Pan 2021

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 144 (2021) 111048
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Research progress on ship power systems integrated with new energy

sources: A review
Pengcheng Pan a, Yuwei Sun a, b, c, *, Chengqing Yuan a, b, c, **, Xinping Yan a, b, c, Xujing Tang a, b, c
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430063, Hubei Province, China
b
National Engineering Research Center for Water Transport Safety (WTS Center), Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430063, Hubei Province, China
c
Key Laboratory of Marine Power Engineering & Technology (Ministry of Transport), Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430063, Hubei Province, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The global shipping industry faces huge pressure to reduce its greenhouse (GHG) emissions due to the Inter
New energy national Maritime Organization (IMO) has introduced strict regulations to decrease GHG emissions from ships.
Ship power system New energy sources can provide a solution for green shipping because they have the advantages of abundant,
Ship microgrid
renewable and clean. This paper examines the current progress made regarding the integration of new energy
Critical technology
Progress
sources into conventional ship power systems, including solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells. It also discusses
the possibilities for using the aforementioned three new energy sources in ship power systems ranging from
technical principles to subsequent applications. Furthermore, basic working theories of new energy sources,
application methods, existing new energy ships and core technologies required are summarized in detail. The
integration of new energy sources into traditional ship power systems has enormous potential to bring the
shipping industry in line with international regulatory requirements and is set to become a key focus of ship-
related researches in the immediate future.
1. Introduction current near-total reliance on fossil fuels.

Those strict regulations combined with ecological consequences of
Shipping now is one of the most critical modes of transportation for massive GHG emissions have prompted technical experts to explore
world trade, accounts for approximately 90% of global trade [1,2]. energy-saving and emission-reduction technologies in ships, including
However, the shipping industry has also become one of the main con novel hull and superstructure design, new propulsion systems, advanced
tributors to global GHG emissions, currently responsible for about 3% of energy management and operational optimization [12,13]. Beyond
the global total [3,4]. According to an evaluation carried out by the these technologies, the utilization of new energy sources such as wind
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), if global output of energy and solar energy to replace fossil fuels in ships could be a
GHG emissions can be reduced by 40%–70% before the year 2050, the promising way to help the conventional shipping become green
rise in the temperature of the earth surface can be limited to under 2 ◦ C [14–16].
[5], otherwise the temperature will rise by 3 ◦ C–5 ◦ C [6]. In addition, New energy sources, including solar energy, wind energy and fuel
ships almost inevitably emit sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) cells have already been introduced into ship power system. Solar energy
and particulate matters (PM) [7], which are also contributors to air can now be used as the main power source to propel small-scale ships,
pollution. So, the IMO has introduced strict regulations such as the and as an auxiliary power source in large-scale ships to supply lighting,
Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency communication devices and navigation system. Wind energy is more
Management Plan (SEEMP) to try and lower the level of GHG emissions often used as an auxiliary power to propel ships through modern sails.
from conventional ships [8–10]. Furthermore, some emission control Wind-generated power, an alternative use of wind energy, has not yet
areas (ECAs) in North America and Northern Europe have been set up to been widely used in ships. Fuel cells have the potential to replace con
limit the SOx and NOx emissions from ships [11]. Overall, the shipping ventional diesel engines in ships and to serve as the main source of en
industry is confronted with an urgent need to move away from its ergy for propulsion. In view of the lower power density of solar energy
* Corresponding author. School of Energy and Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430063, Hubei Province, China.
** Corresponding author. School of Energy and Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430063, Hubei Province, China.
E-mail addresses: ywsun@whut.edu.cn (Y. Sun), ycq@whut.edu.cn (C. Yuan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111048
Received 20 October 2019; Received in revised form 9 December 2020; Accepted 23 March 2021
Available online 5 April 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Pan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 144 (2021) 111048
and wind energy, most researchers consider it necessary to combine consumption [20].
different new energy sources together to improve the total output
power. Therefore, new energy sources applied in ships are not of any one 2.1. Solar energy
single form but rather hybrid new energy sources.
The summary of the utilization of new energy sources in ships is not Solar energy is an abundant, non-polluting and freely available
enough. In this article, the current progresses made on ship power sys resource. PV generation [21] and solar thermal conversion [22–24] are
tems integrated with solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells have been the two main ways to use solar energy. Mukrimin et al. [25] studied
comprehensively reviewed. Furthermore, the hybrid new energy ship solar energy conversion methods and its applications. Nadarajah et al.
power systems like hybrid solar/wind systems, hybrid solar/wind/diesel [26] reviewed the utilization of solar energy in the future world and
systems or even hybrid solar/wind/fuel cells/battery/diesel systems summarized the remarkable research done in solar thermal and photo
have been discussed from the aspects of the critical technologies for each voltaic (PV) generation according to its driving force and development
kind of new energy ship to the common core technologies for ship power trends. In recent decades, the application of PV generation has experi
systems integrated with different new energy sources. The main con enced rapid growth with the increasing conversion efficiency of PV cell.
tributions of this work are as follows: Fig. 1 illustrates the typical PV generation system structure. To maxi
mize the electricity yield, PV maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
1) The progress on ship power systems integrated with new energy controller is deployed. The distribution controllers are used to distribute
sources has been summarized in detail. and transmit the PV electricity to the public grid. Additionally, only
2) Solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells used in ships have been through the DC-to-AC conversion can PV electrical energy be remitted to
discussed from the perspective of technical principles to application public grids [27,28].
forms. The stand-alone mode and grid-connected mode are the two main
3) The common core technologies for ship power systems integrated operation modes for the PV generation system. In addition, these two
with new energy sources and critical technologies for each kind of operation modes can be used in some special circumstances simulta
new energy ship have been deeply analyzed. neously, which is defined as the hybrid mode.
4) This work will be regarded as an important guidance for the future
research on new energy ships. 2.1.1. Stand-alone PV generation systems
A stand-alone PV generation system (Fig. 2) is not connected to the
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 in main grid and its output power is usually matched to the energy required
troduces basic working principles of solar energy, wind energy and fuel by the load. As an isolated system, operation characteristics of the stand-
cells as well as their general applications. Section 3 discusses common alone PV generation system won’t be affected by the main grid, making
core technologies associated with new energy ships. Section 4 presents its system structure simpler and easier to control. When the electricity
the progress on ship power systems integrated with single new energy produced is insufficient to satisfy the power demand of the load, the
sources. Section 5 summarizes the progress on ship power systems in excess electricity stored in battery banks will supply the deficit. How
tegrated with hybrid new energy sources. The challenges of the new ship ever, if the installed capacity of the PV generation system increases,
power systems are summarized in Section 6. Section 7 draws conclusions more batteries will be needed to match the installed capacity of the PV
and prospects. generation system. Consequently, the initial costs of the stand-alone PV
generation system may significantly increase.
2. New energy sources
2.1.2. Grid-connected PV generation systems
Since fossil fuel reserves are limited and environmental issues are The grid-connected PV generation system (Fig. 3) is a power supply
becoming more serious, governments and researchers have paid more connected to the main grid virtually, which can overcome dilemma of
and more attention to the use of new energy sources, such as solar en dynamic power and energy balance of stand-alone systems [29]. The
ergy, wind energy, fuel cells, hydro energy, biomass, geothermal and main grid will satisfy the power demand for the load when the power
ocean energy [17,18]. Solar energy, wind energy and ocean energy are output of the PV generation system is insufficient, but the output power
intermittent new energies, while the rest are non-intermittent new en of the DC/AC inverter should have the same voltage, frequency and
ergy sources [19]. Among these new energy sources, solar energy and phase sequence as the main grid. Compared with stand-alone PV gen
wind energy have now been widely used throughout the world, which eration systems, control strategies for the grid-connected PV generation
can supply approximately 3% of the world’s primary energy system will be much more various and complex.
Fig. 1. Structure of a typical PV generation system.
2
Fig. 2. The block diagram of a typical stand-alone PV generation system.
Fig. 3. The block diagram of a typical grid-connected PV generation system.
2.1.3. Hybrid mode PV generation systems (VAWT). HAWTs are dominant in the wind power generation industry
A hybrid mode PV generation system can operate in stand-alone because of their higher efficiency and power output [34]. VAWTs are
mode or in grid-connected mode. As shown in Fig. 4, an automatic usually installed close to the ground with less exposure to wind,
transfer switching (ATS) needs to be installed between the input of the resulting in lower power output. The cost of VAWT systems would
grid-connected inverter and the energy storage unit to change operation certainly increase if the improvement of power output level was taken
modes. If battery banks are full of electricity, the excess electricity can into consideration, since both additional materials and large-size blades
be used to supply the main grid via a grid-connected inverter. Because of are required [35]. Even so, the VAWT system still has some notable
the flexible utilization of electrical energy, the hybrid PV generation advantages, such as lower noise level, generating electricity under
system thus has the highest energy efficiency amongst these three low-speed wind conditions and having no mandatory requirements in
different operation modes [30]. wind directions. These advantages make VAWTs more suitable for
applying on board [36], but special attention must be paid to their po
tential adverse effects on the power quality, grid reliability and ship
2.2. Wind energy stability [37,38].
Wind power generation is the most widely used way to use wind
energy in modern times. Wind power generation systems have shorter 2.3. Fuel cells
set-up time and can work continuously if the wind speed is enough
[31–33]. Fig. 5 is the typical framework of a wind power generation A fuel cell converts fuels and oxygen into electricity in an electro
system. For a wind power generation system, the wind turbine is a chemical reaction with the advantages of higher electrical efficiency
critical part. Modern wind turbines (Fig. 6) can be divided into hori (about 40%–65%) [40], higher system reliability and lower mainte
zontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) and vertical axis wind turbines nance costs [41–43]. Moreover, fuel cells have a lower noise level since
Fig. 4. The block diagram of a typical hybrid PV generation system.
3
Fig. 5. Typical structure of the wind power generation system.
Fig. 6. Three primary types of wind turbine [39].
the basic fuel cell stack has no moving parts, which can create a more temperatures of 120 ◦ C [52]. Furthermore, the PEMFC can be classified
comfortable and silent environment during working [44,45]. Fig. 7 into low-temperature (LT-PEMFC) and high-temperature (HT-PEMFC)
demonstrates the working principle of a Proton Exchange Membrane categories, whose working temperature ranges are between 60 ◦ C and
Fuel cell (PEMFC) [46]. 80 ◦ C, 110 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C, respectively [52].
H2 ↔ 2H+ + 2e− Anodic Reaction SOFCs and MCFCs are more appropriate for cogeneration and com
1
2O2 + 2H + 2e ↔ H2 O + 2e Cathodic Reaction
+ − − bined cycle systems use [53]. According to the related research, SOFCs
Many studies [47–51] on existing fuel cells have comprehensively are more suitable for base-load utility applications operating on
summarized the following aspects: power outputs, working temperature coal-based gasses. When MCFCs operate between 250 kW–20 MW, it can
ranges, advantages and disadvantages, electrical efficiencies and typical achieve the maximum energy efficiency in methane-to-electricity con
applications. According to working temperature ranges, fuel cells can be version [52]. PAFCs are probably the most commercially-developed fuel
divided into high-temperature, intermediate temperature and cells to be applied in combined-heat-and-power (CHP) systems [54].
low-temperature categories [52]. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and Moreover, AFCs will perform the best when run on pure hydrogen and
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) are high-temperature fuel cells, oxygen, however, their disadvantages such as intolerance to impurities
which can work in a temperature range between 650 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C especially carbon oxides and short lifetimes have limited their use [55,
[40,52]. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), whose working temperature 56]. PEMFCs could be the best choice for the transportation industry due
is approximately 200 ◦ C [52], and are considered intermediate tem to their advantages of high power density, high efficiency, quick
perature fuel cells. Additionally, alkaline fuel cells (AFC), direct meth start-up, low working temperature and safe handling [56]. However,
anol fuel cells (DMFC) and proton exchange membrane fuel cells their prohibitive costs prevent their widespread use. Table 1 summarizes
(PEMFC) are low-temperature fuel cells that can operate below characteristics of some common fuel cells available on the market.
3. Common core technologies associated with new energy ships
Solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells are used first to generate
electricity, which can be then used by a ship’s power system. After
introducing new energy sources into ships, the related issues include
system stability, grid reliability and power quality emerged because of
their intermittent nature [42]. Microgrids offer a promising solution
here [86,87]. As an important feature of notional ‘smart grids’, micro
grids have been adopted in terrestrial new energy generation systems. A
microgrid (Fig. 8) is defined as a small distributed system that consists of
a series of micro-sources, including PV arrays, wind turbines, energy
storage systems, controllable and uncontrollable loads [88–90]. A
switch needs to be installed at the point of common coupling (PCC)
Fig. 7. The diagram of working principle of the PEMFC. between the microgrid and the public grid to change the microgrid
4
operation mode from grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode. In

grid-connected mode, the microgrid can receive/deliver electricity
[52,63–69]
[52,77–80]
[52,55–57,
[41,52,53]
References from/to the main grid via the PCC [91].
[52–57]
[74-76]
[41,52,
[45,52,
58–62]
70–73]
81–85]
To maintain the stability of the microgrid voltage and frequency by
using different control strategies to regulate the output power of the
Space projects and the automotive distributed generation systems according to the power demand of the
Electrical power generation in the

occasion of higher power demand
load is a core feature of control techniques [89,92,93]. Other than
Transportation, some stationary
Power generation, cogeneration

and transportation applications
and portable power generation
Transportation, stationary and

Portable fuel cell applications
Cogeneration and centralized

control strategies, quite a lot of related studies have been done in
portable power generation

microgrids optimization [94,95], configurations and applications [96],
operating control [97] and protection devices [98–100]. Microgrids
electricity generation
have attracted much attention and are now widely used in terrestrial
solar and wind energy generation stations across the world. China,
Applications
applications
applications
Canada, USA and Japan have applied microgrids in practice and are
industry
encouraging future researches for their potential development

[101–104].
The basic function of a ship power system is to provide reliable and
continuous power in the same way as a terrestrial power system, but
Slow start-up, relatively large size
density, high cost and fuel toxicity
management, expensive catalyst
Slow start-up, rigorous material

demands, high thermal stresses
Accelerated stack degradation,
there are some important differences. Firstly, comparing a ship power

corrosive electrolyte leads to
Low cell voltage, low power

Low power density, highly
Slow start-up, corrosion of
system’s safety with terrestrial power systems, its reliability must be

humidification issues and
Complex water and heat
total, while this is not mandatory for terrestrial power systems [105].
Secondly, the ship power system is a kind of strong coupled, non-linear
expensive catalyst
and segregated compact system with limited capacity [106]. There are
Disadvantages
metallic parts
and high cost
sealing issues
thus a number of specialist fields that need to be drawn upon, including

and costs
network design regarding transmission and distribution, approaches to

numerical analysis, system stability theory, security and network
reconstruction [105,106]. Finally, the core problem confronting ship
Comparison of fuel cells according to performance parameters and applications, with corresponding advantages and disadvantages.
power systems is how to facilitate integrated power control when there

flexibility and inexpensive catalyst
flexibility and inexpensive catalyst

Compact size, simple system, high
are high power loads with different voltage levels that need to be
High tolerance to contaminants,
High electrical efficiencies, fuel
High electrical efficiencies, fuel

fuel volumetric energy density,
structure, quick start-up, good
easy fuel storage and delivery

High power density, compact
managed in a limited space [106]. As a result, the concepts and tech

Technologically mature and
High electric efficiency and
simple water and thermal
nologies related to terrestrial microgrids cannot be directly applied to

relatively inexpensive
ship power systems. It is thus critical to establish an appropriate ship

dynamic response
microgrid when new energy sources are introduced.

