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Contents
Preface viii
Guided tour x
About the authors xii
Acknowledgements xiii
1. Basic arithmetic skills 1

2. Fractions and decimals 20
3. Units of measurement 38
4. Ratios and percentages 55
5. Logarithms 70
6. Concentrations and dilutions 91
7. Measurements in biology 119
8. Analytical biology 154
9. Molecular biology 183
10. Enzyme kinetics 215
11. Statistical calculations 244
12. Graphs, trendlines and equations 267
Answers 308
Appendix 1 Arithmetic operations and commonly used Greek letters 351
Appendix 2 Periodic table 353
Appendix 3 Statistical tables 354
Appendix 4 Correlation and linear regression analysis using Excel 356
Index 363
vii
Preface
Whether you have already purchased this book or different units. Ratios and percentages are discussed
are still contemplating buying it, we hope you will in Chapter 4, providing examples of calculations
take some time reading this preface so that you can encountered when preparing mixtures and solutions
understand why this book was written and how to with a given percentage concentration. Chapter 5 is
get the most out of it. dedicated to logarithms, giving clear explanations
of the laws of logarithms and the application of
The Purpose of this Book logarithms in the biosciences.
In Chapter 6 you will learn about preparing
The authors have spent many years supporting
molar solutions and both standard and serial
students with the mathematical demands of
dilutions. We know this is a problem area for many
undergraduate and postgraduate courses in the
students, hence our decision to devote a whole
biosciences. We believe that you will benefit from
chapter to these topics.
our experience and the immense effort that we have
Chapters 7-10 present calculations relevant to the
poured into this book so that you become successful
specialisms in biosciences. Each chapter provides a
in both your degree course and future career.
brief overview of some of the theoretical concepts
of each topic before working through typical
Content calculations. Chapter 7 covers measurements made
This book consists of twelve chapters and each in microscopy, cell biology and microbiology as
chapter is divided into two sections. It is designed well as calculations of selected physiological and
to allow you progress in a logical manner from sets pharmacological parameters. Chapter 8 focuses on
of easier, fundamental problems to much more calculations relating to a range of techniques used
demanding and complex calculations aligned to in analytical biology and radiobiology. Chapter 9
various disciplines in biology. contains examples of solutions to problems in
In the first five chapters we cover the essential DNA and protein analysis, whilst Chapter 10 is
ground rules to enable a smooth transition into the devoted to enzyme kinetics, including analysis of
later chapters. We begin with the arithmetic operations enzyme inhibition.
in mathematics in Chapter 1, giving emphasis to the In Chapter 11 you are introduced to statistics
use of equations and indices. In Chapter 2 we move and will conduct some statistical analysis. Chapter 12
on to fractions and here you will also learn about demonstrates how to present data correctly in
the rounding of numbers and scientific notation. graphs and charts as well as explore relationships
Chapter 3 introduces the SI units of measurement between variables using correlation and regression
and rules for their use and conversions between analysis.
viii
Preface
Key Features self-assessment (examples of these questions

are listed at the end of each half chapter of
• Learning Outcomes the book). MyMathLabGlobal will guide you
A summary is provided at the start of each through each step in solving a problem until the
chapter of the learning outcomes expected to be fully worked correct answer is displayed. Your
achieved once the chapter has been completed. tutor has the option to set up homework, quizzes
This will help you keep track of what you have and tests.
learnt.
• Key Terms
• Worked Examples Key terms are defined in each chapter and these
Throughout the book there are numerous are highlighted in coloured text where they are
worked examples with detailed solutions and explained. A list of key terms is also given at the
explanations, taking you step by step through end of the chapter, indicating those which may
each calculation. appear as a key term in other chapters of the
book. Reviewing the key terms once a chapter is
• SELF-ASSESSMENT completed will ensure you fully understand each
There are also calculations for you to attempt concept and are ready to progress further.
independently, then check against the answer key
In the event that Pearson invite us to produce
at the end of the book. This will help you check
a second edition, we would like to hear your
your understanding and increase confidence as
suggestions on any improvements or additional
problems become progressively more difficult.
material that could be included. We can be
• MyMathLabGlobal contacted at: mathsforbiosciences@gmail.com.
This book is available with access to the online
resource, MyMathLabGlobal, but requires that Thank you for purchasing this book, we hope you
a course ID has been set up by your tutor for will enjoy using it.
you to use it. This e-resource provides an
extensive bank of exercises developed by the Ela Bryson
authors to provide the opportunity for further Jackie Willis
ix
Guided tour
9 Molecular biology
Learning outcomes When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
Learning outcomes are listed at the start of each chapter • carry out calculations required in DNA analysis for:
○ quantification of DNA
○ polymerase chain reaction
to show what you can learn. ○ DNA sequencing
○ restriction endonuclease analysis
○ creation of genomic libraries
○ agarose gel electrophoresis
• carry out calculations required in protein analysis for:
○ determination of the electric charge of amino acids and proteins
○ polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
Chapter 7 • Measurements in biology 9.1 DNA analysis
9.1.1 DNA quantification
see that the purpose of the objective is to produce an enlarged real image (the intermediate image) In a molecular biology laboratory, it is often necessary to determine the concentration of DNA
and assess its purity. For example, when DNA is replicated in bacteria and purified, its purity and
Theoretical background
that is then further magnified by the eyepiece lens. A microscope enlarges objects much more than
a magnifying glass thanks to this two stage magnification. concentration must be determined before the DNA can be used for experiments. The most convenient
and most frequently used method for quantifying DNA is a direct ultraviolet (UV) method. It relies
on DNA strongly absorbing UV light around 260 nm. If we measure absorbance of a solution of
The text and illustrations

Intermediate image Figure 7.1.2 Magnification of an object in a
microscope. The objective relays a magnified real double stranded DNA at 260 nm (A260), we can calculate its DNA concentration C using the following
image of the object to the eyepiece. The eyepiece empirical formula:
Object
Objective Eyepiece magnifies this intermediate image yielding a highly
C = A260 * 50 mg>mL (9.1.1)
explain underpinning
magnified virtual image of the object. Fo and
Fo Fe denote the focal points of the objective and
eyepiece, respectively.
Hence, a sample with absorbance equal to 1 will have a concentration of 50 μg>mL. If the DNA
Fe sample is diluted prior to the measurement of absorbance, then the dilution factor can be incorporated
theoretical concepts as well as

into the formula for C:
Magnified virtual image
C = A260 * dilution factor * 50 mg>mL (9.1.2)
reflecting the practical nature

It is very important to assess the purity of DNA as some impurities may have significant absorbance
at 260 nm and lead to an overestimation of DNA quantity. DNA purity is generally assessed by taking
additional readings of absorbance at 280 nm (A280) and calculating the A260 >A280 ratio. High absorbance
at 280 nm indicates protein contamination. For a DNA sample with average composition, the purity is
of the biosciences. generally considered satisfactory for most purposes when the A260 >A280 ratio is at least 1.8.
A typical light microscope found in a laboratory is shown in Fig. 7.1.3. This particular model is Worked example 9.1.1
an upright microscope where light from a light source in the lower part of the instrument is directed You have diluted a sample of double stranded DNA 100-fold and measured absorbance of
upwards onto the specimen mounted on a glass slide secured on the stage. The light passes through this diluted solution at 260 and 280 nm, obtaining values of 0.480 and 0.264, respectively.
the specimen and continues through the objective and eyepiece lenses before reaching the eyes of the What is the DNA concentration of the original undiluted solution in mg/mL? Is the purity of
observer. As there are two eyepieces here, this type of microscope is referred to as binocular. the sample satisfactory?
Figure 7.1.3 Upright optical microscope.

