THEORIES IN TROPICAL DESIGN

AND ITS APPLICATIONS

BS ARCHITECTURE
YEAR II

As a partial fulfillment of the requirements in

AR152-1_A51_2T2425
TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE

Submitted by:

First Gabriel M. Martinez

Submitted to:

Dr. Edgar Chavez

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A. Introduction

In 1972, Stockholm, Sweden hosted the first-ever United Nations

Conference on the Human Environment, a diplomatic milestone that

brought environmental issues to the limelight. Brought by a decade of

serious environmental disasters, it sought to implement sustainable

practices in the forefront of international matters (Chasek, 2020).

Because of this, the world of architecture underwent a drastic, yet

beneficial change, as the importance, and need for tropical architecture

begins to surface.

According to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for

Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), Tropical Architecture is properly

defined as a type of green building developed for tropical climates, with

the design ultimately focused on the reduction of energy consumption,

most especially, its cooling load (UNESCAP, n.d.). Despite its modern

definition, however, the genre, or discipline, has been used in many

vernacular structures in the Asia-Pacific. Determined by its location in

the Earth’s Tropical Belt, or Tropical Zone, many of these buildings

demonstrate characteristics that mitigate extreme heat, and rainfall.

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For instance, according to UNESCAP (n.d.), South-East Asian

civilizations had fielded numerous windows in their designs, which

greatly benefited ventilation (See Figure 1). Samoans, on the other

hand, refused to have walls put in to allow greater air circulation. In

Aydin & Tugtekin (2019), deep verandas were reported to have been

used for shading purposes, among others.

Figure 1: A Maranaoan House from the Philippines. Not the window

openings above the house’s stands.

Taking inspiration from past practices, modern tropical

architecture considers design principles such as climatic events, site

location, wind effects, and solar-to-air control, where they formulate

solutions that can promote thermal comfort without sacrificing

sustainability (UNESCAP, n.d.). Technologies like the verandas

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serving as overhangs, numerous windows, as well as wall insulation

for instance, can be used to address them. These approaches then

evolve into theories, serving as guidelines that continue to support

green buildings’ development. In this contemporary period where the

effects of climate change are becoming widespread, the use of these

theories and approaches become more relevant, to secure a safer,

comfortable, and sustainable future. This paper explores such theories

used in Tropical Architecture, and how they are applied to address the

challenges of their region, and climate change.

B. Theories in Tropical Architecture

I. Passive Cooling

According to Taleb (2014), passive cooling refers to any design

features or technologies that lower building temperatures without the

help of fans, or air conditioning units. Given its non-reliance to energy-

consuming, or mechanical devices, it is also known to be the cheapest

method in applying sustainable approaches in architecture (Dimayuga,

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2020). Passive cooling picks up on the available temperature,

humidity, and resources of a buildings’ location

Shading

Passive Cooling can first be implemented with the architects’ use

of shading. Shading includes the use of eaves, covered balconies and

even of plants, to reduce sunlight exposure in buildings. Even in non-

tropical countries, such as New Zealand, eaves are used to limit

sunlight exposure during the summer solstice, where the sun appears

at its highest point in the sky. Less sunlight coming into rooms or

structures, helps prevent heat gain. Come winter, however, the

sunlight goes in, to provide much-needed sunlight for heat (See Figure

2).

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 Figure 2: The sun in the Winter Solstice (left), and the sun in the

Summer Solstice (right)

Figure 3: Sun against Trees as Shade.

In the context of tropical climates, such approaches for passive

cooling works the same way. Trees, for instance, provide year-round

cover from sunlight, unlike in tropical climates where they lose leaves,

providing the opposite effect.

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Building Orientation (Wind Oriented)

Building orientation is one of the determining factors to achieve comfort

and optimized sustainability. In Alimbuyao (2020), it is deemed as one

of the effective techniques in passive cooling, as it takes advantage of

natural windflows, for cooling, and the path traveled by the sun, for

natural lighting. In cases wherein architects are free to orient the

building without sacrificing its spatial requirements, such structures

maximize the availability of wind and sunlight in tropical climates, which

furthers the environmental aspect of the genre.