Microgrids are weak grids and have much smaller capacity than
management
Advantages
conventional power systems. They are very sensitive to any variations

reliable
because their small inertia will result in degradation in power quality

and can even lead to system stability issues. An energy storage system
(ESS) is deployed to improve quality of the power and system stability of
the microgrid. Aside from storing and supplying electrical power, the
efficiencies
ESS also works to smooth the new energy generation system output
Electrical
60–70
40–60
35–60
50–60
37–42
50–65
45–50
55–65
power and improve the quality of the power [44]. To improve the per
(%)
formance of the microgrid, an ESS needs to not only respond quickly to

power fluctuations but also to provide enough energy storage capacity to
455.4–554.2
meet the demand of load regulation. Therefore, the ESS should have
104–127.8
1.78–630
7.06–350
sufficient power density to respond to power fluctuations and a higher

132–560
150–760
150–760
densities
(W/m2)
Power
8–200
energy density to supply uninterrupted and stable power to the micro

grid [107]. However, no current widely-used single storage device can
satisfy these two requirements simultaneously [108]. It is possible to
biogas, Methane
H2,CO, Methane
H2, natural gas,
combine two or more heterogeneous storage devices together to create a

hybrid energy storage system (HESS) to overcome drawbacks relating to
Methanol
single energy storage devices [109]. For a typical HESS, one storage
Fuels
device should have the high power density to respond to transient and
H2
H2
H2
H2
rapid load fluctuations quickly. The other storage device will have suf
ficient energy density to support the load when the electrical power is
temperatures
Ambient-110
insufficient over a longer period of time. Hemmati et al. [44] reviewed

600–1000
110–180
160–220
650–700
HESSes’ hybridization theories, structures, power electronics interface

Working
50–90
60–80
architectures, operating and control strategies. To match the capacity of

(◦ C)
new energy generation systems, being individually large and heavy,

energy storage devices need to occupy a large amount of space. There
PEMFC
PEMFC
DMFC
fore, an optimization problem presents itself in how to use new energy

MCFC
Types
PAFC
SOFC
AFC
HT-
LT-
sources effectively and allocate suitable capacity to a HESS whilst

minimizing the space occupied relative to load demand. Much research
Low-temperature
on the HESS capacity allocation optimization based on intelligent al

temperature
temperature
Intermediate
gorithms is available, such as Genetic Algorithm (GA) [110], combined

GA and neural network algorithm [111] and Particle Swarm Optimiza
Groups
Table 1
High-
tion algorithm [112,113].

The output characteristics of ships’ new energy generation systems
5
Fig. 8. Block diagram of a simplified structure for the typical microgrid.
will vary greatly according to changes in environmental and naviga new energy source generation systems.
tional conditions. Ship power systems are isolated power systems with
limited scope for power generation and large loads in relation to the 4. Ship power systems integrated with single new energy
capacity of installed generators. This inherent feature of ship power
systems means abnormal and often simultaneous, variations in voltage In recent years, the related research on the utilization of new energy
and power system frequency, typically as a result of switching on/off sources in ships has been carried out both from the aspects of theory and
large power loads such as thrusters, pumps and compressors [114]. In application. Except for the research on the utilization of new energy
addition, the complexity of on board installations, subsystems with sources in ships, the necessity of developing new energy infrastructures
different voltages and frequency levels, different-sized generators, prime for ship propulsion also needs to be strengthened [124,125]. This sec
movers and control systems, limits the ease of control [114]. To stabilize tion focuses on the research progress on ship power systems integrated
power fluctuations in ship power systems and provide high-quality with single new energy, including solar-powered ships, wind-powered
power to support the ship load, dynamic control of HESSes is needed. ships and fuel cell powered ships.
When implementing dynamic control for HESSes, the real-time alloca
tion of energy and power is critical. It is possible to improve the overall 4.1. Solar-powered ships
control performance and meet requirements of a ship power system
demands on a HESS through dynamic control. Previous research has Available sunlight is converted into electricity through the installed
examined different coordinated control strategies, including fuzzy con PV generation system on board, temporarily stored in batteries and then
trol approach [115], hierarchical control [116,117], frequency control used to propel or supply electrical devices. Limited by the energy density
[118,119] and the Monte Carlo simulation method [120]. and relatively low energy conversion efficiency, power levels in PV
External environmental factors significantly influence the output generation systems for ship use range from a few hundred watts to a few
characteristics of new energy generation systems. Marine environments kilowatts. Therefore, this feature decides that the solar energy is usually
are worse in this regard than terrestrial environments, and ships are used as the main power source in small-scale ships, but as an auxiliary
mobile platforms often subject to pitching and rolling. Therefore, the power source in large-scale ships.
extreme variability of marine environments and navigation conditions
will result in serious output power fluctuations in new energy generation 4.1.1. Solar/battery powered ships
systems. Correspondingly, power fluctuations in ship power systems Solar/battery power system is the typical power system configura
over a short period of time are inevitable and potentially substantial if tion for medium and small-scale solar-powered ships. The “Sun 21”
new energy generation systems are operated in grid-connected mode. To (Fig. 9 a) was the world’s first solar-powered ship to cross the Atlantic in
cope with these issues, it can mitigate negative impacts caused by power 2006, with 65 m2 PV panels between the hull to supply the ship power
fluctuations in new energy generation systems on required spinning system [126]. “Truanor PlanetSolar” (Fig. 9 b) is so far the largest
reserves for reliable operation of the ship main grid to some extent by solar-powered ship and has completed a 60,023 km circumnavigation
using accurate forecasting methods [121]. A number of effective fore without using fossil fuels in 2012 [127]. The first solar-powered cruise
casting methods are available, including support vector machines ship in Asia (Fig. 9 c) was designed and built in Taiwan in 2010, whose
(SVM), vector auto regression theory and Bayesian approaches with fuel consumption is equivalent 1/3 to 1/4 of the conventional diesel
Monte Carlo simulation [122,123]. ships [128]. In China, its first solar-powered cruise ship is the “Suntech”
In summary, current studies on microgrids mainly focus on terres (Fig. 9 d), which can decrease 30% of emissions depending on solar
trial new energy generation systems, whilst the research on ship radiation conditions [129].
microgrids is insufficient. This research status has become one of the
restriction factors for the wider adoption of new energy sources in ships. 4.1.2. Hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery powered ships
Furthermore, a number of core technical issues need to be addressed When solar energy is used as an auxiliary energy source in ships, it is
before promoting the use of new energy sources in ships, including how usually combined with diesel generators to supply continuous and reli
to establish an appropriate ship microgrid, how to allocate suitable ca able power to the ship main grid. Hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery
pacity to a HESS, how to make effective HESSes’ coordinated control power system is the typical system layout for large-scale solar-powered
strategies and how to forecast accurately output power requirements for ships. Based on the PV generation system operating modes, grid-
6
Fig. 9. Solar-powered ships.
connected mode, stand-alone mode and hybrid mode are the three main connected to the ship main grid. Here, battery banks acting as the energy
operating modes of hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery ship power storage system can smooth the input of the PV generation system to the
systems [130]. “Auriga Leader” (Fig. 9 e) is a solar-powered car carrier, ship main grid and improve the quality of the power. Moreover, the
with 328 PV panels on its deck rated at 40 kW. The output power of the battery management system (BMS) can compensate for the power
installed PV generation system can meet 6.9% of the demand load for on shortage caused by power fluctuations by switching running modes of
board lighting and 0.2%–0.3% demand load for ship propulsion. battery banks from charging to discharging, or vice versa. When the
Furthermore, it can contribute to lowering annual fuel consumption by power output of the PV generation system and battery banks is insuffi
13 tons and annual CO2 emissions by 40 tons [131]. “Emerald Ace” cient, a set of diesel generators is used to balance the fluctuation of
(Fig. 9 f) is another ocean-going solar-powered ship with 768 PV panels power network loads [145,146].
rated at 160 kW [132]. In addition, the “Tengfei” solar-powered The PV generation system installed on board is a hybrid stand-alone/
ocean-going car carrier and the “Anji204” solar-powered inland river grid-connected system, which makes the “Tengfei” ocean-going solar-
car carrier are two typical large-scale solar-powered ships in China. powered car carrier is the first ship in China using a grid-connected PV
These solar-powered ships are summarized in Table 2. generation system. When the ship is in harbor and battery banks are full
As can be seen from Table 2, the stand-alone PV generation system is of electricity, the PV generation system will connect to the ship main
dominant in today’s solar-powered ships. Based on the development grid through the grid-connected inverter. The control modes of the PV
status of solar-powered ships, grid-connected or hybrid stand-alone/ generation system are summarized in Table 3. In Fig. 11, SWa, SWb and
grid-connected PV generation systems will be used to increase the SWc are the magnet contact switches.
installed capacity on board, since they are more efficient and cheaper The PV generation system can operate in stand-alone mode to supply
than the stand-alone modes. the lighting system through the ship main grid, if the sunlight is
adequate. Then, switches SWb and SWc should be off, while the switch
4.1.3. Description of hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery ship power SWa is on. By contrast, the PV generation system cannot generate
systems enough electricity in overcast days. To guarantee the normal working of
Here, the large ocean-going car carrier - “Tengfei” (China Ocean the lighting system on board, diesel generators will support the load and
Shipping Company, COSCO) (Fig. 10) is taken as the example to describe act as the main power source. In this circumstance, the PV generation
the hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery ship power system. Fig. 11 system should operate in the grid-connected mode, switches SWa and
presents the structure of the hybrid solar/diesel generator/battery SWc are on, while the SWb is off. The hybrid mode means that the stand-
power system of the “Tengfei” ocean-going solar-powered car carrier. It alone mode and grid-connected mode are working at the same time.
consists of PV panels, PV controller, inverters, batteries, diesel genera
tors and loads. To ensure that the PV generation system can operate on 4.1.4. Critical technologies for solar-powered ships
or close to its maximum power point, the maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) PV controller is deployed [145]. The DC-DC converter 4.1.4.1. Improving energy efficiency of PV generation systems. How to
(PV controller) is used to match the voltage of the PV generation system make the PV generation technology more economically attractive
to battery banks and determine the real output power of the PV gener compared with conventional fuels and other new energy sources is
ation system [146]. Some external environmental factors such as the critical, and some research has been conducted [148–150]. MPPT-based
intensity of solar radiation and the ambient temperature have greatly control technology is a widely used control method to obtain the
effects on the stability of the PV generation system output power [147]. maximum output power and improve the efficiency of a PV generation
Correspondingly, the unstable output power of the PV generation system system in relation to changes in temperature and load demand
will adversely impact the ship main grid reliability, load working con [151–154]. Noguchi et al. [153] introduced a variable constant k
ditions and the operation of the ship when the PV generation system is (depend on the PV surface conditions) and short current pulses to
7
Table 2
Summary of some representative solar-powered ships.
Vessel Principal data PV generation system Operation Applications Benefits References
mode of PV
generation
system
Truanor Planet 35 m in length and 15 m Covered by 537 m2 of PV Stand-alone Solar energy is the only energy – [127,133]
Solar in width, the panels rated at 93 kW mode source
(catamaran displacement is 85 t and and integrated with 8.5 t
yacht) the maximum speed is 14 of Li-ion batteries
knots
Sun 21 14 m in length, 6 m in Its canopy-like roof Stand-alone Solar energy is the only energy – [134,135]
(catamaran width, and the service installed 48 PV panels mode source
yacht) speed is 3.5 knots and integrated with
3600 pounds storage
batteries
Auriga Leader 199.99 m in length, 328 PV panels with 40 Stand-alone The auxiliary power partially Its solar power generation [136]
(car carrier) 32.26 m in width, the kW rated power mode supplied by the PV generation capacity can meet 0.05% of the
deadweight is 18,758 t system ship’s propulsion power demand
and can hold 6200 cars and 1% of its electric demand. It
can lower fuel consumption by 13
t and CO2 emissions by 40 t per
year
Emerald Ace 200 m in length, 32 m in 768 PV panels with 160 Stand-alone The electricity produced by PV CO2 emission reduction, Li-ion [137,138]
(car carrier) width, the deadweight is kW rated power and the mode generation system stored in batteries used to improve energy
18,334 t and the Li-ion batteries can store rechargeable batteries to supply efficiency without affecting
maximum speed is 22.4 about 2.2 MWh of the whole ship power system stowage capacity
knots electricity while the ship is in harbor the
diesel generators can be shut
down
Anji204 inland 110 m in length, 18.8 m 135 PV panels with Stand-alone To support the hull lighting It can reduce fuel consumption, [131]
river in width, the deadweight 37.12 kWp rated power, mode system SOx, NOx and CO2 by 10 t, 630 kg,
Ro-Ro car is 1664.7 t, designed Li-ion batteries capacity 50 kg and 28.5 t per year,
ship speed is 13 knots and is 128 kW, DC-DC respectively
holds 800 cars converter (30 kW), DC-
AC inverter (20 kW)
Solar Sailor 21 m in length, 10 m in Hybrid wind/solar- Hybrid stand- The main engine and the PV It can reduce noise and mitigate [139]
width, holds 100 powered ship alone/grid- generation system are used to environmental pollution from
passengers and the connected supply the propulsion system diesel exhausts, it will save
maximum speed is 10 mode and the lighting system 250,000 L fuel and reduce CO2
knots emissions by about 670 t
Suntech 32.6 m in length, 9.96 m 70 PV panels with 19.6 Hybrid stand- The energy demand can be The PV generation system can [140,141]
(yacht) in width, the kW rated power alone/grid- supported by PV generation produce about 17,841 kWh power
displacement is 138 t and connected system and generators per year and reduce 15.705 t CO2
the maximum speed is mode emission
8.1 knots
COSCO 182.8 m in length, 32.2 540 PV panels with Hybrid Stand- To support the cabins’ lighting The PV generation system can [142–144]
Tengfei m in width, the 143.1 kWp rated power, alone/Grid- system reduce fuel consumption and CO2
Ocean-going deadweight is 14,759 t, the Li-ion batteries connected emissions by 1.8% and 1.5% per
car carrier voyage speed is 20.20 maximum capacity is mode day, respectively
knots and can hold 5300 750 kW
cars
Fig. 10. The ocean-going solar-powered car carrier – “Tengfei” (COSCO).
determine the maximum working current at the maximum power point. converters in a preset duty cycle. Karami et al. [155] examined different
Koutroulis et al. [154] demonstrated a simple MPPT control method methods for MPPT control of PV generation systems. All these methods
using a buck DC/DC converter, controlled by a PV-powered micro- focused on how to achieve maximum power without considering the
controller. They found that the proposed method delivered at least 15% complexity of required calculations or their implementation.
more power output when compared with other similar DC/DC
8
Fig. 11. The power system of the “Tengfei” ocean-going solar-powered car carrier.
however, the VAWT is more suitable to be used to exploit wind energy

