distribution of irrigation water, lowland, fertilizer and
pesticides

The two systems of land preparation and water management (wetland and dryland) have
contrast features in terms of the physical, biological, and chemical nature of soils.
TYPES OF LAND PREPARATION:
1. LOWLAND/WETLAND PREPARATION – soaking, plowing, harrowing, leveling
2. UPLAND/DRYLAND PREPARATION – plowing, harrowing/rotavation, leveling

CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-PREPARED UPLAND FIELD


1. Soil is granular, friable, and compact enough to allow contact between seed and
soil
2. Sufficient moisture for germination and subsequent growth
3. Level field to avoid water accumulation
4. Free from weeds
DIFFERENCES IN TERMS OF PHYSICAL CHANGES BETWEEN UPLAND AND
LOWLAND LAND PREPARATION
1. UPLAND – no flooding, no puddling, macro- and micropores are maintained, water
drains easily if there is no plow pan, tillage is easy especially at field capacity
2. LOWLAND – flooding involved, puddling involved, macropores are lost while
micropores are maintained, plow pan is formed, tillage is hard when soil is dried
B. TILLAGE AND CULTIVATION
Cultivation is the first step in preparing the land for planting. Its objectives are:
a. To loosen or break up the soil in order to increase aeration and water infiltration
b. To prepare a seedbed in which planting is facilitated and the roots of the crops can
grow.
c. To aid in weed control by cutting back the weeds, uprooting them especially in their
early stage of growth
d. To incorporate plant residue in the soil

Tillage should be minimized to attain these objectives, since cultivation may:

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a. Pulverize the top soil
b. Loosen the compact soil
c. Increase surface runoff and cause soil erosion
TYPES OF TILLAGE OPERATION
✓ No tillage System
It is a method of planting crops previously unprepared soil by opening a narrow
slot or band only sufficient width and depth to obtain proper seed coverage with no
other soil preparation required. Herbicides are used to control weeds.
Advantages:
1. Reduced production costs
2. Reduced runoff due to less soil disturbance or none at all
3. Less water and wind erosion
4. Reduced labor cost

✓ Minimum tillage
It is a tillage system in which the number of field operations is reduced
compared to conventional (traditional) method of cultivation.
Advantages:
1. Reduced soil compaction
2. Better soil conservation
3. Reduced labor requirement
4. Reduced water loss through evaporation

✓ Conventional tillage

It is a traditional system which is commonly used by the farmers. Basically it consist


of two plowing, alternative with harrowing.
Generally, conventional tillage aims at reversing and stirring a deep layer of soil;
incorporating and destroying plant debris; exposing soil pests to sunlight for control; lump
breaking and ground leveling.
This preparation is composed primarily of harrowing for removing the residues of
previous crop. It is done still in the dry season, after sub soiling, to break up the
compacted layer and could be replaced by chiseling when the compacted layer is
shallower.

✓ Conservation tillage

Conservation tillage is any tillage and planting system that covers 30 percent or
more of the soil surface with crop residue, after planting, to reduce soil erosion by water.
It is any tillage practice that builds up crop residues on the soil surface to minimize the
impact of water and wind erosion.
Conservation tillage decreases soil erosion, leaching of fertilizer, pesticides, and

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herbicides into the ground water. Conservation tillage, especially no-tillage, results in
soils having higher soil organic matter contents after a few years.