Passive cooling through building orientation is done by directing the

buildings’ functional rooms towards the directions of a site’s prevailing

winds. According to DiveScotty (2013), the prevailing winds are the

dominant winds in an area that pass in one direction. In equatorial

regions such as Southeast Asia, these usually occur as monsoons, as

they change directions once per year. In the context of the Philippines,

the prevailing winds are the Habagat (South-West Monsoon), which

occurs from June to October and the Amihan (North-East Monsoon),

from October to March (DiveScotty, 2013). To take advantage of these

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windflows for natural cooling, buildings in the Philippines can be

oriented facing the Amihan-Habagat (North-East, and South-west

Winds) direction, allowing natural air circulation for an entire year.

Alimbuyao (2020) states here that buildings should therefore face north

to south, with their facades in the east to west direction for sunlight to

still enter. To refrain from gaining heat from sunlight, windows must be

used sparingly in the latter direction; here, bedrooms, lounges, and

other rest areas should not be situated there, if possible.

Figure 3: Illustration of Recommended Building Orientation for winds.

From Alimbuyao (2020)

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Stack Effect

Stack effect, or the Chimney Effect, is a passive cooling

technique that takes advantage of thermodynamics. Warm air, which

is low in density, tends to go up, while cold air, with heavy density,

goes down (Alimbuyao, 2020). For regular, unventilated roofs, this

becomes a major problem, as hot air becomes trapped in the ceiling,

while cold air continues to enter. As a result, cooling is only briefly

experienced, and it is then converted into hot air. The increase in the

amount of hot air trapped disturbs the thermal comfort, elevating

humidity and air pressure at the same time.

In Figure 4, however, Alimbuyao (2020) discusses a solution: making

elevated air vents available. Elevated air vents allow the hot air to exit,

circulating air, and keeping its cooking effect. With cool air entering and

hot air continuously exiting thereafter, thermal comfort is achieved.

Architectural remedies such as having high ceilings, as well as

accommodating window placements and sizes, maximize the amount

of cold air taken in.

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 Figure 4: Stack Effect

II. Passive Heating

As an opposite to passive cooling, passive heating is a method

of thermal control that raises a room’s temperature. Similar to the

sustainability of the latter, this does not use any mechanical means to

perform - rather, it solely relies on how solar heat gains can be

preserved. According to the National Institute of Building Sciences

(NIBS), passive heating is one of the elements of passive solar heating

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systems, along with passive cooling, and daylighting, which is to be

discussed further in the paper.

Passive heating, as mentioned, relies on solar energy. As such, it

involves the ability of storing a thermal mass of solar heat, most

especially from building materials, orientations, and the availability of

windows. If followed successfully, this can increase user comfort by

making the interior bright and sunny, in accordance to the needs of a

specific climate.

According to NIBS (2024), materials of high heat capacity are often

used for naturally heated buildings. Concrete slabs, brick walls, and tile

floors are some of these; thus when exposed to heat, can absorb great

thermal mass. Lighter materials, according to Dimayuga (2020), serve

the opposite effect: materials like wood and timber are used to cool

otherwise.

The consideration of building orientation is also critical for this theory.

While it is established that the sun rises and sets from east to west

respectively, optimal sunlight absorption occurs in the north and south,

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depending on the location. In the northern hemisphere, sun exposure

in the winter solstice is received in the south, while it is in the north for

the southern hemisphere. As illustrated by Figure 5 below, the winter

solstice is the point of the year wherein the sun is at its lowest, allowing

it to enter through windows. This in turn, determines the best

placement for large windows intended to gather sunlight, which is then

kept by the heavy materials mentioned.

Figure 5: Passive Heating

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In a tropical situation, the usage of thermal heating is rare, or rather

used sparingly. Poor use or implementation of this can worsen heat in

summers, calling the need for mechanical cooling technologies

(Dimayuga, 2020). Thermal mass usage, as such, should also be

joined in the aforementioned passive design techniques to match it to

its climate.