183
Source: Vereshchagin Dmitry. Shutterstock.
As the object observed under a microscope is first enlarged by the objective and then this enlarged
image is further magnified by the eyepiece, the overall magnification of a microscope is the product
Worked examples
of the magnification of the objective and the eyepiece:
magnification = magnificationobjective * magnificationeyepiece (7.1.1)
Worked examples are
120 provided throughout,
Figures
with clear step-by-step
Graphs, tables, diagrams and
explanations to guide you
photographs are included to
through each problem.
illustrate examples.
Chapter 12 • Graphs, trendlines and equations Chapter 3 • Units of measurement Chapter 5 • Logarithms
study, otherwise the reader will not be able to decide whether the data is taken from a large enough Solution The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation is applied to the preparation of buffers for laboratory use.
sample to be representative. A dm3 is a volume of a cube with a side length of 1 dm. Since the symbol d represents a prefix deci By calculating the required ratio of concentrations of conjugate base to weak acid, solutions can be
and factor 10-1 (see Table 3.1.3), then: mixed together to produce a buffer of specific pH.
12.1.2 Bar charts 1 dm = 10-1 m = 0.1 m = 10 cm
Bar charts can be used to present discrete categorical data either in the form of frequency values or
and 1 dm3 = 110 cm2 3 = 103 cm3 1see Fig. 3.2.12 Worked example 5.2.10
as percentages. Where they are particularly useful is for making side by side comparisons of data.
The graph can be arranged so that the bars are presented either vertically (column chart in Excel) or So 5 dm3 = 5 * 103 cm3 = 5000 cm3 You have a buffer containing 0.1 M acetic acid and 0.1 M sodium acetate as in Worked exam-
horizontally (bar chart in Excel). ple 5.2.8. Given that the pKa of acetic acid is 4.76, calculate the pH of this buffer after 0.05 M
1 m3 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) has been added.
1 dm3 = 1 L 1 cm3 = 1 mL
1 mm3 = 1 µL Solution
1m
Worked example 12.1.11

cm
The addition of NaOH will result in a conversion of acetic acid into sodium acetate:
m
A sample of 226 children aged 15–16 years received a dental examination and treatment.
10
m
1c
1 mm 1 m
Following the treatment, the number of teeth with fillings or extracted was determined as CH3COOH + NaOH ∆ CH3COO- + Na+ + H2O
shown in Table 12.1.1. All of the children lived in an area where the water supply was subject
1 cm
Consequently, the concentrations of acid and conjugate base will be altered. Since NaOH dissociates
10 cm
to fluorination. Produce a vertical and horizontal bar chart to present the data. 1 mm fully, after its addition we will have:
1m
1 cm
Table 12.1.1. Record of dental examination showing the numbers [weak acid] = 0.1 M - 0.05 M = 0.05 M
of teeth with fillings or extracted in a sample of children aged 10 cm 1 cm3 = 103 mm3
15—16 years, n = 226 1 mL = 103 μL [conjugate base] = 0.1 M + 0.05 M = 0.15 M
1 dm3 = 103 cm3
Number of teeth with We can now put these values into the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation:
1m 1 L = 103 mL
fillings/extracted Number of children
0.15 M
0 165 1 m3 = 103 dm3 pH = 4.76 + log = 4.76 + log 3 = 4.76 + 0.48 = 5.24 12 d.p.2
0.05 M
1 42 Figure 3.2.1 Metric and litre-based units of volume.
2 12 This example demonstrates that even when strong alkali such as sodium hydroxide are added, the
3+ 7 Worked example 3.2.7 pH of the buffer shows only a small change from the original value of 4.76 (obtained in Worked
Express the volume of 0.6 mL in mL. example 5.2.8).
Solution Solution
The two types of bar chart are shown in Fig. 12.1.9. 5.2.3 Exponential growth and decay
1 mL = 10-3 L and 1 mL = 10-6 L, so 1 mL = 103 mL 1see Fig. 3.2.12
(a) 180
Many processes undergo an exponential growth or decay. For example, cell division is associated
(b) So 0.6 mL = 0.6 * 103 mL = 600 mL with an exponential increase in cell number. In contrast, the concentration of drugs in the body
Number of teeth with fillings/extracted
160 3+ 7 will usually decrease exponentially with time following drug administration. Also isotopes that are
140 3.2.2 Interconversion of units with different names unstable undergo an exponential decay.
In order to convert between units with different names, we follow the same steps as for conversions
Number of children
120
2 12 associated with a change of a prefix (see Section 3.2.1). This is illustrated in the next worked example, Cell division When modelling the growth of a cell population, it is assumed that individual
100 cells will divide into two cells by the end of the cell cycle. The growth of the cells is described by
where a conversion between two units used for expressing distances on a molecular level, picometres
80 and ångströms, is carried out. the equation:
1 42
60
N = N0 ekt (5.2.11)
40 Worked example 3.2.8
where N0 is the number of cells in the initial population,
20 0 165 Express the length of the chemical bond between a carbon and a hydrogen equal to 109 pm in Å. N is the number of cells at time t,
0 k is the growth constant.
0 1 2 3+ 0 50 100 150 200 Solution
Number of teeth with fillings/extracted Number of children In the first step we have to express the original unit (pm) in terms of the new unit (Å). When the numbers of cells at two time points are known, we can calculate the growth constant k by
rearranging Equation 5.2.11. First we divide both sides of the equation by N0:
Figure 12.1.9 (a) A vertical and (b) horizontal bar chart displaying the number of children aged 15–16 years with fillings or 1 pm = 10-12 m
tooth extractions, n = 226 (produced as a column and bar chart in Excel, respectively). N
You will recall from Section 3.1.6 that Å = 10-10 m. = ekt
N0
276 50 84
x
Chapter 8 • Analytical biology
Answers
Solving for x, gives:

2.2 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1.8834 + 0.1241 = 3.1901x
2.0075 = 3.1901x 1. (a) 0.001 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.25
2.0075 2. (a) 0.273 (b) 1.867 (c) 0.001
x = = 0.629 1ng>mL2 13 s.f.2 3. (a) 1 016 990 (b) 1 017 000 (c) 1 017 000 (d) 1 020 000
3.1901
The concentration of quinine in plasma is found to be 0.629 ng/mL. 4. (a) 0.07502 (b) 0.0750 (c) 0.075 (d) 0.08
5. (a) 0.22 + 1.83 + 3.6 = 5.65 = 5.7 11 d.p.2
(b) 7.852 - 3.14 = 4.712 = 4.71 12 d.p.2
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6. (a) 5.3 * 3.141 = 16.6473 = 17 12 s.f.2
(b) 1.38 , 0.25 = 5.52 = 5.5 12 s.f.2
8.2.1 Thin layer chromatography was per- 8.2.5 A cellular lysate was loaded onto an 7. (a) 1 * 104 (b) -1 * 10-4
formed to separate compounds A and B ion exchange chromatography column 8. (a) 5.671 * 103 (b) 9.5 * 10-4 (c) -2.585 * 102 (d) -1.5 * 10-1
and resulted in spots at 5.2 and 9.8 cm in order to purify a protein of interest. 9. (a) 436 900 (b) 0.00004369
from the origin, respectively. The solvent The lysate and eluate contained 58.3 mg
front was found to be 20.0 cm from the and 36.4 mg of the protein, re- 10. (a) 1.2 * 102
origin. What are the retention factors of spectively. What was the % yield of (b) 12.5 * 10-3 = 1.25 * 10-2
compounds A and B? this purification? (c) 12.2 * 108 = 1.22 * 109 = 1.2 * 109 (2 s.f.)
8.2.2 Compounds A and B were separated 8.2.6 An enzyme solution has an activity of (d) 2.5 * 104 , 10-2 = 2.5 * 104-1-22 = 2.5 * 106
using adsorption column chromatogra- 36000 U/mL. How many mmoles of
phy giving peaks at 3.8 min and 6.1 min, substrate will 0.05 mL of this enzyme
respectively. The width of each of these solution convert per second? 2.2 MyMathLabGlobal
peaks was 0.9 min. What is the resolution 8.2.7 A volume of 50 mL L of an enzyme solution 1. (a) 0.002 (b) 0.32 (c) 0.525
of this column? Is it satisfactory? was added to a standard reaction mixture 2. (a) 1.1 (b) -0.1 (c) 0.15 (d) 4.5
8.2.3 A mixture of two lipids contains palmitic and the initial reaction rate was found to
3. (a) 0.42 (b) 1.16 (c) 1.79 (d) 0.00
acid and linoleic acid at a ratio 7:3 (by be 0.18 mmol/min. How many units of
weight). You are separating the two enzyme activity were there in 1 mL of the 4. (a) 0.2778 (b) 0.0174 (c) 0.0000 (d) 0.0000
lipids by applying 8 g of the mixture original enzyme solution? 5. (a) 0.1 (b) 0.3 (c) 1.8
onto an adsorption column. How much 8.2.8 Express the activity of 5 mkat in U. 6. (a) 12200 (b) 12000 (c) 10000
of each lipid would you expect to obtain
8.2.9 Calculate the specific activity of a purified 7. (a) 7 145 280 (b) 7 145 300 (c) 7 145 000
assuming 83 % recovery?
enzyme solution that contains 2.5 mg 8. (a) 0.8356 (b) 0.836 (c) 0.84
8.2.4 Gel filtration column chromatography protein per mL and has an activity of
was performed to obtain pure protein. 86 nkat/mL. 9. (a) 0.004881 (b) 0.00488 (c) 0.0049
Fractions with 5 mL volume were
collected and their protein concentration
was determined (see table below). How
8.2.10 An enzyme was purified from a liver
homogenate using ion exchange column
chromatography. The original homogenate
10. (a) 0.0355
11. (a) 8.47 SELF-ASSESSMENT (b) 0.035
(b) 8.5
(c) 0.035
(c) 8.5
(d) 0.04
(d) 8
12. 12.6
Practice skills through

much protein does each fraction contain
was found to have an enzyme activity
and what is the total amount of protein 13. 0.0003869
of 13.05 mkat and pooled fractions of
obtained from the column? 14. (a) 1 * 106 (b) 1 * 10-3 (c) -1 * 104 (d) -1 * 10-5
the enzyme from the column were found
Fraction
1
Concentration (mg/mL)
1.84
to have an activity of 8.62 mkat. What
percentage of the enzyme activity was
recovered from the column?
17. (a) 5135
SELF-ASSESSMENT exercises
15. (a) 2.063 * 103
16. (a) 7.06 * 10-1
(b) 5.711845 * 106
(b) 1.8 * 10-3
(b) 5 349 700
(c) 6.451 * 102
(c) 6.2 * 10-6
(c) 0.0214
(d) -1.065 * 101
(d) -5.3 * 10-2
(d) 0.000037
and check your solutions in

2 2.68 8.2.11 An enzyme was purified from a
3 0.96 homogenate using affinity column 18. (a) 0.846 (b) 0.00000051 (c) 931.2 (d) 608 500 000
19. 7.21903 * 103
the Answers.
20. 40 897 270
178
21. 5.9082 * 108
22. 937 (nearest integer)
311
MyMathLabGlobal
The MyMathLabGlobal resource (where made available
by your tutor) enables you to learn by solving problems
online. It also allows tutors to set online tests.
Key terms
Key terms are deﬁned and clearly highlighted in the text.
To aid revision, there is a list at the end of each chapter.
Chapter 11 • Statistical calculations Chapter 11 • Statistical calculations
Table 11.1.10 Heights (cm) of female athletes, n = 9

