THE BEGINNING of an AMERICAN

IDENTITY
SHAPING the AMERICAN MIND:
● The new federal AMERICAN REPUBLIC, established after the
AMERICAN WAR of INDEPENDENCE, grew as a nation in the 19th
century, expanding its territory from the ATLANTIC to the PACIFIC
OCEAN. It developed a unique American IDENTITY that also found
its original expression in literature and in the ARTS.
● PURITANISM was one of the important cultural factors that helped
shape the AMERICAN MIND. It was the religious faith of the first
settlers in the 17th century, the PILGRIM FATHERS, who
encouraged the SPIRIT of ADVENTURE in the name of liberty and
emphasised the ethic of hard work to improve each individual's
social and financial situation.
● As the 18th century progressed, more and more immigrants from
all over EUROPE moved to AMERICA and settled in thirteen
different colonies along the ATLANTIC COAST. This was fast
becoming a 'MELTING POT’, where different races were brought
together and were eventually to shape the new 'AMERICAN.’
● The development of the AMERICAN MIND was also influenced by
faith in reason and HUMAN PROGRESS (the NATURAL
RESOURCES were fully exploited and FINANCIAL EMPIRES were
created by men who rose from nothing like JOHN ROCKFELLER).
The belief that man's own efforts can lead him to success was the
most important element of the so-called 'AMERICAN DREAM’ that
made a man who went from RAGS to RICHES.
● The spirit of democracy and the idea of JUSTICE and EQUALITY
were brought about by the WAR of INDEPENDENCE, where victory
saw the birth of a new NATION.
● Though still influenced by EUROPEAN TRADITIONS and
MANNERS, the new cultural image of America began to take
shape.
● It was dominated by two FORCES.
1. The first was the EAST COAST, with the academic influence of the
universities of HARVARD and YALE, and the business and cultural
centre of NEW YORK, with its values of wealth and respectability.
2. The second force came from the idea of the as-yet UNDEVELOPED
WEST, characterised by the PIONEER SPIRIT that was encouraged
by the discovery of GOLD in CALIFORNIA (THE GOLD RUSH), the
myth of the frontier, the country's endless possibilities, the
COWBOYS seen like the new western symbols, the extermination of
BUFFALOES and the STARVATION of the AMERICAN INDIANS.
● Truly American characteristics began to emerge in the 19th
century, especially in PROSE. The short story became a distinctive
form, mastered by EDGAR ALLAN POE (1809-1849), while James
Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) created the 'EPIC’ of the frontier in
his NOVELS.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

● Political tension in AMERICA grew from the ECONOMIC
DIFFERENCES between the NORTHERN and SOUTHERN
STATES:
1. While the NORTH was INDUSTRIALISED
2. the economy of the SOUTH was still based on the VAST
PLANTATIONS of TOBACCO and COTTON dependent on
SLAVERY.
● There was also a huge difference in the POPULATION between the
NORTH and the SOUTH:
1. The WHITE POPULATION in the NORTH increased rapidly due to
the IMMIGRANTS from EUROPE, who brought their LANGUAGES
and CUSTOMS, so it was becoming URBANISED and open to new
COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES
2. whereas in the SOUTH there were fewer CITIES and about four
million BLACK SLAVES. So it was based on a rigidly divided CLASS
SYSTEM, with the ARISTOCRACY of the PLANTATION owners still
linked to the OLD VALUES of GALLANTRY and HONOUR.
● SLAVERY was an important issue. After the 1830s several
NORTHERN STATES had adopted EMANCIPATION, while the
international demand for COTTON meant the ECONOMY of the
SOUTH continued to rely on SLAVE LABOUR.
● NORTHERN ABOLITIONIST, who included WRITERS,
INTELLECTUALS and RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS, began to
organise themselves into a POLITICAL MOVEMENT.
● The REPUBLICAN PARTY arose from what had formerly been the
WHIG PARTY, and demanded that slavery be excluded from all
TERRITORIES of the UNION.
● When their candidate ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1809-1865) won the
presidential election in 1860, eleven SOUTHERN STATES seceded
from the UNION and formed the CONFEDERATE STATES of
AMERICA, under the presidency of JEFFERSON DAVIS from 1861
to 1865. The right to secede was denied by LINCOLN, supported by
a majority of NORTHERNERS, and the CIVIL WAR starts in 1861.
 ● It lasted FOUR EARS and ended in 1865 with a NORTHERN
VICTORY but five days after its end, PRESIDENT LINCOLN was
assassinated by a SOUTHERN FANATIC.
● The poet WALT WHITMAN wrote “O Captain! My Captain!”
reflecting the EMOTIONAL IMPACT of the DEATH and showing
how important LINCOLN’S LEADERSHIP had been.
● The northern victory in the Civil War meant the USA would remain
INDIVISIBLE with a SOVEREIGN NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.
● It also formally ended the INSTITUTION of SLAVERY in the 13th
AMENDMENT to the CONSTITUTION in 1865. ——-> The slaves
officially gained their FREEDOM but had no ECONOMIC
SECURITY, and EQUALITY was to prove a long and difficult
BATTLE.