RE: Figure 2: The sun, as a source of heat, provides both light and

heat to a structure, if its position can be used to an advantage. While

this design above is catered for passive cooling, some architects opt

the use of skylights - windows installed on roofs to allow more

sunlight (See Figure 2.1)

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 Figure 2.1: Example of a skylight

III. Natural Ventilation

As mentioned in Passive Cooling, monsoons are available to use

as a source for ventilation. As monsoons supply outdoor breeze, air

can be circulated inside houses through the help of openings. Here, air

can receive a push-pull effect that puts in cool air, and keeps hot air

out, if the ideas for stack effect is also applied.

The push-pull effect is put into action when a building has openings

placed on opposite “pressure” zones. When cool air comes in from this

zone, positive air pressure is produced in the windward side of the

Similar to the stack effect, hot air can be removed from openings in the

roof, taking advantage of its innate ability to rise up due to its density.

Figure 6: Natural Ventilation. Note the openings on either side, and

the hot air exit at the top of the building.

IV. Wind Tower

Wind Towers were widely used in Ancient Persia 3000 years ago

as both source of ventilation and power for grain grinders and water

pumps (2019) The towers, as suggested by its name, are built after tall

exterior walls that are carefully placed to ensure adequate access to

strong winds.

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In the modern era, this is not usually present as a source of ventilation,

however, it still is a good approach in promoting sustainable practices.

In Dimayuga (2020), wind towers are known to collect hot air, which

then gets cooled within the structure, then sinks down to living or work

areas. On windy days, this process accelerates, providing cooler

temperatures. Figure 6 shows the cross section of a wind tower.

Figure 7: A Wind Tower, and how air is circulated within it. Note that

the theory bears great similarity to natural ventilation, from which the

concept is applied.

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V. Natural Lighting (Daylighting)

Daylighting is a method that takes advantage of the sun’s

presence for alternative lighting. It utilizes exterior glazing, i.e., the

addition of windows to serve as light sources, thereby saving energy,

while fulfilling the roles of artificial lighting requirements. According to

Dimayuga (2020), natural lighting has been proven to increase the

health and comfort levels for residents, or users of a building. With the

presence of windows, effective natural lighting will provide light, but

refrain from exposing its occupants to direct radiation, and even in

heat.

Natural lighting originates from three sources, listed below:

1. Direct Sunlight - Direct sunlight is the easiest source of natural

lighting. Collected through openings and windows, the light taken

here is taken straight from the sunrays that reach the building

2. External Reflection - External reflection is the light that comes

from ground surfaces, neighboring buildings, light shelves, and

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 windowsills (Dimayuga, 2020). This is used sparingly, as excess

reflection may cause glare that distracts occupants.

3. Internal Reflection - Internal Reflection is the light that is reflected

from internal walls, ceilings, and floors. These are usually

assisted by smooth or glossy finish surfaces, as well as light

colored walls and mirrors, which disseminate light taken from

direct sunlight.

VI. Building Materials

For a building to belong in the genre of tropical architecture,

theories on specific building materials must also be followed. A tropical

building must use materials that both blend in its environment, and is

resistant to heat, moisture, and other damage taken from its innate

climate. Locally sourced materials such as clay, bamboo and timber,

stone, are just some of the pioneer ingredients in tropical structures,

forming the vernacular architecture of most tropical countries (See

Vernacular Architecture section). Despite its age, however, it still is

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used as inspiration, and base materials for many modern buildings

(Suruy, 2011)

Clay, according to Suruy (2011), is an essential ingredient for tropical

mud houses, built with mud bricks whose styles originated from

vernacular cultures, especially in drier tropical regions, like Colombia

(See Figure 8)

Figure 8: A mud house in Colombia

Made by hand, clay-built exterior walls allow thermal comfort to seep

in through its head preserving capabilities, though it allows proper

ventilation, thanks to its numerous openings. Because of its flexibility,

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mud houses can have roof overhangs, which can manage rainy

seasons well.