Effect of Tillage Practices on Soil Properties and Crop Productivity


Holistic management of arable soil is the key to dealing with the most complex, dynamic,
and interrelated soil properties, thereby maintaining sustainable agricultural production systems,
the lone foundation of human civilization. Any management practice imposed on soil for altering
the heterogenous body may result in generous or harmful outcomes. Unsuitable management
practices cause degradation in soil health (depletion of organic matter and other nutrients) as well
as decline in crop productivity. Reducing disturbance of soil by reduced tillage influences several
physically, chemically, and biologically interconnected properties of the natural body.
Soil tillage is among the important factors affecting soil properties and crop yield. Among
the crop production factors, tillage contributes up to 20% and affects the sustainable use of soil
resources through its influence on soil properties. The judicious use of tillage practices overcomes
edaphic constraints, whereas inopportune tillage may cause a variety of undesirable outcomes,
for example, soil structure destruction, accelerated erosion, loss of organic matter and fertility,
and disruption in cycles of water, organic carbon, and plant nutrient.
Reducing tillage positively influences several aspects of the soil whereas excessive and
unnecessary tillage operations give rise to opposite phenomena that are harmful to soil.
Therefore, currently there is a significant interest and emphasis on the shift from extreme tillage
to conservation and no-tillage methods for the purpose of controlling erosion process.
Cropping system has an immense effect on physical and chemical soil properties and
thereby on crop productivity. Soil fertility often changes in response to land use and cropping
systems and land management practices.

Site Selection and Soil Preparation for Perennials

Consider the site before selecting your plants. Although many perennials, such as
ferns, tolerate heavy shade, most perennial plants require abundant sunlight. Air
circulation is important for avoiding diseases; stagnant, warm, and humid air creates ideal
conditions for diseases. Perennial plants also require properly prepared soil, and a few
have specific drainage and fertility requirements.

Soil preparation for perennials is similar to soil preparation for annuals. However,
you should devote some special attention to perennial bed preparation, because plants
may occupy the site for several years with little opportunity to correct any problems. When
possible, add sand and organic matter such as bark, peat, or compost to soils well ahead
of planting time.

A layer of organic matter 3 or 4 inches deep, worked into the soil a shovel's depth,
is usually adequate. Since different types of organic matter work and decompose at

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different rates in the soil, it is best to use a little of two or three kinds of organic matter
than a lot of just one.

Soil testing provides specific recommendations for fertilizer and lime needs. Since
lime lasts for several years depending on the type used, never add lime without a soil
test. Many fertilizers, such as phosphorus, are best applied and mixed into soils before
planting. Perennials need a balance of several nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorous,
and potash; most garden supply stores carry a wide variety of fertilizer mixes. Keep in
mind that phosphorus, including that found in bone meal, lasts for several years and need
not be applied regularly.

B. Planting Material Selection and Preparation


Cultivars differ with their morphological and physiological characters. These
inherent characteristics greatly affect their efficiency in utilizing the available resources
from the environment, hence, affecting crop yield.
Therefore, proper selection of cultivars to be planted is very important job a farmer
should do before he starts with his farming enterprise.

The factors to consider in the selection are:

Yield potential – economic yield is one of the indices whether you are gaining or
losing your crop enterprises.
Adaptability – not all the seed board varieties may perform well at your farm.
Select, if possible those that had been tested and shown to perform well in your
specific locality.
Maturity – the growth duration of the crop will greatly affect the successions in
farm operation. Therefore, it is wise move to select high yielding and early maturing
cultivars.
Market demand – the needs of the buyer is another thing to consider in the
selection of cultivars.

Once a variety has been selected for any or all the above factors/characters,
farmers should purchase certified seeds to be sure they get quality seeds of that variety.

➢ Characteristics of Quality of Seeds and seedlings

Seed is a basic input in agriculture. Strictly speaking seed is an embryo, a living


organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. In seed, the importance
is given to the biological existence whereas; in grain the importance is given to the
supporting tissue the economic produce.

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Importance of Good Quality Seeds

• Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops


• Gives desired plant population
• Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions
• Seedlings produced will be more vigorous, fast growing and can resist
pest and disease incidence to certain extent
• Ensures uniform growth and maturity
• Development of root system will be more efficient that aids absorption
of nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield.
• It will respond well to added fertilizer and other inputs.
• Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield at least
10 – 12 %

Major Seed Quality Characters

Seed quality is the possession of seed with required genetic and physical purity
that is accompanied with physiological soundness and health status. The major seed
quality characters are summarized as below.