AMERICAN RENAISSANCE and

TRANSCENDENTALISM
AMERICAN RENAISSANCE:
● The term 'AMERICAN RENAISSANCE’ refers to the literary and
cultural period from the 1830s to the end of the AMERICAN CIVIL
WAR (1865). IT originated in NEW ENGLAND, in north-eastern
United State.
● The name did not indicate the rebirth of something so much at the
beginning of a TRULY AMERICAN LITERATURE, with themes and
a style of its own and it was a REACTION against the PURITAN
DOCTRINE.
● the new flourishing of AMERICAN LITERATURE was the
publication of:
1. “The scarlet letter” of NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE
2. “Moby-Dick” of HERMAN MELVILLE
TRANSCENDENTALISM:
● RALPH WALDO EMERSON was the creator of the philosophy
called TRANSCENDENTALISM in his essay “Nature” (1836)
provided new perspectives on JUSTICE, SPIRITUALITY and the
ENVIRONMENT.
● This philosophy was influenced by ROMANTICISM, GERMAN
IDEALISM, POLITICAL LIBERALISM, EASTERN MYSTICISM by
combined in a new AMERICAN WAY
● It led the Americans to a new quest for IDENTITY and a deeper
UNDERSTANDING of the UNIVERSE.
● It had a DEEP SOCIAL, POLITICAL and ECONOMIC impact,
eventually developing into the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT and
modern ENVIRONMENTALISM.
 ● These were the KEY IDEAS of Transcendentalism:
1. humans possessed innate GOODNESS.
2. all reality was seen as a SINGLE UNITY, where ONENESS and
MULTIPLICITY were the same thing. This idea well suited the
reality of the 'MELTING POT’, of a country where people from all
over the world formed a NATIONAL UNITY.
3. Contact with NATURE was the best means to obtain truth and the
awareness of the unity of all THINGS.
4. NATURE was a source of BEAUTY and SYMBOLIC IMAGES
5. There was SUPREMACY of insight over LOGIC and over the NESD
for experience to understand the DEEPEST TRUTHS.
6. The 'OVER-SOUL’ was the spiritual principle linking everything
TOGETHER.
7. Man was the EMANATION of the OVER-SOUL, and the emphasis
lay on his INDIVIDUALITY and on his SELF-EDUCATION.
8. This philosophy encouraged OPTIMISM and SELF-RELIANCE. It
praised REFLECTION and INTUITION, and believed in the power
of human consciousness to discover ETERNAL TRUTHS in the
NATURAL WORLD.
9. praised mankind ability to TRANSCEND the mortal world through
REFLECTION and INTUITION
10. belief in the POWER of HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS to
discover eternal TRUTHS in the NATURAL WORLD
● The most faithful follower of EMERSON’S THEORIES was his
friend HENRY DAVID THOUREAU(1817-1862), who published
“Walden”, or “Life in the Woods” (1854). In this work he described
the two years he had lived in a HUT in the WOODS near WALDEN
POND, MASSACHUSETTS, and his thoughts and experiences after
leaving society to live a HUMBLE LIFE in the wilderness. Thoreau
also wrote an ESSAY, “Civil Disobedience” (1849), where he stated
his belief in the individual's right to resist the POWER and the
LAWS of the state when they were in CONFLICT with his own
HONEST CONVICTIONS. This idea of NON-VIOLENT
RESISTANCE to authority influenced many thinkers and political
activists of the 20th century, from MAHATMA GANDHI to MARTIN
LUTHER KING, as well as the demonstrators against the VIETNAM
WAR in the SIXTIES.