152 158 159 161 162 163 165 167 168 11.2.13 For a contingency table that has 3 rows and 4 columns, calculate the number of degrees of
freedom required for conducting a Chi-square test on the data.
11.2.14 The table below shows the results of a study that investigated the number of hours spent
Solution
exercising per week in males of three different age groups. Use a Chi-square test to determine
The mean height of a female athlete is:
whether there is a difference between the time spent on exercise by the different age groups.
g xi 1455
x= = = 161.7 cm Age group (years) 63 hours/week 3–6 hours/week 7 6 hours/week
n 9
18–25 28 51 17
To calculate the standard error, the standard deviation of the sample must first be calculated as shown 26–35 34 60 21
in Table 11.1.11. 36–50 29 34 24
Table 11.1.11 Determination of the standard deviation of the height of female athletes 11.2.15 The standard length of pumpkin seeds is reported to be 11 mm. Using a One-sample
Student t-test, determine whether a sample of 20 seeds, for which the mean is 11.7 mm and
xi 1cm2 152 158 159 161 162 163 165 167 168
the standard error is 0.8 mm, has a length significantly different from the standard length.
xi - x 1cm2 -9.7 -3.7 -2.7 -0.7 0.3 1.3 3.3 5.3 6.3
11.2.16 The standard weight of a large chicken egg is 57 g. Using a One-sample Student t-test,
1xi - x22 1cm22 94.09 13.69 7.29 0.49 0.09 1.69 10.89 28.09 39.69 determine whether the mean weight of the eggs in the sample below is significantly different
from the reported standard weight.
We then calculate the sum of squares:
Egg 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
g 1xi - x22 = 196.01 cm2 Weight (g) 64 68 56 54 49 60 68 70 51
We can now use the sum to calculate the standard deviation using Equation 11.1.4: 11.2.17 The standard fasting blood glucose concentration in non-diabetics is 5.5 mmol/L. Measure-
ment of fasting blood glucose levels was carried out in a group of 26 patients attending an
g 1xi - x22 196.01 cm2 196.01 cm2 obesity clinic. Their mean blood glucose concentration was found to be 5.8 { 1.4 mmol>L
s= = = = 4.95 cm 13 s.f.2
B n- 1 A 9- 1 A 8 (standard deviation). Is this value significantly different from the standard concentration
reported for non-diabetics?
To calculate the standard error SEM, we have to divide the standard deviation by 2 n.
4.95 cm 4.95 cm
SE M = = = 1.65 cm
2 9 3 Key Terms
Confidence intervals When observations of a variable of interest are made within a population, (arithmetic) mean dispersion population mean
for example body mass, these can be plotted on a type of bar chart known as a histogram. A histo- central tendency frequency (expected, probability
gram represents a distribution of the frequency of the variable, where the frequency is the number Chi-square test observed) range
of times that a given value of a variable occurs. For example, if we measured the body mass for a class interval goodness of fit test reliability coefficient
sample of 314 females, we could present the results in a histogram as shown in Fig. 11.1.1. Usually, coefficient of variation histogram sample
frequency values are grouped within a set range, known as a class interval. For example, we can see in confidence interval hypothesis (null, alternative) sample variance
the histogram in Fig. 11.1.1 that for the class interval 50–54 kg there are 10 individuals with a body confidence level median significance level
mass between 50 and 54 kg. confidence limits mode standard deviation
When a line is drawn through the bars of the histogram as shown in Fig. 11.1.1, then we can contingency table normal distribution standard error (of the mean)
see that a bell-shaped curve is produced. This represents a normal distribution of frequencies as critical value number of degrees of freedom t-distribution
the distribution of values is symmetrical and the mean is located in the middle of the distribution. data (discrete, continuous, One-sample Student t-test test (one-tailed, two-tailed)
Although the sample may have been selected carefully to be a fair and unbiased representation of the categorical) population Yates’ correction
population from which it has been drawn, we cannot be certain that the sample mean will have exactly
the same value as the population mean, m. The sample mean is likely to be close to mand the amount Key terms in bold also appear as key terms in other chapters.
by which it differs can be determined from the standard error.
250 266
xi
About the authors
Ela Bryson received a Master’s degree in Molecular Jackie Willis was awarded a BSc in Biochemistry
Biology from the University of Lodz in Poland, an and a PhD in Clinical Pharmacology and Thera-
MSc in Physics from the University of York and a peutics by Birmingham University. Jackie has
PhD in Biophysics from The Open University. Her taught molecular pharmacology, mathematics and
postdoctoral research focused on protein folding statistics at Coventry University and the
and Huntington disease. Ela is currently a Senior University of Hertfordshire and has previously
Lecturer at the University of Hertfordshire where published a textbook on statistics for Biosciences
she has been teaching molecular biology as well undergraduates. Jackie retired as an Associate Dean
as mathematics and statistics to Biosciences and in 2015 having spent more than 30 years working in
Pharmacy students. academia.
Both authors were presented with a joint award by the University of Hertfordshire in recognition of their
commitment to teaching mathematics.
xii
Acknowledgements
Firstly, we would like to thank colleagues at the (University of Hertfordshire) for their helpful
University of Hertfordshire for their kind help comments on draft chapters.
in compiling this book, in particular Lee Rixon, We are particularly grateful to our families
Diana Francis, Sue Rawlins and other members of for their continued patience and encouragement
the technical staff for their help in producing several throughout the long hours spent working on the
photographs that appear in the book. textbook and MyMathLabGlobal. Without their
Special thanks are due to Dr Kevin Bryson support the production of this book would not
(University College London), Dr Jasbir Singh Lota have been possible.
(Parmiter’s School, Watford), Dr David Griffiths
(University of Hertfordshire) and Dr David Prouse Ela Bryson and Jackie Willis
Publisher’s acknowledgements
Picture Credits
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs:
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)
bayleiphotography.com: Sam Bailey: Photograph of Ela Bryson xii; 123RF.com: Jürgen Fälchle 138/7.2.1;
Shutterstock.com: Vereshchagin Dmitry 120/7.1.3, T.W. 124/7.1.9, Alila Medical Media 139/7.2.2; Ela Bryson
and Jackie Willis: 1/1.1.1, 3/1.1.2, 11/1.2.1, 16/1.2.3, 65/4.2.1, 80/5.2.2, 92/6.1.1, 93/6.1.2, 195/9.1.7, 196/9.1.9,
121/7.1.4, 122/7.1.6, 122/7.1.7, 126/7.1.10, 129/7.1.13, 135l, 135r, 156/8.1.3; Lee Rixon: 121/7.1.4, 122/7.1.6,
128/7.1.12; Nathan Davies: 209/9.2.5; Jasbir Singh Lota: 215/10.1.1
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1 Basic arithmetic skills
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
• solve mathematical problems using appropriate operations and apply the principles of BODMAS
• rearrange and solve equations
• apply the laws of indices
• carry out calculations using a scientific calculator and provide your own estimate of the answer.
1.1 Elementary arithmetic calculations in biology
1.1.1 Introduction
Whether working in the laboratory or out in the field, biologists need to use elementary arithmetic
skills. In this section, we will consider the fundamental rules of arithmetic and then apply these to some
examples of basic calculations in biology. You should already be familiar with the operations used in
this chapter, but you may find it useful to refer to Appendix 1 which provides a brief description of
arithmetic operations and their symbols.
The information collected during biological investigations consists of a series of observations,
referred to as the data (plural), where each individual observation is the datum (singular). Although
data may be qualitative (such as the colour of fungal colonies growing on media), more frequently
data are quantitative (such as the number of fungal colonies counted on a plate). Quantitative data can
be expressed as fractions (e.g. 12 ), percentages (50 %) or decimal numbers (0.5). However, some data
are in the form of whole numbers. Whole numbers are referred to as integers. Integers are described
as discrete data because they are whole numbers that have other numbers lying in between them. In
this chapter we will be using integers.
1.1.2 Basic operations

Operations are the processes used to perform mathematical calculations. These include four basic
operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division but there are many more (e.g. percentages,
powers) that will be covered in later chapters. We will work through a couple of problems to remind you
of how basic operations are used.

In an investigation about the germination of cress seeds, a plant biologist wants to s ummarise
the quantitative data collected about the germination of the seeds in a sample of 7 pots
(Fig. 1.1.1).
Figure 1.1.1 Germinated cress seeds.
1
Chapter 1 • Basic arithmetic skills
Five hundred seeds were sown in each pot and after 2 weeks the number of seeds that germi-
nated was counted:
Pot 1 326
Pot 2 402
Pot 3 397
Pot 4 420
Pot 5 381
Pot 6 368
Pot 7 352
Solution
In order to calculate the total number of seeds that have germinated, we must add the number that
germinated in each pot:
326 + 402 + 397 + 420 + 381 + 368 + 352 = 2646
In maths, the total is also referred to as the sum – the result of adding two or more numbers together.
The investigator also needs to know how many seeds did not germinate in each pot. This can be cal-
culated by subtracting the number that germinated from the number of seeds planted:
Pot 1 500 - 326 = 174

Pot 2 500 - 402 = 98
Pot 3 500 - 397 = 103
Pot 4 500 - 420 = 80
Pot 5 500 - 381 = 119
Pot 6 500 - 368 = 132
Pot 7 500 - 352 = 148
The number of seeds that failed to germinate is:

174 + 98 + 103 + 80 + 119 + 132 + 148 = 854
However, this is a very inefficient way of determining how many seeds did not germinate. As the same
number of seeds was sown in each pot, by using multiplication we can easily calculate that the total
number of seeds planted in seven pots was:
500 * 7 = 3500
We can then calculate the number of seeds that did not germinate as the difference between the total
number of seeds planted and the total number of seeds which germinated:
3500 - 2646 = 854
If the investigator wanted to express in general terms how many seeds per pot germinated, this can be
determined by dividing the total number of seeds that germinated by the number of pots:
2646
= 378
7
378 represents the average, or arithmetic mean, and these two terms are often used interchangeably.
The arithmetic mean (usually just called the mean) represents the typical value within a set of numbers.
2
We can see that in Pot 4, 420 seeds germinated which is above average, whilst in Pot 1, 326 seeds germi-
nated which is below average. In this example, the mean was calculated using the following general rule:
mean = sum of observations in the set , number of observations in the set
We can think of this as being a word equation because it shows how to perform the calculation. In
word equation, the sum can be represented by the symbol g (capital Greek letter sigma, meaning
maths, we use symbols in equations to represent the operations used to process a calculation. In our
the sum of) and each observation by xi. The number of observations is generally referred to as n and the
symbol for the sample mean is x. Using mathematical symbols, the word equation can be rewritten as:
a xi
x =
n
You will learn more about the arithmetic mean in Section 11.1. Throughout this book there are
equations which include symbols representing quantities and mathematical operations. As quantity
symbols are generally single letters of the Latin or Greek alphabet, you may find it useful to familiarise
yourself with other commonly used Greek letters which are listed in Appendix 1.

In the laboratory, toxicological testing is frequently performed by exposing cells to a test
substance to determine whether it causes the cells to die. As this testing is performed on a
large scale, cellular suspensions are pipetted into small wells on a plate. These are known as
multi-well plates, as shown in Fig. 1.1.2.
Figure 1.1.2 Multi-well plate.
How many wells are there on the plate? If the laboratory is contracted to perform 960 047 tests,
how many multi-well plates will be required? Notice that the digits of the number 960 047 are
grouped into groups of three separated by thin spaces to make reading it easier. This is custom-
ary in the internationally used SI system (we will be looking at this system in detail in Chapter 3).
In this book such grouping of digits will generally be used for numbers with six or more digits.
3
Solution
The easiest way to calculate this is to count the number of wells in each row (12) and column (8) and
then multiply them:
8 * 12 = 96
To calculate how many 96-well plates will be required for 960 047 tests, we need to divide 960 047 by 96
1960 047 , 962 which gives us 10000 and a remainder of 47. This means we are able to fill 10000 plates
to test 960 000 samples but then a further plate is required for the remaining 47 samples. In the last plate,
49 wells will remain empty 196 - 47 = 492. In total, 10001 plates are needed. If you were to perform
this calculation using a calculator, your answer would be 10000.48958, which is a decimal number.
1.1.3 Estimation
There are many situations in our everyday lives where we need to make an estimate instead of obtaining
a precise answer. The problem below gives a good example of where we use estimation, which means we
do not attempt to find the precise number but make a calculated guess that is near to the right answer.

A biologist wants to conduct a study using bean plants and needs to decide how many plants
to buy. They have 10 rows and each row is 72 cm in length. If the plants need to be spaced
7 cm apart in the row, how many plants should the biologist purchase?
Solution
The first step in solving this problem is to estimate how many plants can be placed in each row.
If 72 cm is rounded down to 70 cm for the length of the row, then we can say that approximately
70>7 = 10 plants can be placed in each row.
As there are 10 rows, then 10 * 10 = 100 plants are required.
Self-assessment
1.1.1 Soil samples are prepared for drying in are required. How many vials does
an oven so that the moisture content can the laboratory use in total during all
be measured by comparing the weight of 52 weeks?
the soil before and after drying. It takes 1.1.3 A student planning their research project
a biology student 20 minutes to prepare has some samples that will be analysed
and weigh a batch of nine samples. After using a spectrophotometer. The student
spending 3 hours preparing samples, the needs to book the equipment, so they
student places them in the oven together must estimate how long to make the
with 6 samples that had been prepared booking for. It takes 1 minute 29 seconds
the previous day. How many samples will for them to take readings for each
there be in the oven? sample and 20 seconds to change the
1.1.2 A laboratory uses 4 vials per week of sample. Estimate the length of time (in
an enzyme for 52 weeks except for minutes) for which the student needs to
5 weeks when some of the staff are book the spectrophotometer to carry out
on holiday and only 3 vials per week measurements for 30 samples.
4
MyMathLabGlobal
1.1.1 A lab needs to run toxicology tests using drug that is 8 mg for every kilogram of their
multi-well plates that hold 96 samples body weight. Calculate the dose of drug for
each. How many multi-well plates will subjects with the following weights:
the lab need for testing 289 150 samples? (a) 56 kg
1.1.2 A lab needs to order multi-well plates (b) 75 kg
for conducting tests on 688 540 sam-
(c) 86 kg
ples. Each multi-well plate will hold 96
samples. The supplier provides the plates 1.1.7 You need to analyse 103 samples by elec-
in packs of 10. Calculate how many packs trophoresis using gels with 12 wells. In
the lab will need to order. addition to your samples, you have to
1.1.3 An assay to obtain a standard curve will include molecular mass markers that will
be conducted in triplicate and there will occupy one lane in each gel. How many
be nine standards with different concen- gels do you need to run in total?
trations used. How many test tubes will 1.1.8 An enzyme assay uses 4 μL of enzyme
be needed for this assay? solution. How many assays can you
1.1.4 How much buffer do you add to 10 μL of perform with the total of 720 μL of the
enzyme and 50 μL of substrate to obtain enzyme solution, assuming no losses for
an enzymatic reaction mix with the total pipetting?
volume of 1200 μL? 1.1.9 A laboratory uses 7 bottles of dis-
1.1.5 A mixture of three different solvents (chloro tilled water every week of the year except
form, ether and acetone) is prepared. A for 9 weeks during the summer when
volume of 225 mL of chloroform is placed its usage of distilled water is reduced to
in a beaker, together with 373 mL of ether. 5 bottles a week. How many bottles a
How much acetone must be added for the year does the lab use?
final volume of the solution to be 800 mL? 1.1.10 A test tube rack can hold 24 test tubes.
1.1.6 An experimental subject in a pharma How many racks do you need to store
cological study must be given a dose of 165 test tubes?
1.2 Indices, BODMAS and use of equations

1.2.1 Indices
Sometimes there are situations in which a number is multiplied by itself, e.g. 2 * 2. Another way of
representing this would be as 22 which we commonly say is 2 squared or 2 raised to the power of 2. A
similar example is 2 * 2 * 2 which can be presented as 23, 2 raised to the power of 3, or 2 cubed. If
we were to generalise, then this could be written as:
an
where a is the base and n is the index or power. The index represents the number of times that a should
be multiplied by itself. The index is also sometimes referred to as the exponent or order. So an, where
n = 4, would be written as:
a4
5
which is the same as a * a * a * a.