1. Physical Quality

It is the cleanliness of seed from other seeds, debris, inert matter, diseased
seed and insect damaged seed. The seed with physical quality should have
uniform size, weight, and color, and should be free from stones, debris, and dust,
leaves, twigs, stems, flowers, fruit well without other crop seeds and inert material.
It also should be devoid of shriveled, diseased mottled, molded, discolored,
damaged, and empty seeds. The seed should be easily identifiable as a species
of specific category of specific species. Lack of this quality character will indirectly
influence the field establishment and planting value of seed. This quality character
could be obtained with seed lots by proper cleaning and grading of seed
(processing) after collection and before sowing / storage.

2. Genetic purity

It is the true to type nature of the seed. i.e., the seedling / plant / tree from
the seed should resemble its mother in all aspects. This quality character is
important for achieving the desired goal of raising the crop either yield or for
resistance or for desired quality factors.

3. Physiological Quality

It is the actual expression of seed in further generation / multiplication.


Physiological quality characters of seed comprise of seed germination and seed vigor.

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The liveliness of a seed is known as viability. The extent of liveliness for production of
good seedling or the ability of seed for production of seedling with normal root and shoot
under favorable condition is known as germinability.

Seed vigor is the energy or stamina of the seed in producing elite seedling. It is the
sum total of all seed attributes that enables its regeneration of under any given conditions.
Seed vigor determines the level of performance of seed or seed lot during germination
and seedling emergence. Seed which perform well at sowing are termed as quality seed
and based on the degree of performance in production of elite seedling it is classified as
high, medium and low vigor seed.

The difference in seed vigor is the differential manifestation of the deteriorative


process occurring in the seed before the ultimate loss of ability to germinate. Difference
in seed vigor will be expressed in rate of emergence, uniformity of emergence, and loss
of seed germination. Hence it is understood that all viable seeds need not be germinable
but all germinable seed will be viable. Similarly, all vigorous seeds will be germinable but
all germinable seed need not be vigorous.

Physiological quality of seed could be achieved through proper selection of seed


(matured seed) used for sowing and by caring for quality characters during extraction,
drying, and storage. Seed with good vigor is preferable for raising a good plantation as
the fruits, the economic come out are to be realized after several years. Hence selection
of seed based on seed vigor is important for raising perfect finalize plantation.

4. Seed Health

Health status of seed is nothing but the absence of insect infestation, and
fungal infection, in or on the seed. Seed should not be infected with fungi or infested
with insect pests as these will reduce the physiological quality of the seed and also
the physical quality of the seed in long term storage. The health status of seed also
includes the deterioration status of seed which also expressed through low vigor
status of seed. The health status of seed influences the seed quality characters
directly and warrants their soundness in seed for the production of elite seedlings at
nursery / field.

❖ Hence the quality seed should have

• High genetic purity


• High pure seed percentage (physical purity)
• High germinability
• High vigor
• Higher field establishment
• Free from pest and disease
• Good shape, size, color etc., according to the specification of variety
• High longevity / shelf life.

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• Optimum moisture content for storage
• High market value

❖ Characteristics of Good Quality Seeds

• Higher genetically purity:


o Breeder /Nucleus - 100%
o Foundation seed - 99.5%
o Certified seed - 99.0%
• Higher physical purity for certification
o Corn - 99%
o All crops (most) - 98%
o Carrot - 95%
o Sesame, soybean & jute - 97 %
o Ground nut - 96 %
• Possession of good shape, size, color, etc., according to specifications of variety
• Higher physical soundness and weight
• Higher germination (90 to 35 % depending on the crop)
• Higher physiological vigor and stamina
• Higher storage capacity
• Free from other crop seeds
• It should be free from objectionable weed seeds
These are plants of weed species which are harmful in one or more of the
following ways.
The size and shape of their seeds are so similar to that of the crop seed that is
difficult to remove their seed economically by mechanical means.
Their growth habit is detrimental to the growing seed crop due to competing
effect.
Their plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animal beings
They serve as alternate hosts for crop pests and diseases.
• It should be free from designated diseases
It refers to the diseases specified for the certification of seeds and for which
certification standards are to be met with.
These diseases would cause contamination, when they are present in the seed
field or with in the specified isolation distance.
• It should have optimum moisture content for storage - Long term storage - 6 - 8 % , Short
term storage - 10 - 13%
• It should have high market value