Stone, on the other hand, is known for its insulating properties, which

can cool the interiors in the summer, and keep people warm in the

winter. In Regatta (2022), stones, such as granite and its derivative,

concrete, perform as effective heat insulates. Thanks to their solid

thermal conductivity, it can actively release cooling, and is unable to

transmit vast amounts of heat. Furthermore, as a solid structure, it is

usually implemented as feature walls and ornamentation, allowing the

structure to blend in its tropical location.

Lastly, wood materials, such as bamboo, are a good natural material

to support roofs and ceilings without compromising ventilation.

Bamboo roofs and ceilings allow air to exit through its slits, and in

modern applications, non-toxic treatments have been available to

extend its otherwise biodegradable life. Timber, on the other hand, is

very popular ever since civilizations have lived in tropical areas. Timber

is sustainable, and can be treated to last, making it useful in

emphasizing organic buildings.

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While these materials are recommended in emphasizing the tropicality

of the structure, architects in the modern era are not only restricted with

these. Rather, it can be implemented alongside new, sturdier materials

like steel, and reinforced concrete, among others, for it to properly

provide comfort, and blend in a tropical scenario.

VII. Rainwater Mitigation

Tropical regions have two seasons, the dry, and wet season. In

the Philippines, this is wholly characterized by the Habagat period,

where intense storms enter the country simultaneously for nearly 6

months. Rain mitigation, otherwise known as stormwater

management, is a critical design consideration that controls the effects

of excessive water-flow because of these weather occurrences.

Floods, rainfall, and water runoffs are just some of the events that

needed to be mitigated to ensure user comfort as the climate’s effects

continue to ensue.

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In Velasquez (2020), stormwater can be mitigated and reused by

taking advantage of the products it creates water. Buildings may use

green roofs to catch stormwater, and harvest them for potable use, i.e.,

for faucets, toilets, and even watering gardens. Structural additions,

such as the presence of sloped roofs, as well as building orientation,

can then minimize the amount of rainfall received, for better protection.

VIII. Insulation

Insulation, according to Cairns Regional Council (n.d.), is one of

the most effective ways in reducing heat input. Installed in the roofs

and walls of a building, these applications can both avoid the summer

heat and keep it during the winter periods.

There are two types of insulation: bulk insulation and reflective

insulation (CRR, n.d.). In the tropics, the latter is extensively used

given the high heat in its climate. Here, reflective insulation is installed

under the roof sheathing, so that the heat is not absorbed, and

subsequently trapped. Reflective insulators are usually made of

reflective metals such as aluminum foil and aluminized polyester.

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According to Insulation4Less (n.d.) these materials hold up heat by

95%, preventing it from penetrating into the room.

On the other hand, bulk insulation is used for preventing cool air from

escaping the building. In a tropical situation this is good for assisting

with the efficiency of air conditioning. Here, it acts as a thermal mass

that resists the transfer of convection heat by using available pockets

of trapped air. Bulk insulation, according to CRR (n.d.), includes glass,

wool, cellulose fiber, polyester, and polystyrene.

IX. Vernacular Architecture

Vernacular Architecture is, if not the oldest, one of the first theories of

tropical design that was implemented in man-made structures. It is a

theory that emphasizes localized, traditional building techniques that

respond to local climate, addressing problems such as temperature,

humidity, heat, and wind (Aydin & Tugtekin, 2019). Vernacular

architecture provides designs solutions such as typical high ceilings,

showing an application of stack effect. Hot air, according to Aydin &

Tugtekin (2019), is taken out via roof joints that serve as ventilation

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points. There were also minimum partitions in these structures, which

eases cross ventilation. In the Philippines, some vernacular homes

even had removeable walls, to guarantee cooling for its occupants

(See Figure 9). To avoid rain and ecological predators, some houses

are raised on stilts, which get ventilated and shaded, subsequently.

Here, materials are derived locally, usually readily available, such as

bamboo, timber, and dried leaves.

Figure 9: Isneg House from the Philippines. Note the bamboo-clad

wallboards which can be removed. Note that the house also rests on

stilts, wherein the bottom part is used for materials and livestock

storage

C. Applications

I. Passive Cooling

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Shading

Shading can be applied as a source of passive cooling through

two means, using landscaping, or man-made structures. To go back,

the main goal of shading is to appropriately block sunlight, which

causes heat, thus, the use of manmade open-shelters, eaves, and

trees can help cover it. According to YourHome (n.d.), shading can be

opted as fixed, or adjustable. The examples, the eaves, as well as

fences and evergreen trees count as fixed. Adjustable technologies,

however, use pergolas with shade cloths, external louvres, and moving

blinds.