(Note that the plural of ‘index’ is ‘indices’.)
Any base raised to the power of 1 is equal to the base:
a1 = a
For example: 71 = 7
Laws of indices If numbers containing different bases are to be added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided, their values must be calculated separately before calculating the sum, difference, product or
quotient, respectively. This is illustrated in the next worked example.

Evaluate:
(a) 23 + 42
(b) 33 - 24
(c) 23 * 51
(d) 26 , 42
Solution
(a) We need to calculate the values of 23 and 42 before carrying out the addition as the bases are
different.
23 = 2 * 2 * 2 = 8
42 = 4 * 4 = 16
So 23 + 42 = 8 + 16 = 24
(b) We need to calculate the values of 33 and 24 before carrying out the subtraction as the bases are
different.
33 = 27
24 = 16
33 - 24 = 27 - 16 = 11
(c) We need to calculate the values of 23 and 51 before carrying out the multiplication as the bases
are different.
23 = 8
51 = 5
23 * 51 = 8 * 5 = 40
(d) We need to calculate the values of 26 and 42 before carrying out the division as the bases are
different.
26 = 64
42 = 16
26 , 42 = 64 , 16 = 4
6
However, when calculations involve numbers with the same base, we can apply laws of indices.
First law of indices To multiply numbers that contain the same base, we add the indices:
am * an = am+n

Evaluate 23 * 22.
Solution
23 * 22 = 23+2 = 25 = 32
We can see that this is indeed the case when we write each term fully:
23 = 2 * 2 * 2
22 = 2 * 2
So:
23 * 22 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 25 = 32
Second law of indices To divide numbers that contain the same base, we subtract the indices:
am
= am-n
an

23
Evaluate .
22
Solution
23
= 23-2 = 21 = 2
22
We can show that this is the case when we write each term fully:
23 2 * 2 * 2
2
= = 2
2 2 * 2
Third law of indices When we have a number raised to a power that is raised to a further power,
we multiply the powers:
1am 2 n = am * n

Evaluate 122 2 3.
Solution
122 2 3 = 22*3 = 26 = 64
7
We can see that this is the case when we write this expression fully:
122 2 3 = 22 * 22 * 22 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 26 = 64
In the same way as there are positive and negative integers, there are both positive and negative
indices. So far we have only considered examples where the index is positive. When it is zero, the
fourth law of indices applies and when it is negative, the fifth law applies.
Fourth law of indices Any number raised to the power of 0 is equal to 1:

a0 = 1

Show that 20 = 1.
Solution
We could write:
20 = 2n-n
where n is any integer (because n - n = 0).
Using the second law of indices, we can express the right-hand side of the equation as:
2n
2n-n =
2n
This is equal to 1 as any number divided by itself is equal to 1.
So we have shown that 20 = 1.
Fifth law of indices A number raised to a negative power is equal to 1 divided by this number
raised to the positive power with the same absolute value:
1
a-m =
am
where m 7 0.

Evaluate 2 −3.
Solution
1 1
2-3 = 3 =
2 8
We can show that this is the case when we write:
2-3 = 20-3
Applying the second law of indices we have:
20
20-3 =
23
8
Since 20 = 1, then:
20 1
3
= 3
2 2
So we have shown that:
1
2-3 =
23
Sixth law of indices This law refers to fractional powers called roots.
m
a1>m = 1 a
For example:
a1>2 = 2a (square root)
3
a1>3 = 1a (cube root)

Evaluate 41>2 and 81>3.
Solution
41>2 = 24
Square root of 4 has two values: 2 and -2, because both numbers squared give 4:
22 = 4 and 1 -22 2 = -2 * 1 -22 = 4
3
81>3 = 18 = 2
The cube root of 8 has only one value as:
23 = 8 and 1 -22 3 = -2 * 1 -22 * 1 -22 = -8
1.2.2 BODMAS
When a complex calculation has several steps, it is important to give priority to the parts of the
calculation that need to be completed first, otherwise an incorrect answer may be produced. For
example, let us calculate the value of the following expression:
3 * 5 - 1
If the multiplication is performed first, then this would give 15 - 1 = 14.
However, if the subtraction is (incorrectly) performed first this would give 3 * 4 = 12.
In maths, there is an established protocol for the sequence in which operations are performed in
calculations. This is usually abbreviated as BODMAS which stands for:
B Brackets first
O Order refers to powers
DM Division and Multiplication
AS Addition and Subtraction
9
The following worked examples illustrate the application of the BODMAS rule to calculations.

Calculate 10 + 6 − 817 + 52 , 22.
Solution
Brackets 10 + 6 - 817 + 52 >22 = 10 + 6 - 8 * 12>22
Order 10 + 6 - 8 * 12>22 = 10 + 6 - 8 * 12>4
Division and Multiplication 10 + 6 - 8 * 12>4 = 10 + 6 - 24
Addition and Subtraction 10 + 6 - 24 = -8
If there are different types of operations within the brackets, we carry them out according to the
BODMAS rule before performing operations outside the brackets, as shown in the next example.

Calculate 4123 : 5 + 22 ÷ 6 − 1.
Solution
First we carry out the calculations within the brackets, in the order dictated by the BODMAS rule:
Order 4123 * 5 + 22 , 6 - 1 = 418 * 5 + 22 , 6 - 1
Division and Multiplication 418 * 5 + 22 , 6 - 1 = 4140 + 22 , 6 - 1
Addition and Subtraction 4140 + 22 , 6 - 1 = 4 * 42 , 6 - 1
Now that we have dealt with the brackets, we can carry out the remaining operations following the
BODMAS rule:
Division and Multiplication 4 * 42 , 6 - 1 = 28 - 1

Addition and Subtraction 28 - 1 = 27
When we have expressions containing nested brackets, for example round brackets within square
brackets, we deal with the inner brackets first.

Calculate 32(3 + 4) 4 2 ÷ 28 − 5.
Solution
Brackets (round) [213 + 42]2 , 28 - 5 = [2 * 7]2 , 28 - 5