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE
HIS LIFE:
● Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS, in
1804. His PURITAN ANCESTORS had settled there during the 17t
 century and had been directly involved in some of the TOWN’S
MAIN HISTORICAL EVENTS, including the infamous witch TRIALS
of 1692.
● Hawthorne lost his father at the AGE of FOUR and spent the early
years of his life in DOMESTIC SECLUSION because of his POOR
HEALTH.
● After attending BOWDOIN COLLEGE in MAINE, he returned to
SALEM and in 1828 he published his first NOVEL, “Fanshawe”,
that he later REJECTED.
● He also started to write SHORT STORIES about the MORAL
CONFLICT imposed by the PURITAN CODE, which were collected
in “Twice-Told Tales” (1837) and “Mosses from an Old Manse”
(1846).
● His ALLEGORICAL STORIES focused on the theme the MORAL
CONFLICTS imposed by the PURITAN CODE and gained him a
LOCAL REPUTATION.
● However, the MONEY he earned was not enough to live on, so he
got a JOB in the BOSTON CUSTOM HOUSE, which enabled him to
marry SOPHIA PEABODY in 1842, and to go on WRITING.
● For a while Hawthorne and his wife lived in CONCORD, which was
then a lively INTELLECTUAL CENTRE due to the presence of the
TRANSCENDENTALIST THINKERS EMERSO and THOREAU.
● FINANCIAL PROBLEMS forced Hawthorne to return to SALEM,
were he took up a job at the CUSTOM HOUSE in 1846.
● His masterpiece, “The Scarlet Letter”, appeared in 1850, followed
the next year by “The House of the Seven Gables” and by “The
Blithedale Romance” in 1852.
● Now famous, Hawthorne wrote a CAMPAIGN BIOGRAPHY for his
old college friend, FRANKLIN PIERCE, who won the presidential
elections in 1852.
● Hawthorne was appointed US CONSUL in LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND.
● After four years he resigned his consulship and travelled to
FRANCE and ITALY. His novel “The Marble Faun” (1860) was
written and set in ITALY.
● He spent his last years in CONCORD. He worked on three further
NOVELS but his CREATIVITY declined and he left them
UNFINISHED. He died in 1864.

THE SCARLET LETTER

PLOT:
● HESTER PRYNNE is a young woman in 17 th century Puritan New England.
She is sent to Boston, Massachusetts, by her husband, ROGER
CHILLINGWORTG, an English scholar, who will join her later. Once there, she
 has a love affair with the young REVEREND ARTHUR DIMMESDALE and
gives birth to a daughter, PEARL. She is publicly disgraced for committing
adultery and condemned to wear a scarlet letter A, meaning ‘Adulteress’, by the
strict Puritan community. Despite this punishment, she refuses to reveal the name
of Pearl’s father. Meanwhile her husband joins her in Boston and plans his
revenge: pretending to be a doctor, he begins to torment the suspected
Dimmesdale. Hester leads a solitary life with Pearl in a cottage on the outskirts of
the town and becomes a needlewoman. Through her skilful work and her modest
submission, she wins the respect of the community. Some even say that the A on
her dress stands for ‘Able’. Dimmesdale is haunted by his inability to confess his
guilt, and becomes ill. Eventually he publicly confesses and, after showing a
scarlet letter A imprinted on his chest, he dies in Hester’s arms. Chillingworth dies