Table 3
on board because of its advantages of less complexity, easy to operate,
The control of solar energy ship PV generation system.
lower costs and higher stability for the ship [162]. Neil et al. [163]
Operation modes SWa SWb SWc studied the use of on board wind power generation for propulsion and
Stand-alone mode ON OFF OFF examined the performance of the wind turbine system in different
Grid-connected mode ON OFF ON modes. Nowadays, some small mono-and twin-hull ships have been
Hybrid mode ON ON ON
equipped with wind turbines to produce electricity to supply the load as
an auxiliary power. “Hornblower Hybrid” (Fig. 12 a) is the first known
4.1.4.2. Decreasing power loss. The DC output of the PV generation multi-hulled hybrid ferry ship in the US. It is equipped with two
system needs an inverter to convert it into AC power to support the ship ten-foot-tall twisted Savonius wind turbines (Fig. 12 b) with a total
load. However, the power loss in the inversion is not negligible, output power of about 5 kW [164]. In this case, wind energy not only is
particularly since less power is produced by the PV generation system. In used to generate electricity, but also can push sails as a wind-assisted
the design of inverters, transformers have been added between DC and ship.
AC components to provide galvanic isolation and protect sensitive
electronic devices on the DC side of the inverter from damage [156]. On 4.2.2. Wind-assisted ship propulsion (WASP)
one hand, the added transformers will increase the size and weight of the Modern wind-assisted ships are primarily powered by the main en
inverter. On the other hand, they will also increase system power loss, gine and assisted by sails, which are controlled by computers and have
system complexity and costs of the inverter. Transformerless inverters different operation principles from the traditional sails. Clayton et al.
provide a solution to solve these issues [157,158]. Compared with the [165] and Clauss et al. [166] studied various sails which could be used
traditional inverters, the PV generation system could gain an additional with WASP technology. The soft sails, aerofoils (wingsail), Flettner rotor
1%–2% efficiency when using a transformerless inverter [159]. sails and skysails are the widely used wind assistance sails. Flexible sails
can provide the thrust to the ship at most of the voyage time and be
extended for different operations [170]. Compared to the towing kite,
4.2. Wind energy ships the output power fluctuation of a Flettner rotor sail is less and can
produce more power on some routes because of their different depen
Wind-assisted ship propulsion (WASP) and wind power generation dence on wind speed and direction [167–169]. Some difficulties in
are the two main ways to apply wind energy in today’s shipping in launching and landing the kite make them less attractive than the sail
dustry. Maritime wind energy is more appropriate for electricity gen technology, although the towing kites have great potential for use in
eration compared with terrestrial wind energy, as the energy loss and ships [170].
the wind speed reduction caused by friction is less [160]. Fossati et al. [170] analyzed the performance of yacht soft sails and
the Fluid-Structure interaction between the air flow and sails. He et al.
4.2.1. Wind power generation for ship use [171] conducted research on the performance coefficients of the
The unique feature of wind power generation applied in ships is that arc-shaped rigid sails and stability criteria requirements of sail assisted
it can produce electricity irrespective of the direction of the wind. When ships. “Motor-assisted sailing ship” was a new concept proposed by
introducing the wind power generation system into the ship power Ouchi et al. [172], who estimated that over 50% of propulsion power
system, choosing a suitable wind turbine is critical. The HAWT has could be supplied by maritime wind power. Talluri et al. [160] assessed
higher efficiency and power output than that of the VAWT [161],
9
Fig. 12. “Hornblower Hybrid” ship [164].
WASP technology from techno-economic and environmental aspects. 2400 m2 are attached to five masts [181]. Its maximum speed is 11 knots
Viola et al. [169] presented a numerical method for WASP ship design when wind energy is the sole power source without a diesel generator.
and found that the aerodynamic efficiency of the wing-sails was essen
tial for obtaining the useful thrust. These aforementioned studies 4.2.2.3. Walker wingsail ship. In the early 1980s, British aeronautical
focused on using soft sails in small-scale ships. In order to develop WASP engineer J. Walker proposed the so-called Walker wingsail, which is a
technology in depth, research on ocean-going ships needs to be three-plane multi-element sail wing device with a symmetrical wing
extended. In the global shipping industry and the ship research field, profile and a guide blade at the rear to adjust the angle of attack of the
innovative modern wind propulsion technologies and traditional sailing sail. The advantage of selecting a slotted flap over a plain flap was that
ships are the two lines implemented in today’s wind-assisted ship pro this flap type not only increases the effective camber of aerofoil section
pulsion commercial deployment activities [173–175]. The research on but also creates a geometrical slot between the trailing edge of the wing
the utilization of WASP technology for the shipping industry as an and the leading edge of the flap. The slot created ducts high energy air
alternative propulsion solution has been carried out [176,177]. from the lower surface of the wing to the upper surface of the flap. This
high energy air then delays the separation of flow over the flap, thus
4.2.2.1. Rectangular sail ships. In the 1980s, a new breakthrough in allowing greater flap angles, greater wing camber and consequently
modern WASP technology ships was achieved in Japan. “Shin Aitoku greater lift force [182]. In 1986, the Walker wingsail was installed onto a
Maru” (Fig. 13 a) was the first oil tanker with modern sails installed on 7000 DWT bulk carrier – MV Ashington (Fig. 15), whose fuel savings can
its deck. “Usuki Pioneer” was built in 1984, reducing annual fuel con reach to the maximum of about 30% in ideal wind conditions during a
sumption by over 50% in good weather conditions [178]. In recent 5-month of evaluation [183]. Since then, the application of Walker
years, University of Tokyo researchers have been conducting the “Wind wingsail on ships were terminated because of the falling oil prices and
Challenger” (Fig. 13 b) project, aimed to install four large sails on the high maintenance costs. Some small-sized yachts have been equipped
ship to exploit the maximum wind energy above the sea [179]. with the Walker wingsail, for instance, the trimaran-“Zefyr 43” (Fig. 15)
[184].
4.2.2.2. Triangular sail ships. Triangular sail consists of masts, brackets
and sails. The biggest triangular sail passenger ship “Wind-star” (Fig. 14 4.2.2.4. Flettner rotor sail ships. Flettner rotor is a rotating cylinder
a) was built in 1986 with four 50-m masts on its deck. Six polymer lateen using Magnus force to convert wind energy into propulsive force [168].
sails installed on four masts cover an area of approximately 2000 m2 However, Flettner rotor sail technologies in the past did not perform as
[181]. All sails can supply power to propel the ship during 90% of its well compared with steam and diesel ships. The main reason was that
voyage time and its speed can reach 12–13 knots, increasing energy the very large size of the Flettner rotor sail leading to two serious
efficiency by approximately 25% [181]. “Club Med1” (Fig. 14 b) sails drawbacks. One was that more deck space was needed and the other was
ship is equipped with four diesel-electric engines and five masts on its adverse effects on ship stability [168]. Researchers began investigating
deck. Seven triangular dacron self-furled sails with a total area of about Flettner rotor sails once again after the energy crisis in 1970s. “E-ship1”
Fig. 13. Rectangular sail ships [180].
10
Fig. 14. Triangular Sail ships [181].
Fig. 15. Walker wingsail ship.
Fig. 16. Flettner rotor sail ships [187].
(Fig. 16 a) is a 10,000 DWT cargo vessel, with four 27-m in height and 4.2.2.5. Skysail ships. The work principle of skysail ships is that the
4-m in diameter Flettner rotor sails on its deck. These Flettner rotor sails skysail flies at high altitude in front of the ship and converts the wind
can improve the ship energy efficiency by 30% in favorable working power into a pulling force to drag a ship along by ropes. A large skysail
conditions [185]. Another Flettner rotor sail ship “M/V Estraden” connects to the ship by a towing line, a control system, a launch system,
(Fig. 16 c) was built in 2015, equipped with two 18-m in height and 3-m a recovery system and a wind routing optimization system form the
in diameter Flettner rotor sails, producing 2 MW of main-engine skysail assisted propulsion system. What makes the skysail so special is
equivalent power for propulsion [186]. that a new wind propulsion system with a huge towing kite provides
11
additional thrust for the ship at sea, and not occupy any deck space or involves weather routing to determine a route with the appropriate
change the maximum size of the ship [167]. Besides, the skysail system external natural environment to satisfy working requirements of WASP
contributes to improve ship safety and performance because it can technology [195]. The optimum course for ocean voyages can be
reduce slamming and torsion forces on the ship caused by waves [167, determined by using ship weather routing, which relies upon weather
188]. The main technical challenges of the utilization skysails in ships forecasts, sea conditions and individual features of the ship for a
are including the automatic control of the kite’s flight, keeping the kite particular transit. Within a specific range of weather and sea conditions,
flying in an efficient region, manage launch and recovery operations ‘optimum’ refers to maximum safety and crew comfort, minimum fuel
considering ship working conditions. In 2007, the first skysail consumption and voyage time underway or any combination of desired
wind-assisted propulsion ship in the world “Beluga skysail” (Fig. 17) factors [196]. Li et al. [197] proposed route optimization models to
successfully finished its first voyage from Hamburg to Houston. The provide a theoretical basis and technical underpinning for the use of
deployment of the 160 m2 skysail could offset up to 20% of the engine WASP technology in ocean-going ships.
power and saved an initial daily $1000 in fuel costs [188].
4.2.3.4. Matching calculation between sails and main engines. Modern
4.2.3. Critical technologies for WASP ships sail-assisted technology uses automatic control systems, different to
There exist some technical issues related to operation and safety traditional sails. For modern WASP technology, the control system aims
when applying WASP technology for ships, including visibility to match the sail and the main engine to maximize the use of wind en
obstruction, cargo handling, air draught constraints, structural integrity ergy and avoid a deterioration of working conditions of the main engine,
and stability [189]. and to distribute the main engine load based on the current wind turbine
output power. Lu et al. [198] studied matching calculation principles of
4.2.3.1. Selecting and designing of sails. The following factors should be ship propulsion systems integrated with WASP technology and managed
taken into consideration to design and choose suitable sails. to produce matching calculation for a hybrid diesel generator/wind ship
propulsion system.
■ Basic requirements for sails, lighter in weight, higher in intensity,
simpler structure and smaller size;
■ The need for better thrust performance, high wind energy efficiency 4.3. Fuel cell powered ships
and flexible control;
■ The ability to adapt to different weather conditions. Fuel cells can run continuously with the supply of suitable fuels such
as hydrogen, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), methanol or bio-gas.
4.2.3.2. Stability of ships. WASP technology increases the complexity of Compared to the use of conventional fuels, fuel cells can bring some
the design process because many design parameters are strongly notable benefits to ships such as high electrical efficiency [40], no
coupled. For instance, the thrust force increases with any increase in the pollutant emissions, lower noise and vibration [40,46], lower mainte
sail area, but so does the yaw and heel movement. Gerhardt et al. [190] nance costs and higher system reliability [199]. MCFCs, SOFCs and
proposed a simplified 2D geometry to study unstable aerodynamic fea PEMFCs combined with reformer can work depend on traditional fuels
tures relating to sailing upwind in waves. Fossati et al. [191,192] also such as diesel and natural gas, which are more appropriate to be used in
investigated various aerodynamic characteristics such as flexibility and large-scale ships [200]. However, most of the existing fuel cell powered
found that aerodynamic forces were closely related to the pitching ships are equipped with low-temperature fuel cells because of their zero
motion. Li et al. [193] designed a control system to regulate the emissions and quicker start-up [199].
sail-angle for WASP technology by using fuzzy Proportional Integral
Derivative (PID) control method. Meanwhile, Hu et al. [194] proposed a 4.3.1. Fuel cell power systems
specific stability assessment criterion for sail-assisted ships that focus on Fuel cells have formed various fuel cell power systems with different
weather criteria. power levels to be used in ships. Therefore, selecting an appropriate fuel
cell power system and fuels would have significant effects on the suit
4.2.3.3. Improving energy efficiency of sails. When using WASP tech ability for ship power systems. For the sake of choosing a suitable fuel
nology in ships, weather forecasts, sea conditions and ships’ individual cell power system for ship use, it should be taken the overall efficiency,
features can significantly impact the sail energy efficiency. For instance, system complexity, power density, fuel selection and fuel processing
if the wind speed is very low, the energy saving efficiency of WASP devices into consideration [45,46]. Most of the fuel cells can run on pure
technology will be insufficient. By contrast, the risk of turning-over the hydrogen [201], particularly for some low-temperature fuel cells.
ship will rise if the wind is too strong. So, the routing optimization is High-temperature fuel cells can use alternative fuels such as methane or
very important for WASP technology to make sure that sails could be CO which need to be converted first into hydrogen rich gas [202,203].
operated within a suitable range of wind speeds. Routing optimization But the cost of converting diesel to hydrogen on board would be rather
high and with less energy density [204–206]. Furthermore, the
complexity and size of the whole fuel cell system will increase when
using the diesel fuel processor. Alternative logistics fuels like bio-fuels or
even the so-called solar fuels can provide a solution to solve the afore
mentioned issues [207,208]. Biert et al. [45] studied meticulously that
the alternative logistics fuels could be used in the fuel cell power systems
in ships.
Main restriction factors for the widespread use of fuel cells are
related to logistics fuels and the relative low output power range of the
single fuel cell stack [209]. Based on a fuel cell powered ship feasibility
research project funded by European Union, it was indicated that the
power range of the fuel cell system was at least from 500 kW to 1000 kW
to meet the current large-scale ocean-going ship power demand [209]. If
the output power of the fuel cell system can range up to 500 kW, it has
the advantage to be used as the main propulsive power in some inland
Fig. 17. “Beluga Skysail” ship [188]. river ships. However, fuel cells could only supply no more than 350 kW
12
power in the present technical status [209]. Considering the high power As illustrated in Table 4, PEMFCs run on hydrogen is the priority
