Computer

architecture

The central processing unit (CPU) is

central to all modern computer systems.
The CPU is very often installed as an
integrated circuit on a single microchip.
The CPU has the responsibility for the
execution or processing of all the
instructions and data in a computer
application.
CPU consists of:
» control unit (CU)
» arithmetic and logic unit
 Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
• The Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU) allows the
required arithmetic (e.g. +, - and shifting) or
logic (e.g. AND, OR) operations to be carried

ALU & CU
out while a program is being run.
Control Unit (CU)
• The control unit supervises all the activities
performed by the CPU. It uses control bus to
send signals.
Registers
• Registers are a type of computer memory built directly into the
processor or CPU (Central Processing Unit) that is used to store and
manipulate data during the execution of instructions.
• A register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any kind of
data
Types of
Registers
System buses and its types
System Bus: (System) buses are used in
computers as parallel transmission components;
each wire in the bus transmits one bit of data.

Types of Buses:

Address bus

Data bus

Control bus
Types of Buses
Address bus
• The address bus carries addresses throughout the computer system.
• Between the CPU and memory, the address bus is unidirectional.
Data bus
• The data bus is bidirectional .
• This means data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice
versa) and to and from input/output devices.
Control bus
• The control bus is also bidirectional.
• It carries signals from the control unit (CU) to all the other computer
components.
 Fetch
execute
cycle
Factors need to Increasing
bus width
Increasing
clock speed
be taken into
account when
considering Altering bus Use of cache
width, clock memories can
computer speed and also speed up
use of multi- a CPU’s
performance. core CPUs performance
 Embedded systems
Def: An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out a specific set of functions.
Benefits and drawbacks of Embedded systems
Input and Output
Devices

The devices used to take input in a computer system

is known as input devices.
For example:
• Mouse
• Keyboard
• Scanner
The devices used to take output from a computer
system is known as output devices.
• Printer
• Monitor
• Speakers
Barcode scanners
(readers)
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
varying thickness. The numbers 0 to 9 are each
represented by a unique series of lines.
Process of barcode scanning
• the barcode is first of all read by a red laser or red
LED
• light is reflected back off the barcode; the dark areas
reflect little or no light, which allows the bars to be
read
• the reflected light is read by sensors
• a pattern is generated, which is converted into digital
data
Keyboards
These are used as the input devices on
computers, tablets, mobile phones and
many other electronic items.
Disadvantages:
• They are a relatively slow method of
data entry and are also prone to errors,
• frequent use of these devices can lead
to injuries, such as repetitive strain
injury (RSI)
• Solution: Ergonomic keyboards can
help to overcome this problem
Microphones

• A microphone is a device that translates

sound vibrations in the air into
electronic signals.
• Many types of audio recording devices
for purposes including communications
of many kinds, as well as music vocals,
speech and sound recording.
Optical mouse
An optical mouse is an example
of a pointing device. It uses tiny
cameras to take 1500 images per
second.
Benefits of an optical mouse
over a mechanical mouse
• There are no moving parts,
therefore it is more reliable.
• Dirt can’t get trapped in any of
the mechanical components.
• » There is no need to have any
special surfaces.
2D scanners

These types of scanner are the most

common form and are generally used to
input hard copy (paper) documents.
The image is converted into an electronic
form that can be stored in a computer.
Applications:
• Facial recognition
• Official documentation
3D scanners

3D scanners scan solid objects and produce a

three-dimensional image.
• A digital image which represents the solid
object is formed.
• The scanned images can be used in
computer aided design (CAD) or, more
recently, sent to a 3D printer
Applications of 3D scanner
• Prosthetics limbs
• Vintage car parts
• Facial surgery
• MRI
Touchscreens

Touch screens allow the user to carry out the

same functions as they would with a pointing
device, such as a mouse.
There are three common types of touch
screen technologies
» capacitive
» infrared
» resistive
Capacitive touch
screens (Working)
Capacitive touch screens are composed
of a layer of glass (protective layer), a
transparent electrode (conductive) layer
and a glass substrate .
When bare fingers (or a special stylus)
touch the screen, the electrostatic field of
the conductive layer is changed.
The installed microcontroller is able to
calculate where this change took place
and hence determine the coordinates of
the point of touching.
Advantages and
disadvantage of Advantages compared to the » Disadvantages compared to

capacitive other two technologies the other two technologies

touchscreens Better image clarity than resistive

screens, especially in strong
Surface capacitive screens only
work with bare fingers or a
sunlight special stylus

Very durable screens that have high They are sensitive to electromagnetic
scratch resistance and allow multi- radiation (such as magnetic fields or
touch. microwaves).
Infrared touch screens

