Visual Inspection S5

For visual inspection, adequate lighting i.e. about 800-1000 lux is of prime importance.
1ne period of time during which a human inspector is permittedto work should be limited
to not more than 2 hours on continuous basis to avoid errors due to decrease in vIsUal
reliability and discrimination.
2.2.1 Defects Which can be Detected by Unaided Visual Inspection
Visual inspection of acomponent by an experienced inspector can reveal the following
information:

a) the general condition of the component, b the presence or absence of oxide film or
corrosive product on the surface, (eY the presence or absence of cracks, orientation of cracks
and position of cracks relative to the various zones in the case of welds, (d) the surface
porosity, unfilled craters, contour of the weld beads, and the probable orientation of the
interface between the fused weld bead and the adjoining parent metal, (e) potential sources
of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or misalignment ete. and () the results of
visual examination may be of great assistance to other tests.
2.3 OPTICAL AIDS USED FOR VISUAL INSPECTION
The use of optical instruments in visual inspection is beneficialand is recommended to (a)
magnify defects that cannot be detected by the unaided eye and (b) permit visual checks of
areas not accessible to the unaided eye. In performing visual/optical checks, it is of utmost
importance to know the type of defects that may develop and to recognize the areas where
such failures may occur. Magnifying devices and lighting aids should be used wherever
appropriate. The general area should bechecked for cleanliness, presence of foreign objects,
corrosion and damage. In many cases, area to be inspected should be cleaned before examination.
2.3.1 Microscope
Anoptical microscope is acombination of lenses used to magnify the image of a small
object. The object is placed close to the lens to obtain as high amagnification as possible.
The distance from lens to object is adjusted until the object is at the depth of field of the lens
and is in focus.
The simplest form of a microscope is a single converging lens, often referred to as a
simple magnifier. Magnification (M) of asingle lens is determined by the equation M=10/.
In this equation,fis the focal length of the lens and 10 is a constant that represents the
average minimum distance at which objects can be distinctly seen by the unaided eye. Using
said
the equation M = 10/f, a lens with a focal length of 5" has a magnification of two or is
working distance
to be atwo-power lens (2x). The focal length of a simple magnifier and itsthe magnifier. The
are approximately the same. The field of view is the area seen through
diameter of the field of view of a simple magnifier is less than its focal length. Selection of
a magnifier with the proper
fieeld of view is important. For example, if alarge object
view
is to be
sliobel
power magnifier (with a field of
examined, the time involved using a20
Rrooter than 9.5 mm) would be prohibitive. l ne proper procedure is to first use a low- power
in detail witkh
maonifier, marking questionable areas, and then examine the suspected areas
a higher-powered magnifier.
used to indicate the distancea magnifier can be moved towards
Depth of field is the term defined) At os
or away from a subjectwith the subject remaining in good focus (sharply
 Testing
6 Practical Non-Destructive
and not sharply defined. Depth of field varies with th
distances, the subject is out of focus magnitiers, decreasing as the
in lower-power
power of the lens and is comparatively greater
power of the lens increases. detected more easily with
a surface can be
Minute defects and details of finestructure on
aid of microscope. The practical upper limit of the magnifying power of a simple
the microscopes are used to evaluate with respect to
microscope is in the regionof 10x. Optical microscope having a magnification
shape and orientation of cracks. In the first case a low power 100 to 500x is used, and in the
of 2 to 20x is used, in the second case a
magnification of
needed.
latter case a magnificationof 1500 to 2000x is
2.3.2 Borescope
As the name implies, a Borescope is an instrument designed to enable an observer to
inspect
the inside of a narrOw tube, bore, or chamber. Borescope consists of precision built-in
illumination system having a complex arrangement of prisms and plain lenses through
which light is passed to the observer with maximum efficiency. The light source located in
front or ahead of the object lens provides illumination for the part being examined. As the
length of the borescope is increased, the image becomes less bright because of loss of light.
Borescopes are available in numerous models from 2.5 to 19 mm in diameter anda few
meters in length. Generally, the diameter of the borescope depends upon the diameter of the
hole or bore to be inspected. The length of the borescope is governed by the distance
between the available access and the distance to the inspection area. Optical systems are
generally designed to provide direct, right-angle, retrospective and oblique vision. The
choice of the inspection angle is determined by flaw type and location. In most borescopes,
the observed visual area is approximately 25 mm in diameter at 25 mm distance from the
object. The size of the visual field usually varies with the diameter, for a given magnification
system.

2.3.3 Endoscope
The endoscope is much like a borescope except that it has a superior optical system and a
high-intensity light source. Various viewing angles, as discussed in the case of
can be used. A unique feature of endoscope is that objects are constantly in focus Borescope,
4 mm to infinity. Actually, when the tip is about 4 mm from from about
the surface being inspected, a
magnification factor of about 10x is achieved. The 'no-focussing' feature of the endoscope
makes it much easier to use than a borescope, which needs to be focused at the inspection area.
Endoscopes are available in diameters down to 1.7 mm and in lengths from 100 to 1500 mm.
2.3.4 Flexible Fibre-Optic Borescope (Flexiscope)
Flexible fibre-optic borescopes permit manipulation of the
through passages with several directional changes. Woven instrument around corners and
the image relay bundle during repeated stainless steel sheathing protects
flexing
toprovide sharp and clear images of parts and and maneuvering.These devices are designed
interior surfaces that are
the viewer to thread the normally impossible
to inspect. Remote end-tip
deflection allows
complex and series of bends. The end tip is
deflected by using a
fiberoscope through
mounted on the handle. Most of the devices have a rotating control mechanism
a100 degree field of view wide-angle
and tip deflection of 90°. They all objective lens that provides
bundle and are equipped with a focus control to have a fibre-optic image
bring the subject into sharp focus over a
 Visual Inspection 7

wide range of viewing distances. The working lengths are normally from 60 to 365 cm. with
diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm.

2.3.5 Telescope
Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable distance from the
eye. It is particularly useful for providing visualexamination of the surface which is otherwise
inaccessible. It consists, essentially, of two lenses (or lens systems) called the objective and
eye piece. The telescope can be used in conjunction with a periscope for viewing a coFcealed
surface. But, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is al[o used for the purpose.
2.3.6 Holography
three-dimensional
Holography is the name given to the method of obtaining an accurate
a permanent record
image of a given object. The process is carried out in two stages. First,photographic plate by
a
in the form of a two dimensional interference pattern is obtained onfrom
obtained the two dimensional
means of a laser beam. The three dimensional image is then
having a high definition and free from
record, again using a laser. In this way, a picturecamera.
aberrations can be obtained without the use of a
and precision components
Holography is used for the NDT of surfaces of highly complicated
microscope. In a simple operation,
without the disadvantages of having to use a high-powerentire surface which can be readily
image of an
a hologram can provide a record of the free surface.
compared with that of a standard defect
2.4 APPLICATIONS
etc.
Inspection of plant systems/component for any leakage, abnormal operation
(a)
(b) Misalignment of parts in the equipments.
cracks, fracture etc.
(c) Corrosion, erosion, weldments such as gross surface cracks, lack of
penetration,
(d) Defects in the new/repaired
excess reinforcements, porosities, mismatch etc.
tear cracks,
with the help of optical aids in pumps, compressors, turbogenerator
(e) Minute discontinuities
parts, instruments etc.