demand of ocean-going ships, the current available fuel cells can only be option for the existing fuel cells powered ships. Actually, high-
used as auxiliary energy source. However, there are no substantial ap temperature fuel cells run on diesel, LNG or methanol are more appro
plications in civilian ships because of the rather high costs of fuel cells, priate for ships with a greater power demand [229]. That will be a
even under the government support [210–213]. research and application highlight in the near future.
Fig. 18 shows the structure and components of the fuel cells powered
ship. It consists of fuel tanks, fuel reformer, fuel cell stacks, DC/DC 4.3.3. Critical technologies for fuel cell powered ships
converters, DC/AC inverters, thermal management system, power
controller and fuel cell controllers to regulate fuels, water, heat and 4.3.3.1. Improving dynamic response. Fuel cells can meet the power
electricity [214]. In addition, balance of plant (BOP) is an indispensable demand of the load under steady-state working conditions, but they lack
large part of the whole fuel cell power system [214]. Hot balance of the capacity to provide a dynamic response to transient power demand
plant contains heat exchanger, evaporator and fuel processor, and cold [209]. With changes in the load, the generation capacity of the fuel cell
balance of plant formed by power conditioning and system controllers, power system cannot meet constantly shifting electrical power needs
which are the two main categories of BOP [214]. Power conditioning [230]. Dynamic changes in power requirements impose severe stress on
equipment such as the DC/AC inverter is used to invert the DC power the fuel cell membrane resulting in service life reduction [204]. As a
into AC power at grid voltage and frequency. Control systems and ac result, providing a dynamic response is the key issue when fuel cells are
tuators include blowers, valves and pressure regulators are used to introduced into ships. Su et al. [214] established a mathematical model
control all the gas flows. Different fuel cells have varies logistics fuels of fuel cells’ active and reactive power regulation, and measured the
purity requirements, specifically, the fuel purity requirement of dynamic response of the PEMFC by the established model. So far, the
low-temperature fuel cells is relative high, in the contrary, available research regarding the dynamic response of fuel cell powered
high-temperature fuel cells can run on lower purity fuels or even the CO ships is very limited and it needs to be expanded in the future.
[214]. Hence, the fuel reformer and processor are core devices to ensure
that logistics fuels can meet fuel purity requirements of different fuel 4.3.3.2. Configuration of suitable fuel cell power systems. Different fuel
cells. Type of fuel cells and logistics fuels are decisive factors to choose cells and logistics fuels can provide various choices, and a choice for a
the processing equipment and they have great effects on system effi specific combination has important implications on the system charac
ciency, size, weight, cost and transient performance. The excess elec teristics. So, it is not easy to decide which fuel cell power system is the
tricity produced by the fuel cell power system will be used to charge best prospect for ship use. Biert et al. [45] reviewed power systems in
batteries or support some DC load on board. tegrated with different fuel cells for maritime applications and pointed
out that the electrical efficiency, power and energy density, load tran
4.3.2. Fuel cell powered ships sients and system start-up, environmental impact, safety and reliability
Many countries have already or will soon develop a commercial as well as economics should be taken into consideration to choice a
product or plan for fuel cells powered ships. In the US, the four diesel suitable fuel cells power system.
generators of the warship-USCGC “Vindicator” (Fig. 19 a) have been
replaced by fuel cells power system to develop and demonstrate the 5. Ship power systems integrated with hybrid new energy
potential of using fuel cell on board [215]. FellowSHIP was a research sources
project funded exclusively by Norway’s Research Council [216]. It has
successfully installed a 330 kW fuel cells power system on the offshore Requirements for saving energy and supplying reliable electric
supply vessel “Viking Lady” (Fig. 19 b). In Germany, the e4ships project power to ship power systems lead to the increasing attention devoted to
aimed to improve the energy supply on large vessels by using fuel cells exploring ship power systems integrated with hybrid new energy sour
[217]. The world’s first commercial fuel cell powered passenger ship - ces. A hybrid ship power system is based on the traditional ship power
“Alsterwasser”, part of the Zemships (Zero Emission Ships) project system integrated with two or more new energy sources such as solar
(Fig. 19 c), runs successfully on inner city waterways in Hamburg [218]. energy, wind energy and fuel cells [231,232]. Several hybrid power
Fuel cell powered ships are summarized in Table 4. systems can be applied in ships, including hybrid solar/wind/battery,
Fig. 18. Block diagram of the typical fuel cell ship power system.
13
Fig. 19. Fuel cell powered ships.
Table 4
Summary of fuel cell powered ships.
Vessels Fuel Logistics Capacity Fuel cell systems Functions References
cells fuels (kW)
USCGC Vindicator MCFC F-76 2500 Four MCFC modules replaced four main diesel generators Electricity Generation [45,219]
Viking Lady MCFC H2,LNG, 330 Installed with dual-fuel LNG/diesel-electric power plant and can Propulsion, Electricity [45,220,
(FellowSHIP) biofuels be reconfigured to run on methanol Generation 221]
methanol
e4ships SchIBZ SOFC Diesel 100 A diesel-reformer integrated SOFC system rated at 0.5 MW Propulsion [45,222]
e4ships PA-X-ell HT- Methanol 120 The modular HT-PEMFC components can be scaled to any output Propulsion [45,222]
PEMFC by interconnection of multiple stacks.
A 20 m tourist boat PEMFC H2 50 PEMFC system, DC-DC converters, Li-ion batteries and battery Propulsion [223]
(South Korea) charger
FCS Alsterwasser PEMFC H2 48 Two PEMFC systems, DC-DC converter, 234 kWh lead-gel battery Propulsion [222,224]
system
A yacht of MTU PEMFC H2 4.8 Four 1.2 kW PEMFC modules integrated with nine lead-gel Propulsion [224,225]
Friedrichshafen batteries total rated at 20 kW
A canal boat in England PEMFC H2 5 A 5 kW hydrogen-based PEMFC system together with the lead-acid Propulsion [226]
battery to power a DC electric motor to propel
Hy-Ferry project PEMFC H2 240 A hybrid system with a 240 kW PEMFC runs on hydrogen Propulsion [227]
Nemo H2 PEMFC H2 60 A 60 kW PEMFC system and a 70 kWh lead-acid battery pack to Propulsion [227,228]
propel the ship at a maximum speed of 16 km/h
NedStack PEMFC H2 60 Two 30 kW PEMFC modules power system Propulsion [227]
hybrid solar/wind/fuel cells/battery and hybrid solar/wind/wave unstable features and reliance on weather conditions. This issue can be
energy/battery/fuel cells power systems. partly resolved by integrating solar energy and wind energy together to
make a hybrid ship power system [233]. Since solar energy and wind
energy probably do not match with the time distribution of the ship
5.1. Solar/wind powered ships electrical load because of their fluctuations, it is necessary to integrate
them with diesel generators to give uninterrupted supply to the ship
The widely use of solar energy and wind energy is limited due to their
Fig. 20. Structure of the solar/wind/battery powered ship power system.
14
main grid [234]. In the global shipping industry, the PV generation each new energy generation system. Distributed generation units, en
system combined with WASP technology and the PV generation system ergy storage system, energy management system and other control
integrated with wind power generation system are the two main hybrid systems form the ship microgrid. In the ship microgrid, solar energy, fuel
power system configurations. Furthermore, both types of solar/wind cells and wave energy generation systems are connected to a microgrid
powered ships use solar-wind sails. DC bus through DC/DC converters, which used to improve the output
voltage and be stabilized in expected values due to some new energy
5.1.1. Configuration of hybrid solar/wind/battery powered ship power generation systems have relatively low output voltages. While, the wind
systems energy generation system is connected to the microgrid DC bus through
A solar-wind sail is the core of a solar/wind powered ship and can be the AC/DC inverter. Under normal working conditions, the ship
used either as a solar panel or as a sail. Compared to the conventional microgrid is connected with ship main grid to supply the ship load. If the
sails, modern solar-wind sails have some notable features of flexible ship main grid does not need much power, diesel generators can be
design, automatic control, higher reliability and better in adaptability switched off and electric devices will be powered by the ship microgrid.
[235,236]. In this case, the ship is wholly propelled by electricity, while the diesel
Fig. 20 presents the structure of a hybrid solar/wind/battery pow generator is a backup in emergencies.
ered ship power system. According to characteristics of the solar/wind/
battery powered ship, it can run on solar energy, wind energy and bat 5.2.2. Hybrid solar/wind/fuel cell/wave/battery/diesel generator powered
teries or any combination of them all. When the electricity produced by ships
the solar-wind generation system is insufficient, the AC load can be “E/S Orcelle” (Fig. 23) would be the world’s first-ever zero emission
supplied by diesel generators and the shore-side electricity power. ship using new energy sources, is a conceptual pentamaran vessel with
five hulls [243]. The hull of “E/S Orcelle” is made of aluminum and
5.1.2. Solar/wind powered ships thermoplastic composites instead of carbon steel, because they are
“Aquatanker” (Fig. 21 a) is a conceptual “green” supertanker aiming lighter, more fatigue-resistant, easier to form, more recyclable and
to transport large volumes of potable water. It is 400 m long and 31 m require less maintenance, that makes the ship can hold an extra 3000
wide with a maximum voyage speed of 15 knots using the wind wing- tons of cargoes [244]. This ship has three rigid sails, each with an area of
sails with solar array technology. Its fuel consumption and emissions 1400 m2 and made from composite materials, moreover, every single
can be reduced by about 50% compared with that of similar traditional sail also incorporated 800 m2 PV panels rated at 2500 kW [244]. The
oil tankers [237]. “Solar Sailor” (Fig. 21 b) is the world’s first solar/wind electricity produced by solar and wind power generation systems
powered passenger ship accommodating 100 passengers. Its movable powers the electrolysis of seawater to produce hydrogen, which is used
wing-like solar panels can also serve as sails, or simultaneously act as as the logistics fuel to feed fuel cells. 12 devices installed on both sides of
both solar collectors and sails. By using wind energy and solar energy, the hull, in the shape of a dolphin fin, convert wave energy into
this ship can save about 250,000 L of diesel fuel and reduce annual GHG hydrogen energy, electricity or mechanical energy. Therefore, “E/S
emissions by 670 tons [238]. “Hornblower Hybrid” (Fig. 21 c) is the first Orcelle can run on solar energy, wind energy, wave energy, fuel cells,
multi-hulled hybrid ferry ship in the US. It runs on solar, wind or diesel LNG, or any combination of such. In addition, the energy storage system
or any combination of such. It can also run on hydrogen fuel cells, is used to store the excess electricity produced by these new energy
making it the first hydrogen ferry ship in the world [164]. sources to ensure that the ship can operate in poor weather conditions. A
summary of hybrid new energy ships is presented in Table 5.
5.2. Solar/wind/fuel cell/wave/battery/diesel generator powered ships
6. Challenges of the new energy ship power systems
5.2.1. Hybrid solar/wind/fuel cell/wave/battery/diesel generator powered
The application of new energy sources in ships can contribute to
ship power systems
achieving the goal of energy saving and emissions reduction. However,
The most notable features of hybrid new energy source ship power
it still faces many challenges mainly from the aspects of technical and
systems compared with single-source ship power systems are that the
economic.
quality of power and system security of the ship main grid are signifi
cantly improved [239,240]. However, the operation of hybrid new en
(1) Technical challenges
ergy source ship power systems is much more complex than that of
1) Salty water corrosion and scaling [253].
single-source ship power systems [241,242]. Fig. 22 shows the struc
2) The needs for solar panels with high conversion efficiency.
ture of a ship power system integrated with solar energy, wind energy,
3) The optimal arrangement of PV arrays and wind turbines in a
fuel cells, wave energy, batteries and diesel generators. The PV gener
limited ship deck space, and a strong design required to ensure
ation system, wind generation system, fuel cell generation system and
stability and durability against the unexpected environmental
wave energy generation system are distributed generation units. The
conditions [254,255].
energy management system is core of this proposed system, controlling
Fig. 21. Solar/wind powered ships.
15
Fig. 22. Structure of the ship power system integrated with new energy sources.
ships and the basic criteria shaping their application can be better un
derstood. Each type of new energy ship still faces a number of critical
technical issues needed to be resolved, which have been mentioned in
our discussion of the required technologies.
Solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells have already been applied in
the modern shipping industry. However, because of technological and
economical constraints, many designs are still at the preliminary stage of
concept development. As related technologies continue to develop, new
energy sources will be more widely used in ships over the coming years.
(1) Solar energy in ships is very promising, but how to install more
Fig. 23. Hybrid new energy sources ship - “E/S Orcelle” [248]. PV panels in the limited area on ship deck to improve the installed
capacity of the PV generation system remains a problem. It is not
feasible to connect PV generation system to the ship main grid
4) The development of advanced communications and control
directly because of the low conversion efficiency of PV panels
strategies to maximum the efficiency and improve the power
even in areas with abundant solar radiation. However, stand-
quality and reliability [256].
alone PV generation systems integrated with an electrical pro
5) The fully commercial hydrogen storage [257] and the heat
pulsion unit could offer the possibility for mainstream develop
management.
ment of solar energy-based systems for small-scale ships. In small-
(2) Economic challenges
scale solar-powered ships, solar energy could be used as the main
1) The high cost of new energy technologies makes it vital to
energy source, providing a genuinely green alternative. With the
correctly decide the installed capacity of the energy system.
ongoing development of PV technology, it is likely that more
Over-sizing is unnecessarily expensive, while under-sizing
energy efficient PV cells and grid-connected inverters will be
may cause the entire project to fail through not meeting its
designed and applied. On this basis, increases in the installed
energy demands.
capacity of PV generation systems in large-scale ships might
2) The large-scale storage application have some technical and
enable grid-connected PV generation system to be integrated
market barriers that often cause higher capital costs than
with a ship’s electrical propulsion system, offering significant
traditional power generation resources on ships [258].
possibilities for ship design in the future.
(2) Wind-assisted propulsion and wind power generation are the two
7. Conclusions and prospects
main ways wind energy is used in ships. From the point view of
energy conversion, wind-assisted propulsion is currently more
Solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells are the most promising
appropriate than wind power generation for ship use because the
alternative energy sources for the modern shipping industry, providing a
former uses wind directly and has higher energy efficiency than
range of benefits include fuel consumption reduction, lower GHG
wind power generation. However, the utilization of wind energy
emissions and fuel costs. According to their features and the power de
in ships will increase the external load, thus consuming some part
mand of ships, these new energy sources can be used as the main power
of the effective power of the main propulsion unit. In that case,
source for low-power ships and as a source of auxiliary power for larger-
further studies are needed regarding the feasibility of using wind
scale ships. This paper has summarized new energy sources available for
power generation technology on ships.
ships and reviewed progress in research regarding the integration of
(3) Fuel cells have the promising potential for the global shipping
solar energy, wind energy and fuel cells with conventional ship power
industry, but developments here are still at a preliminary stage.
systems. By studying the structure and principals involved in new
Compared with traditional diesel generators, the cost of fuel cell
energy-based ship power systems, the composition of new energy-based
16
Table 5
Summary of hybrid new energy ships.
Vessels Principal data Type of new energy Hybrid new energies generation Ship power Benefits References
sources systems system
structures
Solar Sailor 21 m long, 10 m wide, Solar and wind energy Two battery banks and the Hybrid solar/ Save more than 250,000 L of [238]
holding 100 passengers propulsion electric machine rated at wind ship power diesel fuel and reduce 670 t
and the maximum speed 40 kW system CO2 emission, solar sails can
is 10 knots increase ship efficiency by up
to 40%
Suntech 32.6 m long, 9.96 m Solar and wind energy 70 PV panels rated at 19.6 kW Hybrid solar/ The PV generation system [141]
wide, the displacement wind/diesel/ can produce about 17,841
is 138 t and the battery ship kWh electricity per year,
maximum speed is 8.1 power system which can save about 6.282 t
knots standard
coal consumption and reduce
CO2 emission by 15.705 t
Hornblower 20 m long, 9 m wide and Two ten-foot-tall DC/DC converter, AC/DC rectifier, Hybrid solar/ Lower 75% fuel consumption [164]
Hybrid (San the designed draft is twisted Savonius wind DC/AC converter, 380 V DC battery wind/diesel/
Francisco) 1.76 m turbines rated at 5 kW banks battery ship
and a PV array power system
covering the top deck
Hornblower 51.2 m long, 12 m wide, Solar, wind, low- Two Helix wind 5 kW wind turbines, Hybrid solar/ Lower 75% fuel [164]
Hybrid (New the designed draft is 1.8 emission diesel and PV array rated at 20 kW wind/diesel/ consumption, and have the
York) m and can carry 600 hydrogen fuel cells fuel cell ship potential of reducing GHG
passengers power system emissions by 75%–100%
Soliloquy-Super 58 m long, 9.5 m wide Solar and wind energy 600 m2 solar-sails Hybrid solar/ Zero emission ship [245]
green yacht and the design draft is 3 wind ship power
m. system
Aquatanker 400 m long, 31 m wide Solar and wind energy Three rigid solar-sails each of them is Hybrid solar/ Decrease fuel consumption [246]
with a 15 knots voyage 30 m in height. The electricity wind ship power and emissions up to 40–60%
speed produced by solar-sails can meet 5% system from wind and 2% from solar
demand loads of electricity
NYK Super Eco 352 m long, 43 m wide Solar, wind and fuel Main power provided by LNG fuel Hybrid solar/ Achieve 69% GHG emission [247]
ship (Design cells cells rated at 50 MW. 8 lightweight wind/fuel cell reduction
concept) sails, each can produce 2.5 MW ship power
power. Solar panels can produce 1.6 system
MW average power
Eoseas Cruise 305 m long, 60 m wide Solar, wind, LNG- 8300 m2 PV panels rated at 108 MW. Hybrid solar/ Reduce fuel consumption, [248]
(Design and draft of 8 m, fuelled fuel cells The innovative sails mounted on five wind/fuel cell CO2, SO2, NOx and ash by
concept) holding 4400 masts over 12,440 m2 used wind ship power 50%, 50%, 100%, 90% and
passengers energy for propulsion, LNG will be system 100%, respectively
used to fuel four dual-fuel LNG diesel
electric generator sets
Black Magic oil 200 m long and 4000 t Solar, wind and wave 2000 m2 solar-sails rated at 200 kW, Hybrid solar/ 75%–100% GHG emission [249]
tanker in deadweight energy power sailing regeneration is 100 wind/wave ship reduction
(Design kW–200 kW, 300 kW–500 kW power system
concept) rotational wing-sails
E/S Orcelle 250 m long, 50 m wide, Solar, wind, wave Three rigid sails, each with an area of Hybrid solar/ Real zero emission ship [250–252]
(Design the design speed is 20 energy, fuel cells and 1400 m2, 800 m2 PV array to wind/wave/fuel
concept) knots and deadweight is LNG produce a max of 2500 kW power cell/LNG ship
13,000 t power system
systems is still much higher. However, that costs will likely Declaration of competing interest
decrease with the development of related technologies. If an
economic, safe and low-volume means to store logistics fuels for The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
on board fuel cells can be found, fuel cells will be widely adopted interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
in the global shipping industry. the work reported in this paper.
(4) Theoretically, solar energy, wind energy, fuel cells and wave
energy can all be combined within a ship power system, meaning Acknowledgements
ships can run on solar energy, wind energy, fuel cells and wave
energy or a combination. However, it needs to decide which new This work was supported by the High-Tech Ship Research Project of
energy source is the most suitable to be used in ships due to their Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (No. MIIT [2017] 614)
various applications. To choose the suitable new energy source, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (WUT:
the ship type, power system structure and area of navigation 2019III126CG). In addition, many thanks to Professor Richard Bucknall
should be taken into consideration. In a word, the integration of at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College Lon
new energy source generation systems with existing ship power don (UCL), for his constructive advices and comments to improve the
systems is the promising solution to increase the energy effi quality of this paper. Also, our appreciation to Mr. Murat Kerimol, for his
ciency, improve the grid reliability and the quality of power on helpful suggestions to improve the language quality of this paper.
board, and is thus likely to be the focus of research on ship-based
energy systems in the near future.
17
References [35] Riegler H. HAWT versus VAWT: small VAWT find a clear niche. Refocus 2003;4:
44–6.
[36] Syed IM, Raahemifar K. Predictive energy management, control and
[1] Poulsen RT, Johnson H. The logic of business vs. the logic of energy management
communication system for grid tied wind energy conversion systems. Elec Power
practice: understanding the choices and effects of energy consumption
Syst Res 2017;142:298–309.
monitoring systems in shipping companies. J Clean Prod 2016;112:3785–97.
[37] Chowdhury MA, Hosseinzadeh N, Shen WX. Smoothing wind power fluctuations
[2] Johnson H, Johanson M, Andersson K. Barriers to improving energy efficiency in
by fuzzy logic pitch angle controller. Renew Energy 2012;38:224–33.
short sea shipping: an action research case study. J Clean Prod 2014;66:317–27.
[38] Kamel RM, Chaouachi A, Nagasaka K. Wind power smoothing using fuzzy logic
[3] Lee KJ, Shin D, Yoo DW, Choi HK, Kim HJ. Hybrid photovoltaic/diesel green ship
pitch controller and energy capacitor system for improvement Micro-Grid
operating in standalone and grid-connected mode-Experimental investigation.
performance in islanding mode. Energy 2010;35:2119–29.
Energy 2013;49:475–83.
[39] Wind turbine. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine. [Accessed
[4] Third IMO. GHG study. London International Maritime Organization (IMO);
29 March 2018].
2014.
[40] Shih NC, Weng BJ, Lee JY, Hsiao YC. Development of a 20kW generic hybrid fuel
[5] Wang SA, Meng Q, Liu ZY. Bunker consumption optimization methods in
cell power system for small ships and underwater vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy
shipping: a critical review and extensions. Transp Res E-TRE 2013;53:49–62.
2014;39:13894–901.
[6] Hong SJ, Chung YH, Kim JW, Chun DP. Analysis on the level of contribution to
[41] Gomez SY, Hotza D. Current developments in reversible solid oxide fuel cells.
the national greenhouse gas reduction target in Korean transportation sector
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;61:155–74.
using LEAP model. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;60:549–59.
[42] Akikur RK, Saidur R, Ping HW, Ullah KR. Comparative study of stand-alone and
[7] Second amending conference of IMO GHG study 2009. London, UK: International
hybrid solar energy systems suitable for off-grid rural electrification: a review.
Maritime Organization; 2009.
[8] Beşikci EB, Arslan O, Turan O, Ölcer AI. An artificial neural network based
[43] Arias-Thode YM, Hsu L, Anderson G. Demonstration of the septistrand benthic
decision support system for energy efficient ship operations. Comput Oper Res
microbial fuel cell powering a magnetometer for ship detection. J Power Sources
2016;66:393–401.
2017;356:419–29.
[9] Perera LP, Mo B. Emission control based energy efficiency measures in ship
[44] Hemmati R, Saboori H. Emergence of hybrid energy storage systems in renewable
operations. Appl Ocean Res 2016;60:29–46.
energy and transport applications: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;65:
[10] IMO IMO. Train the trainer (TTT) course on energy efficient ship operation.
11–23.
London, UK: International Maritime Organization, Module 2 - Ship Energy
[45] Biert VL, Godjevac M, Visser K, Aravind PV. A review of fuel cell systems for
Efficiency Regulations and Related Guidelines; 2016.
maritime applications. J Power Sources 2016;327:345–64.
[11] Lindstad HE, Eskeland GS. Environmental regulations in shipping: policies
[46] Pachauri RK, Chauhan YK. A study, analysis and power management schemes for
leaning towards globalization of scrubbers deserve scrutiny. Transp Res D-TRE
fuel cells. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;43:1301–19.
2016;47:67–76.
[47] Kim T, Kwon S. Design and development of a fuel cell-powered small unmanned
[12] Roskilly AP, Palacin R, Yan J. Editorial. Novel technologies and strategies for new
aircraft. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012;37:615–22.
transport systems. Appl Energy 2015;157:563–6.
[48] Bradley TH, Moffitt BA, Mavris DN, David E, Parekh. Development and
[13] Parker J. Future ship powering options: exploring alternative methods of ship
experimental characterization of a fuel cell powered aircraft. J Power Sources
propulsion. London, UK: Royal Academy of Engineering; 2013.
2007;171:793–801.
[14] Hirdaris SE, Cheng F. The role of technology in green ship design (keynote
[49] Feroldi D, Serra M, Riera J. Design and analysis of fuel-cell hybrid systems
address). In: Proceedings of the 11th international marine design conference
oriented to automotive applications. IEEE Veh Technol 2009;58:4720–9.
(IMDC). Glasgow, UK: IMDC Secretariat and the University of Strathclyde; 2012.
[50] Griffiths G. Energy and power for AUVs: batteries or fuel cells. In: The sixth
p. 21–40.
unmanned underwater vehicles showcase, Southampton, UK; 2004.
[15] Diab F, Lan H, Ali S. Novel comparison study between the hybrid renewable
[51] Wang X, Shang J, Luo Z, Tang L, Zhang X, Li J. Reviews of power systems and
energy systems on land and on ship. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;63:452–63.
environmental energy conversion for unmanned underwater vehicles. Renew
[16] Wen SL, Lan H, Hong YY, Yu DC, Zhang LJ, Cheng P. Allocation of ESS by interval
Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:1958–70.
optimization method considering impact of ship swinging on hybrid PV/diesel
[52] Sharaf OZ, Orhan MF. An overview of fuel cell technology: fundamentals and
ship power system. Appl Energy 2016;175:158–67.
applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;32:810–53.
[17] Hossain MS, Madlool NA, Rahim NA, Sevaraj J, Pandey AK, Khan AF. Role of
[53] Liu P, Liu XH, Dong F, Lin QX, Tong YD, Li Y, Zhang PP. Electricity generation
smart grid in renewable energy: an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;
from banana peels in an alkaline fuel cell with a Cu2O-Cu modified activated
60:1168–84.
carbon cathode. Sci Total Environ 2018;631–632:849–56.
[18] Wu G, Zeng M, Peng LL, Liu XM, Li B, Duan JH. China’s new energy development:
[54] Lin JS, Kumar SR, Ma WT, Shih CM, Teng LW, Yang CC, Lue SJ. Gradiently
status, constraints and reforms. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:885–96.
distributed iron oxide@graphene oxide nanofillers in quaternized polyvinyl
[19] Mehmet FO, Ibrahim D, Marc AR, Mehmet K. Integrated hydrogen production
alcohol composite to enhance alkaline fuel cell power density. J Membr Sci 2017;
options based on renewable and nuclear energy sources. Renew Sustain Energy
543:28–39.
Rev 2012;16:6059–82.
[55] Alkaline fuel cell. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_fuel_cell.
[20] Noam L. Energy resources and use: the present situation and possible paths to the
[Accessed 29 March 2018].
future. Energy 2008;33:842–57.
[56] Verhaert I, Mulder G, Paepe DM. Evaluation of an alkaline fuel cell system as a
[21] Koberle AC, Gernaat DE, Vuuren DP. Assessing current and future techno-
micro-CHP. Energy Convers Manag 2016;126:434–45.
economic potential of concentrated solar power and photovoltaic electricity
[57] Hou JQ, Liu YZ, Ge QQ, Yang ZJ, Wu L, Xu TW. Recyclable cross-linked anion
generation. Energy 2015;89:739–56.
exchange membrane for alkaline fuel cell application. J Power Sources 2018;375:
[22] Bostan I, Gheorghe VD, Sobor I, Bostan V, Sochirean A. Resilient energy systems.
404–11.
Netherland: Springer Verlag; 2013.
[58] Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Available: https://en.wikipeida.org/wi
[23] Kurtz S. Opportunities and challenges for development of nature concentrating
ki/Proton_exchange_membrane_fuel_cell. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
photovoltaic power industry. National Renewable Energy Laboratory 5200-
[59] Types of fuel cells. Available: https://energy.
43208; 2011 (NREL/TP).
gov/eere/fuelcells/types-fuel-cells#molten. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[24] Frauke U, Sam G, Wang Y. Solar PV and solar water heaters in China: different
[60] Wang Y, Chen KS, Mishler J, Cho SC, Adroher XC. A review of polymer electrolyte
pathways to low carbon energy. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:531–42.
membrane fuel cells: technology, applications, and needs on fundamental
[25] Mukrimin SG. Solar power and application methods. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
research. Appl Energy 2011;88:981–1007.
2016;57:776–85.
[61] Chaurasia PB, Panja N, Kendall K. Performance study of power density in PEMFC
[26] Nadarajah K, Divagar V. Solar energy for future world: - a review. Renew Sustain
for power generation from solar energy. Renew Energy 2011;36:3305–12.
Energy Rev 2016;62:1092–105.
[62] Kannan AM. Nanocatalysts for low tempreature fuel cells. 2017 international
[27] Mekhilef S, Saidur R, Safari A. A review on solar energy use in industries. Renew
conference on alternative energy in developing countries and emerging
Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1777–90.
economies 2017 AEDCEE, 25-26 may 2017, bangkok, Thailand. Energy Procedia
[28] Piciu GC, Trica CL. A possible classification of renewable resources in the context
2017;138:14–9.
of sustainable development. 2014.
[63] Direct methanol fuel cell. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_meth
[29] Mohammed A, Pasupuleti J, Khatib T, Elmenreich W. A review of process and
anol_fuel_cell. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
operational system control of hybrid photovoltaic/diesel generator systems.