• Infrared touch screens use a glass screen with an array of

sensors and infrared transmitters.
• The sensors detect the infrared radiation. If any of the infrared
beams are broken (for example, with a finger touching the
screen), the infrared radiation reaching the sensors is reduced.
• The sensor readings are sent to a microcontroller that
calculates where the screen was touched.
Advantages and
disadvantage of
Infarred touchscreens

Advantages
• Allows multi-touch facilities
• Has good screen durability
• The operability isn’t affected by a scratched or
cracked screen.
Disadvantages
• The screen can be sensitive to water or
moisture
• It is possible for accidental activation to take
place if the infrared beams are disturbed in
some way
• Sometimes sensitive to light interference.
Resistive touch
screens

• Resistive touch screens are made up of two layers of

electrically resistive material with a voltage applied
across them.
• The upper layer is made of flexible polyethylene (a
type of polymer) with a resistive coating on one side
• The bottom layer is made of glass also with a
resistive coating (usually indium tin oxide) on one
side.
• When the top polyethylene surface is touched, the
two layers make contact. Since both layers are
coated in a resistive material a circuit is now
completed which results in a flow of electricity.
Advantages and disadvantage of Resistive
touchscreens
Advantages compared to the other two technologies
Good resistance to dust and water
Can be used with bare fingers, stylus and gloved hand.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
Low touch sensitivity (sometimes have to press down harder)
Doesn’t support multi-touch facility
Poor visibility in strong sunlight
Vulnerable to scratches on the screen (made of polymer).
Light projectors

Projectors are used to project computer

output onto larger screens or even onto
interactive whiteboards.
They are often used in presentations and in
multimedia applications.
There are two common types of light
projector:
• digital light projector (DLP)
• liquid crystal display (LCD) projector.
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are essentially made up of:
• a print head, which consists of nozzles that spray
droplets of ink onto the paper to form characters
• an ink cartridge or cartridges; either one cartridge
for each colour (blue, yellow and magenta) and a
black cartridge or one single cartridge containing
all three colours + black (Note: some systems use
six colours)
• a stepper motor and belt, which moves the print
head assembly across the page from side to side
• a paper feed, which automatically feeds the printer
with pages as they are required.
 Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than
liquid ink and make use of the properties of
static electricity to produce the text and images.

Laser Colour laser printers use 4 toner cartridges –

blue, cyan, magenta and black.
printers
Although the actual technology is different to
monochrome printers, the printing method is
similar but coloured dots are used to build up the
text and images.
Applications of inkjet and laser
printers

• Inkjet printer – inkjet printers are often used for printing one-off photos or where
only a few pages of good quality, colour printing is needed; the small ink
cartridges or small paper trays would not be an issue with such applications.
• Laser printer – these devices produce high quality printouts and are very fast
when making multiple copies of a document;
• any application that needs high volume printing (in colour or monochrome) would
choose the laser printer (for example, producing a large number of high-quality
flyers or posters for advertising).
• Laser printers have two advantages: they have large toner cartridges and large
paper trays (often holding more than a ream of paper).
3D printers

• 3D printers are used to produce

solid objects that actually work.
• They are primarily based on
inkjet and laser printer
technology.
• The solid object is built up layer
by layer using materials such
as: powdered resin, powdered
metal, paper or ceramic.
Uses of 3D
printing

• the covering of prosthetic limbs can

be made to exactly fit the limb
• making items to allow precision
reconstructive surgery
• in aerospace, manufacturers are
looking at making wings and other
parts using 3D technology
• fashion and art – 3D printing allows
new creative ideas to be developed
• making parts for items no longer in
production e.g. suspension parts
for a vintage car.
LED & LCD screens
LED Screens
• An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes
(LEDs). Each LED is either red, green or blue in colour.
• By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its
brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of
colours.
• This type of screen tends to be used for large outdoor
displays due to the brilliance of the colours produced.
LCD Screens
• LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals.
• These tiny crystals make up an array of pixels that are
affected by changes in applied electric fields
 Advantages of LED Screens
• LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately
• LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes the colours appear more vivid
• LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the colour definition
• LEDs last indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and makes for a more consistent
product
• LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as using less energy.
(Loud) speakers

• Loudspeakers are output devices that

produce sound. When connected to a
computer system, digitised sound
stored on a file needs to be converted
into sound.
Sensors

Sensors are input devices which read or

measure physical properties from their
surroundings.
Examples include temperature, pressure,
acidity level and length (there are many
others).
 Process of
Monitoring
and control
system
 Examples of monitoring and control systems
Examples of monitoring
Monitoring of a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature,etc.
Monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
Checking the temperature levels in a car engine
Monitoring pollution levels in a river.
Examples of control
Turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
Controlling the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system
Chemical process control (for example, maintaining temperature and pH of process
Data storage
Memory and storage devices can be
split up into two distinct groups:
• primary memory
• secondary storage.
Primary memory
Features of RAM include:
• can be written to or read from, and the data can be changed by
the user or the computer (i.e. it is a temporary memory)
• used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the
operating system currently in use
• it is volatile, which means memory contents are lost when
powering off the computer.
Types of RAM
Read-only memory
(ROM)

• ROM chips have the following features:

• they are non-volatile (the contents are
not lost after powering off the
computer)
• they are permanent memories
• the contents can only be read
• they are often used to store data that
the computer needs to access when
powering up for the first time
• these are known as the start-up
instructions (or bootstrap)
Secondary and off-line storage

Secondary (and off-line) storage includes storage devices that are

not directly addressable by the CPU.