Brackets (square) [2 * 7]2 , 28 - 5 = 142 , 28 - 5
Order 142 , 28 - 5 = 196 , 28 - 5
Division and Multiplication 196 , 28 - 5 = 7 - 5
Addition and Subtraction 7 - 5 = 2
10
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an explanatory letter which I addressed to the officers commanding
the regiment, set his Lordship's mind at ease; for I unhesitatingly
declared him to be totally unfit to make any observations of
consequence, as to the positions or state of the army, or upon the
country in rear of the lines; and in this opinion, as we were
afterwards able to ascertain, I proved to be quite correct, for
Marshal Massena finding him useless, he was altogether neglected,
and having been left by the French, in their retreat, asleep in a hut,
he fell into the hands of some of our light troops. It was intended
that he was to have been tried for deserting to the enemy, and I was
in consequence ordered to appear as the principal witness against
him; but upon his being brought before the General Court-Martial by
the Provost Marshal, it was at once ascertained, that he had become
deranged during his confinement. Upon this circumstance being
made known to Lord Wellington, he, I understood, ordered him to
be sent home, and I heard some time afterwards, that the
unfortunate man died in a lunatic asylum in Ireland. This was a
melancholy instance of the consequences of improper
recommendations of persons for commissions in the army, which I
regret to say, was but too common in those days; and my chief
object in giving the story at all, is, that it may cause some
gentlemen in future, to consider what they are about, before they
take upon themselves the responsibility of introducing such men as
Mr. B. into her Majesty's army.
In the French armies, according to the system they pursue, an
officer possessing in many respects power not inferior to what I am
so desirous that our officers of military police should be intrusted,
takes up his station generally with or near the head-quarters of the
army, or close to what is to be the line of march of the following day,
and, if possible, within a reasonable distance of where he intends
the markets to be held, should the army be stationary even for a few
days only, and this enables him either personally to superintend
what is going on, or else to send his subordinates to do so. He or
some of his people patrole the neighbourhood of the camps, in order
to protect all who are coming to the markets with supplies, and, on
the spot, he punishes any one guilty of infringing the orders of the
army.—Upon the line of march he distributes his police in such a
manner as to insure good order amongst the soldiers, bat-men,
carters, those attached to the commissariat, sutlers, and even
amongst the people bringing supplies to the markets.
As he acts under the orders of the principal officer of the "état-
major," or the commander-in-chief, he and his subordinates have the
power of inflicting summary punishment, according to the rules of
the service; and they are, therefore, even accompanied by
executioners, the very sight of whom is conducive to good behaviour
on the part of the troops and followers of the army of every
description. It is something of this kind, but superior in arrangement,
and in the rank of those employed, that the British army so much
wants, and what I am anxious to have established upon a most
respectable footing; but in all arrangements for this purpose it
should be kept in view how beneficial it would be to the public
service that a proper provision should be made for the necessities of
divisions of the army when acting separately or independently. The
French plan seems more particularly adapted to the wants of the
head-quarters only, and is therefore so far defective.
In my anxiety to have an intelligent and efficient police established
in connexion with the adjutant-general's department, I have been
obliged to say more upon the subject than I at first intended, and as
everything relating to the discipline of an army comes under that
branch of the staff, I must also take the liberty to observe (and in
doing so I know that I am coincided with in the opinion I am about
to express by many officers,) that our courts-martial which are, even
in these quiet times, almost constantly sitting, have brought matters,
as the natural consequence of such a plan, into an unprofitable
state, and which cannot possibly from want of time, and for other
obvious reasons, exist, on service in the field. The strange system
now pursued seems as if intended to weaken the power and
influence of commanding and other officers in the corps, and which
they must possess, if discipline is to be maintained as it ought to be;
and this state of things looks as if brought about to suit the notions
of men who are always dragging military matters before the public,
whilst they show the world that they are quite ignorant of them. All
this can, however, scarcely have any other tendency than to prevent
officers from duly performing their duties lest they should be hauled
over the coals for so doing, and I greatly fear that this must before
long seriously injure the discipline of the army, so much so that if
even what I have ventured to propose for its good should not be
thought worthy of consideration, events alone may compel the
legislature to look to the consequences likely to be produced if the
present system is adhered to, and the result may most likely be that
our military chiefs will have to be intrusted with greater power than
they ever before possessed, especially on service; when far too
much of the time of officers was always occupied upon courts-
martial of all kinds, which might have been employed in looking after
their men, and have prevented the crimes from being committed
which became the subject for investigation, and as a proof of this
the books of general orders issued upon service, are almost filled
with parts of their proceedings and the observations of Commanders
of the Forces upon them.
It is by no means with the view of inducing any one to follow their
example I now mention that, in the French armies, before the
Revolution, courts-martial were only assembled for the trial of those
guilty of very serious crimes; and in the field, even these were often
summarily judged and punished, occasionally upon a simple verbal
order. The National Constituent Assembly, however, without knowing
what they were about, and from a sheer love of novelty, under the
pretext of doing away with arbitrary military proceedings, rendered
them, as now with us, most vexatiously frequent and complicated,
by requiring courts-martial to be assembled for the investigation of
even the most trivial offences, in order to award the most trifling
punishments; and which commanding officers, as in our navy, could
before have ordered upon their own authority and responsibility. The
new laws which they made for this wise purpose had soon to
undergo many and endless changes, all tending to occupy the time
of officers and to make the proceedings of military tribunals more
tedious and annoying; and they are now, after all that has been
done, no better than our own, and they have attached to them a
court of revision in which the matter, in case of appeal, is re-
considered. But to make up for being thus hampered, the French
état-major often found it necessary, under the delegated authority of
their commander-in-chief, to act in a very arbitrary and summary
manner in the field.
Other branches of the service, such as the Post-office, &c., come
under the Adjutant-General and his department, but I have already
been too minute upon this head; yet I do not see how I can be less
so if I am at all to enter upon the Quarter-Master-General's
department, and in doing so I must touch upon what is well known
to many officers.
All military plans, sketches, &c. especially such as afford information
like the following:—
Plan pointing out where are situated, the stone bridges, &c. &c.,
which exist upon the Ebro, from Reynosa to Tudela.
Wooden Bridges
Stone fit for Infantry Fords in Fords in
Ferries. Observations.
Bridges. only, when the Summer. Winter.
river is low.
Mirando, Pollentes,
Baca, Porlata, Vadillo,
Haro, Rampalais,
&c. &c. &c. &c. &c. &c.
&c. &c. &c. &c.
Also the arrangements for the movements or marches of an army;
its encampments, bivouacs, quarters, in the field fixing upon the
general line for out-posts, supplies of almost every description, and
the arrangements connected with them, and various other matters
come under the Quarter-Master-general and his department; and it
is the duty of these officers to furnish the chief of the staff, for the
information of the Commander of the Forces, and also generals of
divisions, when necessary, with comprehensive returns, according to
established forms, which would show at one view the various
resources of a country in which war might be carrying on. These
returns, of course, according to circumstances, should embrace the
cities, towns, villages, hamlets, and the number of inhabitants in
each. The number of carts, waggons, or other carriages; the number
of horses or mules for draught, burden or saddle; the number of
bullocks, cows or sheep; the agricultural productions, such as the
usual quantity of wheat, barley, oats, &c.; also of hay, straw or
green forage; the returns should likewise show the quantity of each
absolutely required for the use of the country, and the supplies, if
any, also the number of pairs of boots or shoes fit for soldiers, or
shoes for horses, which could be provided in a given time, or any
other manufactured articles, which it might be supposed were likely
to be required by an army.
Such information as this would enable the Commander of the
Forces, or the generals acting under his instructions, to employ the
commissariat advantageously, and also to order from the cities,
towns or country, whatever number of men, animals, &c. might be
required for various military purposes; and they would be enabled to
decide what part of the resources of the country could be made
available for supplying many of the wants of an army, so that
considerable quantities of food, forage, &c. might thus be obtained