[64] Wei YS, Matar S, Shen LB, Zhang XW, Guo ZJ, Zhu H, Liu HT. A novel membrane
for DMFC-Na2Ti3O7 Nanotubes/Nafion composite membrane: performances
[30] Qiu YC, Sun YW, Yuan CQ. Review on the application and research progress of
studies. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012;37:1857–64.
photovoltaic ship power system. The 3rd International Conference on
[65] Bogolowski N, Drillet JF. Appropriate balance between methanol yield and power
Transportation Information and Safety; 2015. p. 523–7.
density in portable direct methanol fuel cell. Chem Eng J 2015;270:91–100.
[31] Zheng CW, Li CY, Pan J, Liu MY, Xia LL. An overview of global ocean wind energy
[66] Charoen K, Prapainainar C, Sureeyatanapas P, Suwannaphisit T,
resource evaluations. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:1240–51.
Wongamornpitak K, Kongkachuichay P, Holems SM, Prapainainar P. Application
[32] Kaladellis JK, Zafirakis D. The wind energy (r)evolution: a short review of a long
of response surface methodology to optimize direct alcohol fuel cell power
history. Renew Energy 2011;36:1887–901.
density for greener energy production. J Clean Prod 2017;142:1309–20.
[33] Dennis YC, Leung YY. Wind energy development and its environmental impact: a
[67] Ranjan K Mallick, Thombre Shashikant B, Shrivastava Naveen K. Vapor feed
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:1031–9.
direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs): a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;56:
[34] Kumar Y, Ringenberg J, Depuru SS, et al. Wind energy: trends and enabling
51–74.
technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:209–24.
18
[68] Lufrano F, Baglio V, Staiti P, Antonucci V, Arico AS. Performance analysis of [102] Planas E, Gil-de Muro A, Andreu J, Kortabarria I, Martinez de AlegriaI. General
polymer electrolyte membranes for direct methanol fuel cells. J Power Sources aspects, hierarchical controls and droop methods in microgrids: a review. Renew
2013;243:519–34. Sustain Energy Rev 2013;17:147–59.
[69] Neburchilov V, Martin J, Wang HJ, Zhang JJ. A review of polymer electrolyte [103] Ustun TS, Ozansoy C, Zayegh A. Recent developments in microgrids and example
membranes for direct methanol fuel cells. J Power Sources 2007;169:221–38. cases around the world-A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:4030–41.
[70] Meidanshahi V, Karimi G. Dynamic modeling, optimization and control of power [104] Hossain E, Kabalci E, Bayindir R, Perez R. Microgrid test beds around the world:
density in a PEM fuel cell. Appl Energy 2012;93:98–105. state of art. Energy Convers Manag 2014;86:132–53.
[71] Lamy C, Jones JD, Coutanceau C, Brault P, Martemianov S, Bultel Y. Do not forget [105] Diab F, Lan H, Ali S. Novel comparison study between the hybrid renewable
the electrochemical characteristics of the membrane electrode assembly when energy systems on land and on ship. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;63:452–63.
designing a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell stack. Electrochim Acta 2011; [106] Liu HY, Mu LH. Construction of integrated smart power system for future ship. In:
56:10406–23. International Conference on Power System Technology; 2010. p. 1–6.
[72] Wang KL, Yang L, Wei WX, Zhang L, Chang GJ. Phosphoric acid-doped poly [107] Bocklisch T. Hybrid energy storage approach for renewable energy applications.
(ether sulfone benzotriazole) for high-temperature proton exchange membrane J Energ Storg 2016;8:311–9.
fuel cell applicatons. J Membr Sci 2018;549:23–7. [108] Lorenzo B, Stefano C, Vincenzo M, Vittorio R, Luis RJ. Hybrid renewable energy
[73] Nalbant Y, Colpan CO, Devrim Y. Development of a one-dimensional and semi- systems for renewable integration in microgrids: influence of sizing on
empirical model for a high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Int performance. Energy 2018;152:744–58.
J Hydrogen Energy 2018;43:5939–50. [109] Lee WC, Yee WW, Rajkumar RK, Rajkumar RK, Isa D. Hybrid energy storage
[74] Phosphoric acid fuel cell. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphori systems and control strategies for stand-alone renewable energy power systems.
c_acid_fuelc_cell. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;66:174–89.
[75] Wang HS, Chang CP, Huang YJ, Su YC, Tseng FG. A high-yield and ultra-low [110] Wu HB, Chen B, Guo YC. Capacity optimization of hybrid energy storage units in
temperature methanol reformer integratable with phosphoric acid fuel cell wind/solar generation system. Trans Chin Soc Agric Eng 2011;27:241–5.
(PAFC). Energy 2017;133:1142–52. [111] Zhou SQ, Kang LY, Cao BG. Optimization of energy storage system in solar energy
[76] Neergat M, Shukla AK. A high-performance phosphoric acid fuel cell. J Power electric vehicle. Acta Energiae Solaris Sin 2008;29:1278–82.
Sources 2001;102:317–21. [112] Gao WF, Liu SY. An efficient particle swarm optimization. Control Decis 2011;26:
[77] Kulkarni A, Giddey S. Materials issues and recent developments in molten 1158–62.
carbonate fuel cells. J Solid State Electrochem 2012;16:3123–46. [113] Zhou TP, Sun W. Optimization of battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage
[78] Huijsmans J, Kraaij G, Makkus R, Rietveld G, Sitters E, Reijers HTJ. An analysis of station in wind/solar generation system. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2014;5:
endurance issues for MCFC. J Power Sources 2000;86:117–21. 408–15.
[79] Molten carbonate fuel cell. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten_ [114] Barros J, Diego RI. A review of measurement and analysis of electric power
carbonate_fuel_cell. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. quality on shipboard power system networks. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;
[80] Baron R, Wejrzanowski T, Ł Szabłowski, Szczęsniak A, Milewski J, Fung KZ. Dual 62:665–72.
ionic conductive membrane for molten carbonate fuel cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy [115] Chao Q, Tu EYB, Luo J. Application of fuzzy control for the energy storage system
2018;43:8100–4. in improving wind power prediction accuracy. Am J Energy Res 2013;1:54–8.
[81] Leah RT, Bone A, Selcuk A, Corcoran D, Lankin M, Steven ZD, Selby M. [116] Wang P, Xiao JF, Setyawan L, Jin C, Choo Fook Hoong. Hierarchical control of
Development of highly robust, volume-manufacturable metal-supported SOFCs active hybrid energy storage system (HESS) in DC microgrids. In: IEEE 9th
for operation below 600◦ C. ECS Trans 2011;35:351–67. conference on industrial electronics and applications (ICIEA); 2014. p. 569–74.
[82] Pellegrino S, Lanzini A, Leone P. Techno-economic and policy requirements for [117] Wang CS, Liu YX, Li XL, Guo L, Qiao L, Lu H. Energy management system for
the market-entry of the fuel cell micro-CHP system in the residential sector. Appl stand-alone diesel-wind-biomass microgrid with energy storage system. Energy
Energy 2015;143:370–82. 2016;97:90–104.
[83] Tsai T, Barnett SA. Increased solid-oxide fuel cell power density using interfacial [118] Li JW, Yang QQ, Yao PF. A novel use of the hybrid energy storage system for
ceria layers. Solid State Ionics 1997;98:191–6. primary frequency control in a microgrid. Energy Procedia 2016;103:82–7.
[84] Abdalla M, Hossain AS, Azad AT, Pg Mohammad I, Petra, Begum F, Eriksson SG, [119] Qi Y, Qu B, Yang JJ, Mu YF, Guo BQ. Frequency control strategy of hybrid energy
Azad AK. Nanomaterials for solid oxide fuel cells: a review. Renew Sustain Energy storage system for microgrid based on frequency hysteretic loop. Energy Procedia
Rev 2018;82:353–68. 2016;103:328–32.
[85] Ahn JS, Omar S, Yoon H, Nino JC, Eric D. Wachsman. Performance of anode- [120] Jia HJ, Mu YF, Qi Y. A statistical model to determine the capacity of battery-
supported solid oxide fuel cell using novel ceria electrolyte. J Power Sources supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system in autonomous microgrid. Int J
2010;195:2131–5. Electr Power Energy Syst 2014;54:516–24.
[86] Mariam L, Basu M, Conlon MF. Microgrid: architecture, policy and future trends. [121] Yoldaş Y, Önen A, Muyeen SM, Vasilakos AV, Alan İ. Enhancing smart grid with
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:477–89. microgrids: challenges and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;72:
[87] Parhizi S, Lotfi H, Khodaei A, Bahramirad S. State of the art in research on 205–14.
microgrids: a review. IEEE Access 2015;3:890–925. [122] Shi J, Lee WJ, Liu YQ, Yang YP, Wang P. Forecasting power output of
[88] Kahrobaeian A, Mohamed YAI. Interactive distributed generation interface for photovoltaic systems based on weather classification and support vector
flexible micro-grid operation in smart distribution systems. IEEE Trans Sustain machines. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2012;48:1064–9.
Energy 2012;3:295–305. [123] Bracale A, Caramia P, Carpinelli G, Di Fazio AR, Ferruzzi G. A Bayesian method
[89] Bajesh KS, Dash SS, Rajagopal R, Sridhar R. A review on control of ac microgrid. for short-term probabilistic forecasting of photovoltaic generation in smart grid
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;71:814–9. operation and control. Energy 2013;6:733–47.
[90] Rana MM, Li L, Su SW. Controlling the renewable microgrid using semidefinite [124] Livanos GA, Theotokatos G, Pagonis DN. Techno-economic investigation of
programming technique. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2017;84:225–31. alternative propulsion plants for Ferries and Ro-Ro ships. Energy Convers Manag
[91] Nguyen KL, Won DJ, Ahn SJ, Chung IY. Power sharing method for a grid 2014;79:640–51.
connected microgrid with multiple distributed generators. J Electr Eng Technol [125] Hua J, Wu YH, Jin PF. Prospects for renewable energy for seaborne
2012;7:459–67. transportation-Taiwan example. Renew Energy 2008;33:1056–63.
[92] Tayab UB, Roslan MAB, Hwai LJ, Kashif M. A review of droop control techniques [126] Transatlantic SUN 21. Available: http://www.solarnavigator.net/transatlanti
for microgrid. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;76:717–27. c_21.htm/. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. Transatlantic Sun 21.
[93] Vu TV, Perkins D, Diaz F, Gonsoulin D, Edrington CS, Mezyani ET. Robust [127] PlanetSolar Turanor. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turanor_Plan
adaptive droop control for DC microgrids. Elec Power Syst Res 2017;146:95–106. etSolar. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[94] Mahmoud MS, Alyazidi NM, Abouheaf MI. Adaptive intelligent techniques for [128] Available: http://www.ne21.com/news/show-24174.html. [Accessed 29 March
microgrid control systems: a survey. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2017;90: 2018].
292–305. [129] Available: http://www.hpjyl.com/visa/3/. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[95] Azaza M, Wallin F. Multi objective particle swarm optimization of hybrid micro- [130] Jurdana V, Sladić S. “Green energy” for low power ships. 57th international
grid system: a case study in Sweden. Energy 2017;123:108–18. symposium ELMAR. 2015. p. 197–200.
[96] Planas E, Andreu J, Gárate JI, Martĺnez de Alegrĺa Inigo, Ibarra E. AC and DC [131] Yan XP, Sun YW, Yuan CQ. Review on the application progress of solar ship
technology in microgrids: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;43:726–49. technology. Ship & Ocean Eng 2016;45:50–4.
[97] Nassar ME, Salama MMA. A novel branch-based power flow algorithm for [132] The emerald Ace – Japan’s prius of the sea. Available: http://gizmodo.com
islanded AC microgrids. Elec Power Syst Res 2017;146:51–62. /5921423/the-emerald-ace–japans-prius-of-the-sea. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[98] Brearley BJ, Prabu RR. A review on issues and approaches for microgrid [133] Electric and solar powered boats. Available: http://www.solarnavigator.net/
protection. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;67:988–97. solar_boats.htm. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[99] Memon AA, Kauhaniemi K. A critical review of AC Microgrid protection issues [134] Solar powered boats. Available: https://www.daolar.com/solar-energy/sol
and available solutions. Elec Power Syst Res 2015;129:23–31. ar-powered-boats. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[100] Mumtaz F, Bayram IS. Planning, operation, and protection of microgrids: an [135] Transatlantic SUN21. Available: http://www.solarnavigator.net/transatlantic_21.
overview. 3rd international conference on energy and environment research, htm. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
ICEER 2016, 7-11 September 2016, Barcelona, Spain. Energy Procedia 2017;107: [136] Auriga Leader. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auriga_Leader.
94–100. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[101] Lidula N, Rajapakse A. Microgrids research: a review of experimental microgrids [137] Emerald Ace world’s first hybrid car carrier. Available: https://marinelink.com
and test systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:186–202. /news/emerald_carrier-worlds350327.aspx. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
19
[138] Panasonic supplies green energy technology to ‘Emerald Ace’ hybrid car carrier. [174] Houska B, Diehl M. Optimal control of towing kites. In: Proceedings of the 45th
Available: https://news.panasonic.com/global/topics/2012/9428.html. IEEE Conference on Decision & Control; 2006. p. 2693–7.
[Accessed 29 March 2018]. [175] Mander S. Slow steaming and a new dawn for wind propulsion: a multi-level
[139] Solar Sailor. Available: http://www.solarnavigator.net/solar_sSunailor.htm. analysis of two low carbon shipping transitions. Mar Pol 2017;75:210–6.
[Accessed 29 March 2018]. [176] Leloup R, Roncin K, Bles G, Leroux JB, Jochum C, Parlier Y. Kite and classical rig
[140] Available: http://www.weixinnu.com/article/544e7df93d54f0701414ef01. sailing performance comparison on a one design keel boat. Ocean Eng 2014;90:
[Accessed 29 March 2018]. 39–48.
[141] Suntech solar powered ship. Available: http://guangfu.bjx.com.cn/news/2013 [177] Rojon I, Dieperink C. Blowin’ in the wind: drivers and barriers for the uptake of
0624/441632-6.shtml. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. wind propulsion in international shipping. Energy Pol 2014;67:394–402.
[142] COCSCO “Tengfei” solar assisted ship. Available: http://www.eworldship.com/h [178] Introduction of new ships built in Japan sail-assisted motor cargo ships with NK
tml/2017/OperatingShip_0123/124250.html. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. class. Available: http://www.doc88.com/p-1127698514707.html. [Accessed 29
[143] Available: https://news.solarbe.com/201405/05/52404.html. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
March 2018]. [179] Wind propulsion (WP) & wind assist shipping projects (WASP). Available, http
[144] Available: http://www.ship.sh/news_detail.php?nid=12332. [Accessed 29 March ://wind-ship.org/en/wind-propulsion-wp-wind-assist-shipping-projects-wasp/.
2018]. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[145] Sun YW, Yan XP, Yuan CQ, Tang XJ, Qiu YC, Guo C. Application of hybrid [180] Category: Shin Aitoku Maru (ship, 1980). Available: https://commons.wikimedia.
photovoltaic system on 5000 PCTC Ro-Ro ship with integration of stand-alone org/wiki/Category:Shin_Aitoku_Maru_(ship,_1980). [Accessed 29 March 2018].
and grid-connected mode. Navig China 2017;40:26–9. [181] Windstar cruises. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windstar_Cruises.
[146] Sun YW, Yan XP, Yuan CQ, Tang XJ. Application of solar photovoltaic off-grid [Accessed 29 March 2018].
system on inland Ro-Ro car ship. Ship Eng 2016;38:22–6. [182] Atkins DW. The CFD assisted design and experimental testing of a wingsail with
[147] Zaibi M, Champenois G, Roboam X, Belhadj J, Sareni B. Smart power high lift devices [Doctoral thesis]. UK: University of Salford; 1996.
management of a hybrid photovoltaic/wind stand-alone system coupling battery [183] Atkinson G, Nguyen H, Binns J. Considerations regarding the use of rigid sails on
storage and hydraulic network. Math Comput Simulat 2018;146:210–28. modern powered ships. Cogent Eng 2018;5:1543564.