Figure 10: Adjustable Wood Panels that work as Blinds, from

Nazareno Architecture (2021)

Building Orientation

Building orientation can be applied as a way of ventilation by

orienting the building’s face toward prevailing winds. With this, the

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wind enters and circulates through the building, allowing

maximization of the said resource. Figure 11 below depicts

orientation for maximum passive ventilation.

Figure 11: Passive Ventilation Arrangement

Stack Effect

According to Stoulhi (2021), stack effect may be used in high

rise buildings as means of passive ventilation. Taking advantage of

the mentioned tendency of air, stack ventilation allows cool air to

enter into the building at a lower level, but allows it to exit from the

next. However, it is warned that the ventilation system must be higher

than the outside, hence it is not recommended to be used on its own.

A separate derivative, chimney effect, allows cold air to produce

pressure under warm air, pushing it to go upwards. Open areas within

high rise buildings implementing this allows air to circulate in indoor

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areas, with the hot air then being deposited in carefully placed

exhausts.

Figure 12: Chimney Effect

II. Passive Heating and Daylighting

Passive heating may be applied using deciduous trees where

countries experience winter. As they shed their leaves in this period,

sunlight enters the structure providing the much-needed heat.

Increasing south-facing windows by a grand total of 3% is also ideal,

removing the need for using materials with great thermal mass

absorption. A method, direct heating, can also be used, wherein

sunlight’s heat, which enters through large windows, is then stored into

high thermal mass materials such as interior walls or floors (Whole

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Building Design Guide, n.d.). Overall, passive heating may be

achieved through absorbing the sun’ heat gain and transferring it either

directly to the room, or into a structure’s component with high thermal

mass capacity. As nighttime falls, it is guaranteed that its heating can

spread, fulfilling its goal.

Alongside the application of passive heating, comes the

application of daylighting. Daylighting is derived at the same time from

the abundance of windows and openings, however, they must be used

alongside electric bulbs or other forms of active light, due to its

limitation when nightfall comes. While it is a good source of light by

day, this must be used sparingly for buildings whose work spans until

dark, where lighting, of course, is now needed.

III. Natural Ventilation and Wind Towers

Similar to the use of stack effect, natural ventilation can be easily

used for both low-rise and high rise buildings, if openings and exits are

available for cool and hot air, respectively. According to the WBDG,

(n.d.b), areas that commonly use this well are open, yet covered

spaces, such as picnic shelters, bus stations, housing projects,

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warehouses, and other areas where space conditioning is not usually

needed.

On the other hand, wind towers follows the same use of the two

ventilation sources, however, its use for low rise areas maybe

somewhat limited. Accoridng to Sangdeh (2022), windcatchers, or

windtowers, rely on the height of the structure to successfully ventilate

a building, thus physical parameters of these must be first measured if

it is to be reimplemented alongside with other theories. Despite this, it

remains a viable solution if it can be applied in a specific case.

IV. Building Materials and Vernacular Architecture

Natural Building materials play a crucial role in enhancing the

comfort and ventilation of modern tropical buildings. These materials,

which are taken from renewable sources, are widely used to allow air

to circulate, aesthetically blend in the environment, and provide

thermal control. Vernacular architecture, however, can specify the

building’s future designs as specified by how previous architects based

it on the needs, climates, and traditions of an area. Without formal

planning, it promotes the incorporation of local, sustainable materials,

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while of course, keeping safety in mind. By taking inspiration from

these works, unique, climate responsive designs can be achieved.

To

V. Rainwater Mitigation

The design theory in rainwater mitigation can be applied to areas

that experience heavy rain at certain periods of a year. In urban and

rural environments, this can help promote water conservation and halt

the flooding of buildings or local infrastructure, if proper collection and

control designs are used.

