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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Physics Your notes

Moments
Contents
Moments
Equilibrium
Centre of Gravity
Investigating Centre of Gravity

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Moments
Your notes
Moments
The moment of a force is the turning effect produced when a force is exerted on an object
Examples of the turning effect of a force are:
A child on a see-saw
Turning the handle of a spanner
A door opening and closing
Using a crane to move building supplies
Using a screwdriver to open a tin of paint
Turning a tap on and off
Picking up a wheelbarrow
Using scissors
Forces can cause the rotation of an object about a fixed pivot
This rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise

Clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation

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Your notes

Consider the hands of a clock when deciding if an object will rotate in a clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction

A force applied on one side of the pivot will cause the object to rotate

Turning effect of a force about a pivot

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Your notes

The force applied will cause the object to rotate clockwise about the pivot

The moment equation

A moment is defined as:
The turning effect of a force about a pivot
The size of a moment is defined by the equation:

moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot

The forces should be perpendicular to the distance from the pivot
For example, on a horizontal beam, the forces which will cause a moment are those directed
upwards or downwards

The turning effect of a force exerted on a spanner

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Your notes

The moment depends on the force and perpendicular distance to the pivot
Increasing the distance at which a force is applied from a pivot decreases the force required
If you try to push open a door right next to the hinge, it is very difficult, as it requires a lot of force
If you push the door open at the side furthest from the hinge, then it is much easier, as less force is
required

Forces required to open a door

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Your notes

A greater force is required to push open a door next to the hinges than at the door handle

Worked Example
A carpenter attempts to loosen a bolt that has rusted. To turn the bolt, they exert a force of 22 N
using a spanner of length 20 cm. The force is exerted 5 cm from the end of the spanner.
Calculate the turning effect of the force.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities

Force, F = 22 N
Length of spanner, = 20 cm
Step 2: Determine the distance from the pivot
The force is exerted 5 cm from the end of the spanner
Therefore, the distance from the force to the pivot is
s = 20 − 5

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s = 15 cm
Convert cm to m Your notes
15
s=
100
s = 0 . 15 m
Step 3: Write out the equation for moments

moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot

M = Fs
Step 4: Substitute in the known values to calculate

M = 22 × 0 . 15
M = 3.3 N m

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The moment of a force is measured in newton metres (N m), but can also be newton centimetres (N
cm) if the distance is measured in cm instead.
If your IGCSE moments exam question doesn't ask for a specific unit, always convert the distance
into metres

Principle of moments (core)

The principle of moments states that:
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise
moment about that pivot
The principle of moments means that for a balanced object, the moments on both sides of the pivot
are equal
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

Principle of moments

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Your notes

Imagine holding the beam about the pivot and applying just one of the forces. If the beam moves
clockwise then the force applied is clockwise. This is the principle of moments

Worked Example
A parent and child are at opposite ends of a playground see-saw.
The weight force acting on the parent is 690 N and the weight force acting on the child is 140 N.
The adult sits at a distance of 0.3 m from the pivot.

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Your notes

Calculate the distance the child must sit from the pivot for the see-saw to be balanced.
Use the principle of moments in your calculation.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities

Clockwise force (child), F = 140 N

child
Anticlockwise force (adult), F = 690 N
adult
Distance of adult from the pivot, s = 0.3 m
adult
Step 2: Write down the moment equation and the principle of moments
Moment equation:
moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot
M = Fs
Principle of moments:
total clockwise moments = total anticlockwise moments
Step 3: Calculate the total clockwise moments
The clockwise moment is from the child
M =
child
F child × s child

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M child = 140 × s child

Step 4: Calculate the total anticlockwise moments Your notes

The anticlockwise moment is from the adult

M =F
adult adult
× s adult

M adult = 690 × 0 . 3

M adult = 207 N m

Step 5: Substitute into the principle of moments equation

total clockwise moments = total anticlockwise moments

M child = M adult

140 × s child = 207

Step 6: Rearrange for the distance of the child from the pivot

207
s child =
140
s child = 1 . 5 m
The child must sit 1.5 m from the pivot to balance the see-saw