[148] Jordi de la Hoz J, Martin H, Ballart J, Monjo I. Evaluating the approach to reduce [184] Used sailing catamarans similar to Walker Wingsail trimaran Zefyr 43. Available:
the overrun cost of grid connected PV systems for the Spanish electricity sector: https://www.inautia.com/used-boat-71450070140957485752491015610145.ht
performance analysis of the period 2010 to 2012. Appl Energy 2014;121:159–73. ml. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[149] Avril S, Mansilla C, Busson M, Lemaire T. Photovoltaic energy policy: financial [185] E-Ship 1. Available: https://en.wikipeida.org/wiki/E-Ship_1. [Accessed 29 March
estimation and performance comparison of the public support in five 2018].
representative countries. Energy Pol 2012;51:224–58. [186] Norsepower – your provider of auxiliary wind propulsion. Available: http://www.
[150] Dalton GJ, Lockington DA, Baldock TE. Feasibility analysis of renewable energy nor-sepower.com/. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
supply options for a grid-connected large hotel. Renew Energy 2009;34. 995-64. [187] Norsepower rotor sail solution. Available: http://www.norsepower.com/rotor-s
[151] Enslin JHR. Maximum power point tracking: a cost saving necessity in solar ail-solution/Reference%20installation. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
energy systems. IEEE Ind Electron Soc 1990;2:1073–7. [188] Kite-Driven beluga skysail completes 12000 mile journey and proves concept.
[152] Faranda R, Leva S, Maugeri V. MPPT techniques for PV systems: energetic and Available: http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/03/kite-driven-beluga-skysail/.
cost comparison. In: IEEE power and energy society general meeting-conversion [Accessed 29 March 2018].
and delivery of electrical energy in the 21st century; 2008. p. 1–6. [189] Rehmatulla N, Parker S, Smith T, Stulgis V. Wind technologies: opportunities and
[153] Noguchi T, Togashi S, Nakamoto R. Short-current pulse-based maximum-power- barriers to a low carbon shipping industry. Mar Pol 2017;75:217–26.
point tracking method for multiple photovoltaic-and-converter module system. [190] Gerhardt F, Flay RGJ, Richards PJ. Unsteady aerodynamics of two interacting
IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2002;49:217–23. yacht sails in two-dimensional potential flow. J Fluid Mech 2011;668:551–81.
[154] Koutroulis E, Kalaitzakis K, Voulgaris NC. Development of a microcontroller- [191] Fossati F, Muggiasca S. Experimental investigation of sail aerodynamic behavior
based, photovoltaic maximum power point tracking control system. IEEE Trans in dynamic conditions. J Sailboat Tech 2011:1–41.
Power Electron 2001;16:46–54. [192] Fossati F, Muggiasca S. An experimental investigation of unsteady sail
[155] Karami N, Moubayed N, Outbib R. General review and classification of different aerodynamics including sail flexibility. In: Proceedings of the 4th high
MPPT Techniques. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;68:1–18. performance yacht design conference. Auckland: New Zealand; 2012.
[156] Ramesh R, Dhanaseely AJ, Pughazendiran P. Single phase transformer based [193] Li XS, Yang X, Yan XP. Analysis and design of sail angle control of sail-assisted
inverter for nonlinear load application using pi controller. Int J Eng Res Afr 2014; ship. J Transport Inf Safety 2013;168:150–3.
4:86–90. [194] Hu YH, Tang JJ, Xue SY, Liu SW. Stability criterion and its calculation for sail-
[157] Gonzalez R, Gubia E, Lopez J, Marroyo I. Transformerless single-phase multilevel- assisted ship. Ocean Eng 2015;7:1–9.
based photovolatic inverter. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2008;55:2684–702. [195] Bowditch N. The American Practical Navigator: an epitome of navigation. 2002.
[158] Gonzalez R, Lopez J, Sanchis P, Marroyo I. Tranformerless inverter for single- p. 545–56. Bethesda, Maryland.
phase photovoltaic systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2007;22:693–7. [196] Goto H, Hasegawa H, Tanaka M. Weather routing for ships in degraded
[159] Kerekes T, Teodorescu R, Rodriguez P, Vazquez G, Aldabas E. A new high- conditions. In: International symposium on safety, security and environmental
efficiency single-phase transformerless PV inverter topology. IEEE Trans Ind protection; 2007. p. 1–7.
Electron 2011;58:184–91. [197] Li YK, Zhang YJ, Gao ZJ, Yue XW. Optimal routing model for wind-assisted ship.
[160] Talluri L, Nalianda DK, Kyprianidis KG, Nikolaidis T, Pilidis P. Techno-economic In: International conference on mechatronic sciences, electric engineering and
and environmental assessment of wind assisted marine propulsion systems. Ocean computer (MEC); 2013. p. 1567–71.
Eng 2016;121:301–11. [198] Lu J, Wang LM. The research of propulsion system matching calculation of hybrid
[161] Pope K, Dincer I, Naterer GF. Energy and exergy efficiency comparison of diesel and wind propulsion ship. In: International Conference on Mechanic
horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines. Renew Energy 2010;35:2102–13. Automation and Control Engineering; 2010. p. 4085–8.
[162] Doulgeris G, Korakianitis T, Pilidis P, Tsoudis E. Techno-economic and [199] Singh B, Ghosh S, Aich S, Roy B. Low temperature solid oxide electrolytes (LT-
environmental risk analysis for advanced marine propulsion systems. Appl Energy SOE): a review. J Power Sources 2017;339:103–35.
2012;99:1–12. [200] Han JG, Charpentier JF, Tang TH. An energy management system of a fuel cell/
[163] Neil B, MacGregor James R. Wind Eng 1987;11:38–50. battery hybrid boat. Energy 2014;7:2799–820.
[164] Hornblower hybrid. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornblow [201] Kee RJ, Zhu H, Goodwin DG. Solid-oxide fuel cells with hydrocarbon fuels. Proc
er_Hybrid. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. Combust Inst 2015;30:2379–404.
[165] Clayton BR. Wind-assisted ship propulsion. Phys Technol 1987;18. Printed in the [202] Laosiripojana N, Assabumrungrat S. Catalytic steam reforming of methane,
UK. methanol, and ethanol over Ni/YSZ: the possible use of these fuels in internal
[166] Clauss SH, Tampier B. Simulation of the operation of wind-assisted cargo ships. reforming SOFC. J Power Sources 2007;163:943–51.
In: Hauptversammlung der Schiffbautechnischen Gesellshaft, Berlin; 2007. [203] Aguiar P, Adjiman CS, Brandon NP. Anode-supported intermediate temperature
[167] Schlaak M, Kreutzer R, Elsner R. Simulating possible savings of the skysails- direct internal reforming solid oxide fuel cell. I: model-based steady-state
system on international merchant ship fleets. Int J Marit Eng 2009;151:25–37. performance. J Power Sources 2004;138:120–36.
[168] Traut M, Gilbert P, Walsh C, Bows A, Filippone A, Stansby P, Wood R. Propulsive [204] Kickulies M. Fuel cell power for maritime applications. Fuel Cell Bull 2005;9:
power contribution of a kite and a Flettner rotor on selected shipping routes. Appl 12–5.
Energy 2014;113:362–72. [205] Ezgi C, Coban MT, Ö Selvi. Design and thermodynamic analysis of an SOFC
[169] Viola MI, Sacher M, Xu JS, Wang F. A numerical method for the design of ships system for naval surface ship application. J Fuel Cell Sci Technol 2013;10.
with wind-assisted propulsion. Ocean Eng 2015;105:33–42. [206] Alkaner S, Zhou PL. A comparative study on life cycle analysis of molten carbon
[170] Fossati F. Aero-hydrodynamics and the performance of sailing yachts: the science fuel cells and diesel engines for marine application. J Power Sources 2006;158:
behind sailing yachts and their design. Adlard Coles Nautical; 2010. 188–9.
[171] He JH, Hu YH, Tang JJ, Xue SY. Research on sail aerodynamics performance and [207] Gray HB. Powering the planet with solar fuel. Nat Chem 2009. 7-7.
sail-assisted ship stability. J Wind Eng Ind Aerod 2015;146:81–9. [208] Danl S, Chorkendorff I. Solar-fuel generation: towards practical implementation.
[172] Ouchi K, Uzawa K, Kanai A. Huge hard wing sails for the propulsion of next Nat Mater 2012;11:100–1.
generation sailing vessel. In: Proceeding of second international symposium on [209] Vogler F, Würsig G. New developments for maritime fuel cell systems. 18th World
marine propulsion. Hamburg, Germany; 2011. Hydrogen Energy Conference; 2010. p. 445–53.
[173] Naaijen P, Koster V, Dallinga R. On the power savings by an auxiliary kite [210] Garche J, Jörissen L. Applications of fuel cell technology: status and perspectives.
propulsion system. Int Ship build Progr 2006;53:255–79. Electrochem Soc Interface 2015;24:39–43.
20
[211] Otomo J, Oishi J, Mitsumpori T, Iwasaki H, Yamada K. Evaluation of cost [235] Bhattacharjee S, Acharya S. Performative analysis of an eccentric solar-wind
reduction potential for 1kW class SOFC stack production: implications for SOFC combined system for steady power yield. Energy Convers Manag 2016;108:
technology scenario. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2013;38:14337–47. 219–32.
[212] Thijissen J. Solid oxide fuel cells and critical materials: a review of implications. [236] EnergySail. Wind & solar power for low emission shipping. Available: http
US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory; 2011. ://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysail. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[213] Staffell I, Green R. The cost of domestic fuel cell micro-CHP systems. Int J [237] Yan XP, Yuan CQ, Xu L. Clean energy techniques for ships. Notional Defense
Hydrogen Energy 2013;38:1088–102. Industry Press, P. R. China; 2015.
[214] Su CL, Weng XT, Chen CJ. Power generation controls of fuel cell/energy storage [238] Solar Sailor. Available: http://www.solarnavigator.net/solar_sailor.htm.
hybrid ship power systems. In: IEEE conference and expo transportation [Accessed 29 March 2018].
electrification Asia-Pacific (ITEC Asia-Pacific); 2014. p. 1–6. [239] Nema P, Nema RK, Rangnekar S. A current and future state of art development of
[215] United States Naval Ship. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS. hybrid energy system using wind and PV-solar: a review. Renew Sustain Energy
[Accessed 29 March 2018]. Rev 2009;13:2096–103.
[216] Lady Viking. Available: http://vikinglady.no/wp-content/uploads/. [Accessed 29 [240] Nerini FF, Howells M, Bazilian M, Gomez MF. Rural electrification options in the
March 2018]. Brazilian Amazon a multi-criteria analysis. Energy Sustain Dev 2014;20:36–48.
[217] E4ships-Brennstoffzellen im maritimen Einsatz. Available: http://www.e4ships. [241] Domenech B, Ferrer-Martί L, Lillo P, Pastor R, Chiroque J. A community
de/aims-35.html. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. electrification project: combination of microgrids and household systems fed by
[218] Available: http://www.greenoptimistic.com/fcsalsterwasser. [Accessed 29 March wind, PV or microhydro energies according to micro-scale resource evaluation
2018]. and social constraints. Energy Sustain Dev 2014;23:275–85.
[219] USNS Vindicator (T-AGOS-3). Available: https://en.wikipedia. [242] Louie H. Operation analysis of hybrid solar/wind microgrids using measured
org/wiki/USNS_Vindicator_(T-AGOS-3). [Accessed 29 March 2018]. data. Energy Sustain Dev 2016;31:108–17.
[220] Viking Lady offshore supply vessel. Available: http://www.ship-technology. [243] Marine insight. Available: http://www.marineinsight.com. [Accessed 29 March
com/projects/viking-lady/. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. 2018].
[221] Psoma A, Sattler G. Fuel cell systems for submarines: from the first idea to serial [244] Harnessing the sun, the wind and the sea with E/S Orcelle. By kate cummlns 9th
production. J Power Sources 2002;106:381–3. may 2011. Available: https://www.theengineer.co.uk/harnessing-the-sun-th
[222] Serenergy, fischer fuel cells tested in e4ships project in Germany. Available: htt e-wind-and-the-sea-with-es-orcelle/. [Accessed 17 October 2019].
p://www.e4ships.de. [Accessed 29 March 2018]. [245] Soliloquy-Super green superyacht uses Solar Sailor technology. Available:
[223] Choi CH, Yu SJ, Han IS, Kho BK, Kang DG. Development and demonstration of http://www.marinebusinessworld.com/n/Soliloquy:-Super-green-superyacht-
PEM fuel-cell-battery hybrid system for propulsion of tourist boat. Int J Hydrogen uses-Solar-Sailor-technology/61435. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
Energy 2016;41:3591–9. [246] Aquataners. Available: http://www.slideserve.com/trapper/transportation-o
[224] Bassam AM, Phillips AB, Turnock SR, Wilson PA. Development of a multi-scheme f-water-from-kimberley-to-perth-aquatankers. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
energy management strategy for a hybrid fuel cell driven passenger ship. Int J [247] NYK super eco ship 2030, green ship design for the future. Available: https
Hydrogen Energy 2017;42:623–35. ://www.designboom.com/design/nyk-super-eco-ship-2030/. [Accessed 29 March
[225] First yacht with certified fuel cell propulsion. Fuel Cell Bull 2003;12:4–5. 2018].
[226] Hydrogen hybrid canal boat. Green Car Congress. Available: http://www. [248] Eoseas concept cruise ship. Available: http://www.ship-technology.com/project
greencarcongress.com/2007/09/hydrogen-hybrid.html. [Accessed 29 March s/eoseas-concept-cruise-ship/. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
2018]. [249] Greening oil tankers with black magic. Available: http://marine-cafe.com/green
[227] Vogler F, Wursig G. New developments for maritime fuel cell systems. In: 18th ing-oil-tankers-with-black-magic/. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
world hydrogen energy conference. Essen, Germany 16e21 May; 2010. Available: [250] Harnessing the sun, the wind and the sea with E/S Orcelle. Available: https
<http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/ 135685/files/SM3_3_Vogler.pdf>. [accessed ://www.theengineer.co.uk/issues/9-may-2011/harnessing-the-sun-the-wind-and
29 March 2018]. -the-sea-with-es-orcelle/. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
[228] McConnell YP. Now, voyager. The increasing marine use of fuel cells. Fuel Cell [251] World’s first zero emission vessel – E/S Orcelle. Available: http://www.marinein
Bull 2010;5:12–7. sight.com/green-shipping/worlds-first-zero-emission-vessel-es-orcelle. [Accessed
[229] Han JG, Charpentier JF, Tang TH. An energy management system of a fuel cell/ 29 March 2018].
battery hybrid boat. Energy 2014;7:2799–820. [252] File: E/S Orcelle. Jpg. Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
[230] Kim S, Shimpalee S, Van Zee JW. The effect of stoichiometry on dynamic behavior E_S_Orcelle.jpg. [Accessed 29 March 2018].
of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during load changes. J Power [253] Kumar V, Shrivastava RL, Untawale SP. Solar energy: review of potential green &
Sources 2004;135:110–21. clean energy for coastal and offshore applications. Aquatic Procedia 2015;4:
[231] Saheb KD, Koussa M, Haddadi M, Belhamel M. Hybrid options analysis for power 473–80.
systems for rural electrification in Algeria. Energy Procedia 2011;6:750–8. [254] Han JG, Charpentier JF, Tang TH. State of the art of fuel cells for ship
[232] Belmili H, Haddadi M, Bacha S, Almi MF. Sizing stand-alone photovoltaic-wind applications. In: IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics; 2012.
hybrid system: techno-economic analysis and optimization. Renew Sustain [255] Bhattacharjee S, Acharya S. Performative analysis of an eccentric solar-wind
Energy Rev 2014;30:821–32. combined system for steady power yield. Energy Convers Manag 2016;108:
[233] Ahmadi S, Abdi S. Application of the Hybrid Big Bang-Big Crunch algorithm for 219–32.
optimal sizing of a stand-alone hybrid PV/wind/battery system. Sol Energy 2016; [256] Eltawil MA, Zhao ZM. Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: technical and
134:366–74. potential problems – a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:112–29.
[234] Li Z, Reynolds A, Boyle F. Domestic integration of micro-renewable electricity [257] Abdin Z, Webb CJ, Gray EM. Solar hydrogen hybrid energy systems for off-grid
generation in Ireland-the current status and economic reality. Renew Energy electricity supply: a critical review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;52:
2014;64:244–54. 1791–808.
[258] Obi M, Bass R. Trends and challenges of grid-connected photovoltaic systems – a
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;58:1082–94.
21