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❖ Characteristics of Good Quality Seeds
• Higher genetically purity:
o Breeder /Nucleus - 100%
o Foundation seed - 99.5%
o Certified seed - 99.0%
• Higher physical purity for certification
o Corn - 99%
o All crops (most) - 98%
o Carrot - 95%
o Sesame, soybean & jute - 97 %
o Ground nut - 96 %
• Possession of good shape, size, color, etc., according to specifications of
variety
• Higher physical soundness and weight
• Higher germination (90 to 35 % depending on the crop)
• Higher physiological vigor and stamina
• Higher storage capacity
• Free from other crop seeds
• It should be free from objectionable weed seeds
These are plants of weed species which are harmful in one or more of
the following ways.
The size and shape of their seeds are so similar to that of the crop seed
that is difficult to remove their seed economically by mechanical means.
Their growth habit is detrimental to the growing seed crop due to
competing effect.
Their plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animal beings
They serve as alternate hosts for crop pests and diseases.

• It should be free from designated diseases

It refers to the diseases specified for the certification of seeds and for
which certification standards are to be met with.
These diseases would cause contamination, when they are present in
the seed field or with in the specified isolation distance.

• It should have optimum moisture content for storage – long-term


storage - 6 - 8 %, Short term storage - 10 - 13%
• It should have high market value

➢ Planting Method Used

❖ The method of planting used depends on:

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a. Crops
➢ Low land rice – direct seeding and transplanting
➢ Upland crops (upland rice, corn, sorghum, grain legumes, sweet
potato, etc. furrow and ridges)
b. Season
➢ Rainy season – ridges
➢ Dry season – furrow
c. Soil
➢ Heavy soil – ridges
➢ Light soil – furrow

Planting Materials

In planting agronomic crops, various planting materials and methods are


used depending on the types of crops.

➢ Types of Planting Materials

• Seeds (seasoning herbs, legumes, corn)


• Seedlings (most vegetable crops)
• Cuttings (cassava, potato, yam, ginger, taro/gabi)
• Suckers (banana, plantain)
• Budded/ grafted plants (fruit trees)

❖ Certain factors need to be considered when you are choosing planting


matter or seedlings from nurseries or plant shops.

➢ Environmental Factors

• The surroundings should be free from overgrown bushes, generally


clean, no waterlogged conditions.
• Seedlings should be in conditions that are free from excess shade. If
seedlings have too much shade they do not “harden off” and they have
difficulties when they are transplanted.

Seedling Characteristics
The seedlings should:
1. Be of the appropriate age (seedlings with 4-6 healthy green leaves)
2. Be free from pests and diseases
3. Have healthy white roots (good root development, with no balling of
roots)
4. Show vigorous, healthy growth
5. Be of uniform appearance
6. Have the proper Shoot to Root ratio (2:1)

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Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination
❖ Here are some important requirements which are essential for a seed to germinate
into a seedling and to a plant.
Water: It is extremely necessary for the germination of seeds. Some seeds are
extremely dry and need to take a considerable amount of water, relative to the dry
weight of the seed. Water plays an important role in seed germination. It helps
by providing necessary hydration for the vital activities of protoplasm, provides
dissolved oxygen for the growing embryo, softens the seed coats and increases the
seed permeability. It also helps in the rupturing of seed and also converts the
insoluble food into soluble form for its translocation to the embryo.
Oxygen: It is an important and essential source of energy required for seed
growth. It is required by the germinating seed for metabolism and is used as a part
of aerobic respiration until it manages to grow green leaves of its own. Oxygen can be
found in the pores of soil particles, but if the seed is buried too deep it will be deprived
of this oxygen.
Temperature: For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of
around 25-30°C. Quite obviously different seeds require different optimum
temperatures. There are some seeds which require special requirements either lower
or higher temperature between 5 to 40°C.
Light or darkness: This can act as an environmental trigger. Many seeds do not
germinate until sunlight falls on them.
The process of seed germination triggers under the above-mentioned
favorable conditions. The seeds undergo rapid expansion and growth of the embryo
and subsequently rupturing the covering layers and emergence of the radicle. This
radicle emergence is considered the completion of germination.

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