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and that you’re considering the correct forces
as clockwise or anticlockwise
If you are studying the core tier for IGCSE Physics, you will only be expected to apply the principle of
moments to a situation where one force acts on either side of the pivot

Principle of moments (extended)

Extended tier only

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In the example below, the forces and distances of the objects on the beam are different, but they are
arranged in a way that balances the whole system
Your notes
Using the principle of moments

The clockwise and anticlockwise moments acting on a beam are balanced

In the above diagram:

Force F causes an anticlockwise moment of F × d about the pivot

1 1 1

Force F causes a clockwise moment of F × d about the pivot

2 2 2

Force F causes an anticlockwise moment of F × d about the pivot

3 3 3

Collecting the clockwise and anticlockwise moments:

Sum of the clockwise moments = F × d

2 2

Sum of the anticlockwise moments = (F × d ) + (F × d )

1 1 3 3

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Using the principle of moments, the beam is balanced when:

sum of the clockwise moments = sum of the anticlockwise moments Your notes
F 2 × d 2 = ( F 1 × d 1) + ( F 3 × d 3)

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Equilibrium
Your notes
Equilibrium
In physics, the term equilibrium means:
A state of balance or stability
In other words, a system in equilibrium keeps doing what it’s doing without any change

Conditions for equilibrium

For objects in equilibrium:
The forces on the object must be balanced
There must be no resultant force
The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments
There must be no resultant moment

Examples of systems in equilibrium

When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium

Demonstrating equilibrium
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Extended tier only

Aim of the experiment Your notes

This experiment aims to demonstrate that there is no resultant moment for an object in equilibrium

Variables
Independent variable = force, F , and distance, s

Dependent variable = moment, M

Control variables:
The length of the cotton loops should be equal on each side of the beam

Equipment
Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Metre ruler with a small hole at the centre To provide the beam on which to add masses

2 × 100 g mass hangers To attach the masses to the ruler

8 × 100 g masses To add the mass at different points along the ruler

Clamp stand, boss & clamp To secure the pivot in place

Optical pin and cork To act as the pivot

Small piece of plasticine To ensure the ruler is balanced at the start

2 loops of cotton To attach the mass hangers to the metre ruler

Example set up of equipment to demonstrate equilibrium

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Your notes

The ruler acts as the beam with the pin as the pivot. Unequal masses are added at different distances
until the beam is balanced and equilibrium is reached

Method
1. Hang unequal loads on either side of the pivot; one person holds the beam while the other person
hangs the loads

2. Adjust the distances of mass 1, m , and mass 2, m , until the beam is balanced
1 2

3. Adjust further to ensure the beam is perfectly horizontal with no resultant moment

4. Record the distance from the pivot of masses m and m

1 2

5. Repeat the process for different sized loads

Example results table

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Your notes

A results table should contain spaces for all the measurements taken and any calculations required

Analysis of results
Force 1, F , is providing the anticlockwise moment, M
1 1

Where:

F 1 = m 1g

M 1 = F 1s 1

Force 2, F , is providing the clockwise moment, M

2 2

Where:

F 2 = m 2g

M 2 = F 2s 2
Remember to convert g to kg and cm to m for the calculations to give units of Nm for the moments
The results should show that for all the systems tested, the anticlockwise moment is equal to the
clockwise moment
Therefore, there is no resultant moment when the system is in equilibrium

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Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors Your notes
The cotton loops should be added to the ruler when viewed straight on to avoid a parallax error
The cotton loops should be measured to ensure they are equal in length
The experiment should be checked to ensure there is no friction between the metre ruler and the
optical pin pivot so the ruler is balanced, only because of the added masses
Random errors
The precision of the experiment is improved by:
ensuring the experiment is done in a space with no draft or breeze, as this could affect the motion
or position of the hanging masses
using an electronic system or a spirit level that identifies the angle of the beam would improve the
experiment, or using a flat rod with masses placed on top
The accuracy of the experiment is improved by:
taking more than five readings for each mass and position and then calculating the mean
It is assumed that the mass of the cotton loops is negligible (zero)
It is assumed that the mass of each mass and hangar is 100 g, this should be verified in advance using
an electronic balance