Pan 2021

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pan 2021

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pan 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 144 (2021) 111048

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Research progress on ship power systems integrated with new energy

1. Introduction current near-total reliance on fossil fuels.

Fig. 1. Structure of a typical PV generation system.

Fig. 2. The block diagram of a typical stand-alone PV generation system.

Fig. 3. The block diagram of a typical grid-connected PV generation system.

Fig. 4. The block diagram of a typical hybrid PV generation system.

Fig. 5. Typical structure of the wind power generation system.

Fig. 6. Three primary types of wind turbine [39].

3. Common core technologies associated with new energy ships

operation mode from grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode. In

Electrical power generation in the

Power generation, cogeneration

Transportation, stationary and

Cogeneration and centralized

portable power generation

encouraging future researches for their potential development

Slow start-up, rigorous material

there are some important differences. Firstly, comparing a ship power

Low cell voltage, low power

Slow start-up, corrosion of

system’s safety with terrestrial power systems, its reliability must be

thus a number of specialist fields that need to be drawn upon, including

network design regarding transmission and distribution, approaches to

power systems is how to facilitate integrated power control when there

flexibility and inexpensive catalyst

High electrical efficiencies, fuel

High electrical efficiencies, fuel

easy fuel storage and delivery

managed in a limited space [106]. As a result, the concepts and tech­

simple water and thermal

nologies related to terrestrial microgrids cannot be directly applied to

ship power systems. It is thus critical to establish an appropriate ship

microgrid when new energy sources are introduced.

conventional power systems. They are very sensitive to any variations

because their small inertia will result in degradation in power quality

formance of the microgrid, an ESS needs to not only respond quickly to

sufficient power density to respond to power fluctuations and a higher

energy density to supply uninterrupted and stable power to the micro­

H2, natural gas,

combine two or more heterogeneous storage devices together to create a

insufficient over a longer period of time. Hemmati et al. [44] reviewed

HESSes’ hybridization theories, structures, power electronics interface

architectures, operating and control strategies. To match the capacity of

new energy generation systems, being individually large and heavy,

fore, an optimization problem presents itself in how to use new energy

sources effectively and allocate suitable capacity to a HESS whilst

on the HESS capacity allocation optimization based on intelligent al­

gorithms is available, such as Genetic Algorithm (GA) [110], combined

tion algorithm [112,113].

Fig. 8. Block diagram of a simplified structure for the typical microgrid.

Fig. 9. Solar-powered ships.

Fig. 10. The ocean-going solar-powered car carrier – “Tengfei” (COSCO).

however, the VAWT is more suitable to be used to exploit wind energy

Fig. 12. “Hornblower Hybrid” ship [164].

Fig. 13. Rectangular sail ships [180].

Fig. 14. Triangular Sail ships [181].

managed in a limited space [106]. As a result, the concepts and tech

energy density to supply uninterrupted and stable power to the micro

on the HESS capacity allocation optimization based on intelligent al