a year later, leaving his fortune to Pearl, who goes abroad with her mother and
marries a European aristocrat. Years later, Hester returns to the town and resumes
her charitable work. When she dies, she is buried near Dimmesdale under a
tombstone marked by a letter A.
SETTING:
● BOSTON, NEW ENGLAND in the 17th century.
CHARACTERS
HESTER PRYNNE:
● Many critics have described Hester Prynne as the first TRUE
HEROINE of AMERICAN FICTION. She is IMPULSIVE and
PASSIONATE, fierce and frail at the same time.
● She becomes the ARCHETYPE of the FREE-THINKING American
woman struggling with her DESIRES.
● She lives for seven years in PUBLIC SHAME like an OUTCAST, but
she emerges as a STRONG, gaining STRENGTH and PURITY from
this ISOLATION.
REVEREND DIMMESDALE and ROGER CHILLINGWORTH:
● Reverend Dimmesdale and Roger Chillingworth are linked to the
theme of the DOUBLE and represent the ACTIVE and the PASSIVE
side of the HUMAN WILL.
● Chillingworth is the VILLAIN of the STORY because of he combines
EVIL and INTELLECTUAL without HUMAN COMPASSION. He
relies on his intellect to achieve his REVENGE. He manages to
manipulate DIMMESDALE and HESTER and observes their PAIN.
He commits what HAWTHORNE considers the WORST of SIN, the
violation of the HUMAN HEART.
● Dimmesdale is SENSITIVE and refined but PASSIVE; he has to bear
the shame which derives from his SIN against GOD, at the end he
publicly CONFESSES his SIN, shows a SCARLET LETTER A
imprinted on his naked chest and dies in HESTER’S ARM.
LITTLE PEARL:
 ● Little Pearl is a SMALL, delicate, strange and ELF-LIKE creature
with INCREDIBLE ENERGY.
● She stands for FREEDOM and an INNOCENT and POETIC VIEW of
the WORLD.
● She is the image of INNOCENCE
● Her presence relieves her mother of her ISOLATION.
STYLE:
● OMNISCIENT NARRATOR: sometimes expresses his OPINIONS on
the facts he narrates.
● USE of SYMBOLS: they hint at a spiritual reality beyond the
MATERIAL WORLD.
STRUCTURE:
● The first chapter is a LONG PREAMBLE: in the ATTIC of the
SALEM CUSTOM HOUSE, the omniscient narrator finds a
SCARLET CLOTH LETTER A and a MANUSCRIPT telling the story
of HESTER PRYNNE. He decides to narrate it, making some
comments on the TACTS “The Scarlet Letter” gains DEPTS
SYMBOLISM:
● The main symbol is the LETTER A worn on HESTER’S CHEST. It
symbolises Hester's shame, but it finally becomes the symbol of her
INNER GROWTH.
● Hawthorne’s symbols are TRADITIONAL and derive from the
BIBLE, SPENSER and SHAKESPEARE. They are perfect for the
context of the STORY because the PURITANS saw the world
through ALLEGORY.
1. SYMBOL: a CONCRETE OBJECT used to represent an ABSTRACT
IDEA, often a MORAL, RELIGIOUS, or PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT
or VALUE.
2. ALLEGORY: a STORY where characters, objects, and events have a
HIDDEN MEANING and are used to present some UNIVERSAL
LESSON.
THEMES:
● Hawthome wanted to analyse how the PURITAN VALUES of 17th
century NEW ENGLAND had affected LIFE.
● He dealt with SIN and GUILT and their MORAL and
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS.
● His characters experience ISOLATION, the FRUSTRATION of their
EMOTIONAL LIVES, and HYPOCRISY.