Safety considerations
Safety goggles should be worn because the cotton loops could snap and hit someone in the eye
Use a G clamp to secure the clamp stand to the bench so it does not topple over and cause injury
Stand up to carry out this experiment so you do not fall over when looking level with the metre ruler
Place a mat or a soft material below the metre ruler to cushion any masses that may fall to the ground
and to keep the area clear of feet and hands

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Centre of Gravity
Your notes
Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is defined as:
The point through which the weight of an object acts
For a symmetrical object of uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the point of symmetry
For example, the centre of gravity of a sphere is at the centre

Finding the centre of gravity of symmetrical objects

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The centre of gravity of a regular shaped object can be found using symmetry
Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside of a body. The centre of
gravity will constantly shift depending on the shape of a body. For example, a human body’s centre
of gravity is lower when learning forward than when standing upright
However, when you are drawing force diagrams, always draw the weight force as if it were acting
from the centre of gravity of the object!

Stability
The centre of gravity of a symmetrical object is along the axis of symmetry
The position of the centre of gravity affects the stability of an object
An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base

Centre of gravity of an object in different positions

The object will topple, when its centre of gravity is no longer over its base

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If the centre of gravity does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over Your notes
The most stable objects have a low centre of gravity and a wide base

Low centre of gravity of a car

Cars are stable because they have a low centre of gravity and a wide base
Taller objects with a narrow base have a higher centre of gravity and are less stable
This is why lorries and buses are advised not to use motorways and bridges on very windy days

Stability of object in different positions

When the object is positioned on its narrow base, it is less stable because its centre of gravity is higher

Moments and stability

If the line of action of the weight force lies outside the base of the object, there will be a resultant
moment, and the body will topple

Car and bus on varying inclines

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Your notes

The car can be titled to 60° without toppling, but the bus will topple at 45°
Tall objects with a narrow base will topple easily
Ten-pin bowling pins are designed specifically to topple easily
The stability of objects can be increased by widening the base
High chairs are designed with a wide base so that they do not topple
Bunsen burners have a wide base to ensure they do not topple

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside of a body. The centre of
gravity will constantly shift depending on the shape of a body. For example, a human body’s centre
of gravity is lower when learning forward than upright

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Investigating Centre of Gravity

Your notes
Investigating centre of gravity
Aim of the experiment
This experiment aims to determine the position of the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane
lamina
Independent variable = position of centre of gravity
Dependent variable = shape of plane lamina
Control variables:
Punching the holes in the plane lamina before determining the line of action of the weight force

Equipment
Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Irregularly shaped plane lamina To find the position of the centre of gravity of

Hole punch To create a hole in the plane lamina to tie the thread to

Thread To hang the plane lamina from the clamp

Thread and mass or sticky tack To form the plumb line

Pencil and ruler To draw the line of action of the weight force

Clamp stand, boss & clamp To hang the plane lamina from

Method
Determining the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane lamina

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Your notes

For irregularly shaped objects, the centre of gravity can be found using the suspension method
1. Punch 3 holes near the outer edges of the plane lamina in different locations
2. Create a loop of thread and hang the plane lamina from the clamp
3. Use a plumb line (a weighted thread) aligned with the hanging thread to show the line of action of the
weight force
4. Use a ruler and pencil to mark the line of action of the weight force onto the plane lamina
5. Repeat the process until 3 lines have been drawn
6. The point at which the lines cross is the position of the centre of gravity

Analysis of results
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Each plane lamina is an irregularly shaped object

When an object is suspended from a point, it will always settle with its centre of gravity directly below Your notes
the point of suspension

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors
The plumb line should be viewed straight on to avoid a parallax error
Dots should be made on the plane lamina whilst in position and then a ruled line should be made after
the lamina has been removed from the clamp
Random errors
The plane lamina should be allowed to settle before determining the action line of the weight force
The holes should be punched in the plane lamina before determining the action line of the weight force,
because punching the holes after can affect the position of the centre of gravity

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