Figure 13: A rainwater harvester next to a sloped roof. The first

allows rainwater to be reused as treated water, while the sloped

roof design keeps rain from collecting, and seeping into the

structure.

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VI. Insulation

Insulation in architecture is used to preserve and regulate

temperatures inside a building, which in turn improves energy

efficiency and occupant comfort. In the condition of the tropics, this

is used to deflect, or reduce sunlight heat gain, or preserve the cold

temperature provided by mechanical electronics.

D. Key Takeaways

I. Passive Cooling

- Passive cooling occurs through shading, building orientation, and

stack effect

- Shading can be done using covers such as covered verandas, eaves,

or trees through landscaping

- Building orientation for ventilation can be achieved by orienting the

building towards prevailing wind directions

- Stack effect can be achieved by allowing openings wherein winds

may enter to give cool air, while pushing out hot air that is trapped on

the ceiling, through another opening

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II. Passive Heating

- Passive heating is a design theory that focuses on utilizing solar

heat gains as a means of raising the temperatures in a room.

- It can be attained by utilizing materials of high thermal mass

capacity, wherein it can absorb heat and expel it thereafter.

- Passive heating can also be attained by glazing, wherein

windows are available to let heat enter.

- Structure materials such as bricks, floors, and concrete have

high thermal mass capacity. Materials such as timber provide the

opposite.

III. Natural Ventilation

- Natural ventilation can be achieved by utilizing wind directions to

ventilate open areas, particularly that of high-rise buildings,

where wind presence is prevalent.

- It uses the physics of stack effect in order to work; cool air enters

into the building, but the pressure difference acts as a suction

that pushes hot air out, ensuring air circulation.

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IV. Wind Tower

- Wind towers are ancient design theories that supply cool air into

homes by catching it from high places.

- Since cold air sinks as hot air rises, cold air becomes directed to

rooms underneath, which subsequently gets cooled. Hot air, which

rises, then exits the tower, providing air circulation.

- It is uncertain whether this method can still be implemented

throughout modern architecture, given the physical limits that

determine its reliability.

V. Daylighting

- Daylighting is the design theory wherein natural light acts as a

substitute to light bulbs.

- Through the help of windows, the sun’s rays may enter to supply light,

however, this can also increase heat.

- The use of trees blocks out the heat from the sun, allowing a space

illuminated like this to perform well even in the summer.

- Its main limitation is night, thus it still must be used along with electric

bulbs, especially if it functions around the clock.

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VI. Building Materials

- Natural building materials define the aesthetic of tropical

architecture.

- It works to ensure aesthetics by blending itself to the

environment, but also by functioning as sustainable alternatives

for cooling, heating, or light.

- Common tropical materials include clay, timber, stone, and

bamboo, those of which are readily available in most tropical

areas.

VII. Rainwater Mitigation

- Rainwater mitigation is a design approach that utilizes rainwater

for reuse, while at the same time focusing on safety from rainfall,

flood, among others.

VIII. Insulation

- Insulation is an applied design that regulates the thermal status

of a room

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 - Reflective insulation reflects solar heat gains from entering, while

bulk insulation disallows cold temperature from escaping.

IX. Vernacular Architecture

- Vernacular architecture is the design theory that is used as

a basis for modern architecture to solve the threats of a

building’s climate.

- While less sturdy than modern technologies, its elements

remain a defining characteristic of how tropical architecture

should look like, and work like, as its features are somewhat

functionable, as well.

E. Conclusion

As climate change continues to challenge humanity, the building

industry becomes a critical player when it comes to mitigating its

effects. Tropical architecture, with the theories discussed: passive

cooling, natural ventilation, daylighting, and rainwater mitigation

strategies, offers an environmentally sound approach to building,

which upholds the goal of the United Nations’ Stockholm Convention.

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The theories of tropical architecture call for all to take advantage of

what is available to one another, and make the most out of it when it

comes to urban development. If applied properly, these theories can

form a world that runs on sustainability. As such, architects are called

upon to further these principles, now that Tropical Architecture

becomes relevant, in a heavily industrialized world.

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