They are non-volatile devices that allow data to be stored as long as

required by the user.

This type of storage can store more data than primary memory, but
data access time is considerably longer than with RAM or ROM.
Magnetic storage
(Hard disk drive)

• Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic

surfaces of the disks.
• The hard disk drive will have a number of platters that
can spin at about 7000 times a second.
• Read-write heads consist of electromagnets that are
used to read data from or write data to the platters.
• A number of read-write heads can access all of the
surfaces of the platters in the disk drive.
• These read-write heads can move very quickly –
typically they can move from the centre of the disk to
the edge of the disk (and back again) 50 times a
second.
Solid state drives (SSD)
Latency is an issue in HDDs as described earlier.

Solid state drives (SSD) remove this issue considerably since they have no moving parts

They don’t rely on magnetic properties;

the most common type of solid state storage devices store data by controlling the movement of
electrons within NAND or NOR chips.

The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors

 they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

they are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for

laptops)

Benefits of they don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly

SSD over they have a lower power consumption

Hard Disk they run much cooler than HDDs

because of no moving parts, they are very thin

data access is considerably faster than HDD.

Drawback of SSD

• The main drawback of SSD is still the

longevity of the technology.
• Most solid state storage devices are
conservatively rated at only 20 GB of write
operations per day over a three year period
this is known as SSD endurance.
• For this reason, SSD technology is still not
used in all servers, for example, where a
huge number of write operations take place
every day.
Optical media
CD/DVD disks
CDs and DVDs are described as optical storage devices. Laser light
is used to read and write data to and from the surface of the disk.
Principles and operations of CD/DVD
• Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-
sensitive organic dye to store the data.
• both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre
of the disk to the edge.
• When a disk spins, the optical head moves to the point where the
laser beam ‘contacts’ the disk surface and follows the spiral track
from the centre outwards.
• As with a HDD, a CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing direct
access to data.
Optical Media

Blu-ray disks
• a blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used
to carry out read and write operations
• using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’
and ‘lands’ can be much smaller;
• Blu-ray can store up to five times more data
than normal DVD
• Blu-ray disks automatically come with a
secure encryption system that helps to
prevent piracy and copyright infringement
Virtual memory
Problems without Virtual memory
One of the problems associated with memory management is the
case when processes run out of RAM.
If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple
programs running, it is likely to cause a system crash.
This can be solved by utilising the hard disk drive (or SSD) if we
need more memory.
This is the basis behind virtual memory. Essentially RAM is the
physical memory, while virtual memory is RAM + swap space on
the hard disk or SSD.
 • Suppose we have five programs (numbered 0 to 4) that are
Without virtual in memory, all requiring access to RAM. The first diagram
shows what would happen without virtual memory being
memory used (i.e. the computer would run out of RAM memory
space):
 We will now consider what happens if the CPU uses virtual

With virtual memory to allow all five programs to access RAM as

required. This will require moving data out of RAM into

memory
HDD/SSD and then allowing other data to be moved out of
HDD/SSD into RAM
Benefits of using Virtual
Memory

The main benefits of virtual memory are:

• programs can be larger than physical
memory and still be executed
• there is no need to waste memory with data
that isn’t being used
• it reduces the need to buy and install more
expensive RAM memory
Cloud storage
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored
on remote servers. The same data is stored on more than one
server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to
access data at any time.
There are three common systems:
• Public Cloud
• Private cloud
• Hybrid cloud
Benefits and drawbacks of cloud storage
Network Hardware

• Network Interface Card: A network

interface card (NIC) is a hardware
component, typically a circuit board
or chip, installed on a computer so it
can connect to a network.
• Router: guide and direct network
data, using packets that contain
various kinds of data—such as files,
communications, and simple
transmissions like web interactions.
Media access control (MAC)
A MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown
as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the general
format:
• For example, 00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 – FF where the
first six hex digits identify the device as made by, for
example, Apple and the second set of six hex digits
are the serial number of the device itself (this is
unique).
• If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also
change.
IP Address
Definition: An IP address is a unique address that identifies a
device on the internet or a local network.
IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local
network.
There are two versions of IP:
• IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as four
groups of eight bits (shown in denary format); for example,
• 254.25.28.77
features of MAC addresses and IP addresses