WAKEFIELD by NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE

INTRODUCTION:
 ● Nathaniel Hawthorne's SHORT STORY “Wakefield” is a captivating
tale that examines the ECCENTRICITY of HUMAN BEHAVIOR, the
FRAGILITY of PERSONAL IDENTITY, and the CONSEQUENCES of
ESTRANGEMENT.
● Through the titular character, Hawthorne presents a narrative that
is as MYSTERIOUS as it is THOUGHT-PROVOKING, exploring
themes of ISOLATION, SELF-AWARENESS, and the FLEETING
NATURE of TIME.

SUMMARY
THE BEGINNING:
● Wakefield, a middle-aged, unremarkable man, lives a modest and
peaceful life with his wife in London. Their marriage is one of
routine and quiet affection, marked by an unspoken understanding
rather than overt passion. One day, without explanation, Wakefield
tells his wife he is going on a short trip and will return in a few
days. He packs a small portmanteau and, after bidding her
farewell, leaves their home. However, instead of embarking on the
journey, he rents a small apartment just a street away, settling into
an eerie existence as a silent observer of his former life. From his
new lodging, Wakefield can see his old house and the life he left
behind. At first, he justifies his decision as temporary, intending to
test his wife’s love and devotion. He imagines her grief and
imagines himself returning to console her after a few days. But as
the days turn into weeks, and then into months, Wakefield’s
experiment takes on a life of its own. Despite his occasional pangs
of guilt and loneliness, he remains paralyzed by his own peculiar
vanity and curiosity, unwilling or unable to return home.
THE EARLY ABSENCE:
● In the initial days following his departure, Mrs. Wakefield grows
anxious, constantly looking out the window or scanning the streets
for her husband. The narrator notes her poignant sorrow, hinting
that she loved her husband deeply despite the ordinariness of their
marriage. Her health declines as weeks pass, and her neighbors
begin to speculate about Wakefield's whereabouts. Some suggest
that he has abandoned her, while others whisper of tragedy. Yet,
Mrs. Wakefield remains steadfast, clinging to hope that her
husband will return. Wakefield, observing his wife’s anguish from a
distance, feels a mix of satisfaction and remorse. He convinces
himself that his absence is merely a test and that he can return
whenever he pleases to restore order. However, as time stretches
on, his rationale becomes murky, and he begins to lose sight of the
 purpose of his absence. His peculiar experiment turns into a self-
imposed exile.
YEARS of ESTRANGEMENT:
● The story takes a haunting turn as Wakefield’s absence extends
into years. Mrs. Wakefield, after her initial despair, slowly adapts
to her new life. She reorganizes her household and resumes her
daily routines, gradually finding solace in her independence. Over
time, she assumes the role of a widow in society, though she never
remarries or completely relinquishes the memory of her husband.
Wakefield, meanwhile, transforms into a ghostly figure, wandering
the streets around his former home but never daring to cross its
threshold. Physically, he deteriorates: his once robust frame
becomes gaunt, his posture stoops, and his face reflects years of
solitude and indecision. He becomes an enigma, even to himself,
questioning the motives that first led him to leave his wife and the
life he once knew. Despite his internal torment, he continues to
delay his return, each day convincing himself that tomorrow will be
the day he reenters his home. But with each passing year, the
possibility of resuming his former life grows more distant.
THE ENCOUNTER:
● A decade into his exile, Wakefield experiences a brief but poignant
encounter with his wife on a crowded London street. Their hands
brush as they pass each other, and for a fleeting moment, their
eyes meet. Mrs. Wakefield, though startled, does not recognize her
husband in the weathered and haggard man before her. Wakefield,
on the other hand, is deeply shaken. The encounter forces him to
confront the absurdity and cruelty of his prolonged absence.
“Wakefield! Wakefield! You are mad!” he exclaims to himself,
acknowledging his descent into self-imposed isolation. Yet, even
after this moment of clarity, he retreats back to his apartment,
unable to take the final step toward reconciliation.
THE RETURN:
● As twenty years pass, Wakefield becomes a shadow of his former
self, both physically and spiritually. His wife, now elderly, has fully
embraced her life without him. She radiates a quiet dignity,
embodying the resilience of a woman who has endured loss and
found strength in solitude. Wakefield, watching from afar, realizes
the extent of his own insignificance. The life he abandoned has
moved on without him. One rainy evening, feeling the autumn chill
in his bones, Wakefield decides to return home. He ascends the
steps to his old house, pushes open the door, and crosses the
threshold. The story ends here, leaving the reader to imagine the
consequences of his return. The narrator warns, however, that
 Wakefield’s return is not a happy reunion. The man who left twenty
years earlier is a stranger now, not only to his wife but also to
himself. His long absence has irrevocably altered his place in the
world, and the bonds that once connected him to his wife and home
have been severed.

THEMES and ANALYSIS:

● Hawthorne’s “Wakefield” is a profound exploration of IDENTITY,
human connection, and the PASSAGE of TIME.
● The story examines how even the smallest choices—like stepping
out of ONE’S ROUTINE —can have far-reaching consequences.
Through Wakefield’s BIZARRE EXPERIMENT, Hawthorne explores
several KEY THEMES:
1. ISOLATION and IDENTITY:
● Wakefield’s decision to leave his wife is not motivated by malice
but by CURIOSITY and VANITY.
● Over time, however, his isolation erodes his sense of SELF. By
detaching himself from his home, his wife, and his role in society,
Wakefield becomes a STRANGER, both to others and to himself.
2. THE FRAGILITY of RELATIONSHIP:
● Wakefield assumes that he can step away from his life and return
whenever he pleases.
● However, Hawthorne shows that relationships require CONSTANT
PRESENCE and CARE. Wakefield’s prolonged absence creates an
UNBRIDGEABLE GAP between him and his wife.
3. THE UNPREDICTABILITY of TIME:
● What begins as a brief experiment stretches into twenty years.
Hawthorne suggests that time, once lost, cannot be reclaimed.
Wakefield’s delay in returning home reflects the human tendency to
PROCRASTINATE, often to TRAGIC EFFECT.
4. THE ABSURDITY of HUMAN BEHAVIOR:
● Wakefield’s actions are inexplicable, even to himself. Hawthorne
uses this absurdity to highlight the IRRATIONALITY of HUMAN
NATURE and the peculiar ways in which people SABOTAGE their
own happiness.

CONCLUSION:
● Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “Wakefield” is a haunting tale of
ESTRANGEMENT and SELF-DISCOVERY.
● Through the enigmatic figure of WAKEFIELD, Hawthorne examines
the delicate BALANCE between INDIVIDUALITY and
CONNECTION, illustrating how easily one can lose oneself in the
pursuit of CURIOSITY or INDEPENDENCE.
● The story’s open-ended conclusion serves as a POWERFUL
REMINDER of the IRREVERSIBILITY of TIME and the profound
CONSEQUENCES of OUR CHOICES.