upon the spot, in place of its being necessary to bring supplies from
perhaps distant countries, and even by ships, at an enormous
expense, as was often the case during the Peninsular war.
I do not pretend to be able, nor have I any wish to write a regular
military treatise; but I beg to observe, that acting thus upon system,
and every thing being, if possible, punctually paid for, or good
arrangements entered into, in cases of forced contributions, almost
any country could be made to contribute considerably towards the
wants of an army; but without such arrangements its resources are
either plundered or wasted. But nothing of this kind can possibly be
effected, unless an army has attached to it, a well organized
mounted police, to enforce regularity and punctuality.
The officers of the Quarter-Master-General's department, cannot
possibly perform the many duties required of them, without the
occasional aid of such a police force as I have in view, and which in
the end would be found to be a vast saving of expense, incurred in
many ways, by the country; nor without the assistance of a corps of
mounted men, usually termed guides; and which ought, if
practicable, to be raised in the country, the seat of war; and they
should be so well paid and treated as to insure their fidelity.
I must now, however, conclude this part of my undertaking, by
remarking, that into whatever parts or branches the duties, services,
or the business of an army may be divided, the whole should, as far
as possible, be brought under the Adjutant or Quarter-Master-
General's departments, and their correct and punctual performance
should be shown by the most simple, yet sufficiently comprehensive,
returns or reports, of which the forms should always be given; and
they should be similar, in many respects, to that which enabled the
Duke of Wellington to know, every day, the exact state or
distribution of his army; returns or reports of this kind cannot
possibly be dispensed with from the commissariat or ordnance, as
the Commander of the Forces, and generals of divisions and
brigades ought to know, at all times, how the army, and the parts of
it under their charge respectively, are to be supplied with provisions,
ammunition, &c. &c.
It may probably, by those who wish to remain independent at the
head of departments, be deemed desirable, that the medical,
commissariat, and ordnance branches of the army should remain
distinct, and that they should continue to communicate direct with
the Commander of the Forces; but in this I cannot coincide, and it
strikes me that it would be desirable, to place the medical
department and its establishments under the Adjutant-General, and
the commissariat under the Quarter-Master-General. My reason, in
the first place, for the former is, that no where is it so essential, that
the strictest discipline should be maintained, as at the several
hospital stations, and in every thing connected with the medical
department of an army; and in our future wars this must be
particularly necessary, from the rapidity with which they must be
carried on, as I intend more fully to show hereafter, when the instant
removal of sick and wounded to places of safety will appear to be
indispensable.
The Duke of Wellington, a most excellent teacher, says, in a General
Order, dated Pero Negro, 23d Oct. 1810—
"No. 1. The Commander of the Forces has observed, with great
concern, the large number of men returned by the several
regiments, as sick in hospitals, compared with the returns received
from the medical officers, of the number of men actually on their
books in the hospitals.
"No. 2. The former at present is more than double the latter, and it
must be owing to some existing abuse.
"No. 3. The Commander of the Forces has besides been informed by
many officers, commanding regiments and brigades in the army, that
there are many non-commissioned officers and soldiers walking
about the streets in Belem and Lisbon, quite recovered, while others
are doing the duties of these men before the enemy in the field.
"No. 4. In order to put a stop to these abuses, the Commander of
the Forces desires that the following regulations be attended to."
It is unnecessary here to give these regulations, but his Grace
repeats the orders which had been so frequently issued, that no
officer of the medical department should have any soldier from the
ranks as his servant and bat-man, or to attend upon him in any
manner; and he declares his determination to bring to trial before a
general-court-martial, any of the medical department, who should
make use of a non-commissioned officer or soldier in any menial
capacity whatever.
We had formerly attached to the medical department large
cumbersome waggons, which could scarcely have answered any
wise purpose, even upon our English roads, but which were next to
useless in such countries as Portugal; and the tortures and sufferings
of the wounded and sick, when sent off to the rear upon
commissariat mules going for provisions, or in country carts, drawn
by bullocks, were beyond belief, especially when aggravated by the
effects of a burning sun, or the severity of the wet and cold seasons
of the Peninsula.
It is absolutely necessary that this department should be better
organized hereafter, as soldiers are induced to go forward and into
battle with much more confidence, when they know that it is
enabled, through good management, to remove them with care and
kindness, if sick or wounded, to places where they can be properly
attended to.
The head of this department ought to be a man of great energy and
ability, capable of arranging and carrying into effect whatever plans
may have been adopted for the removal and care of the sick and
wounded, and above all he should possess, like the celebrated Dr.
Larrey, of the French army, not only extraordinary perseverance, but
also that kind-hearted benevolence, which insured for him, on all
occasions, the respect and affections of both officers and soldiers.
Under such a head, there should be placed, to be disposed of as he
might deem best, but in communication with the Adjutant-General,
or his assistants attached to divisions, who could, through the means
of the police at their disposal, afford him great help in carrying their
united views into effect, a complete establishment of conveyances,
or cars upon springs, calculated to contain, at most, four men each,
of a light but strong construction, with covers to them sufficient to
afford the sick and wounded protection from the sun and rain. They
should only be of such a size and weight that two horses of ordinary
powers could draw them and the four patients with the greatest
ease, even when required to move with some degree of rapidity, and
the generally low condition of horses on service in the field, should
not in the calculations be overlooked. The corps, as I may call it, to
which these conveyances should belong, ought to consist of steady
drivers, one for each car and pair of horses, (but he ought not upon
any account to be allowed to ride) some non-commissioned officers
and officers having certain military rank and authority. This useful
body of men should be formed by enlistment in the United
Kingdoms, and the horses either procured there, or in the country to
become the seat of war; but the corps and its cars and equipments
should accompany any military force whenever it was ordered to
embark for service. It should however always remain at the disposal
of the medical officer at the head of the department, who could
appropriate parts of it, as might be arranged between him and the
Adjutant-General, and as circumstances required, for the removal of
sick and wounded from the divisions or brigades to the hospital
stations, and they could from thence assist recovered men to rejoin
their corps with less fatigue than they might otherwise be too soon
exposed to, and the officers and non-commissioned officers of this
establishment, occasionally assisted by the police, could take the
entire charge of such men, together with the usual lists furnished by
officers commanding companies or troops, of the articles of
necessaries, &c. sent with them, so that it would no longer be
necessary to detach numbers of officers and non-commissioned
officers from their regiments, where their presence is always
required, to perform this important duty.
The great utility of what I have just pointed out, must be obvious to
all experienced officers, who will, I think, coincide with me in
opinion, that such an establishment is indispensable in the field,
indeed both humanity and prudence most strongly call for it, as it
would tend to render an army much more efficient than it could
possibly be, if defective in this respect, or if such matters are left
merely to chance, or to the generally miserable resources of this
kind to be found in most countries.
It appears to me that the commissariat cannot properly or prudently
be separated from the Quarter-master-general's department, for all
its arrangements must depend upon the intended movements,
stations, positions, and views of the Commander of the Forces, to be
carried into effect by the Quarter-master-general, and his assistants,
attached to the division. But the commissariat ought to be under the
immediate superintendance of an officer of considerable abilities;
possessing a mind capable of comprehending, and performing with
accuracy his extensive part in all military combinations, for almost
every thing in war depends upon the troops being regularly supplied
with food.
The officers of this branch of the service, cannot be formed in a day;
for they require not only the knowledge and habits of business, but
also experience in the modes of ascertaining and calling forth the
various resources of countries. Providing transport for supplies of
provisions is alone an extensive and difficult part of the duty of the
commissariat. There are few countries in which such means would
present themselves so efficiently and opportunely, as the brigades of
mules did in the Peninsula. It will not answer, entirely to depend
upon the resources of countries which may become the seat of war,
for such transport; but how far this may be prudent, can sometimes
be ascertained beforehand. But I beg here to ask, if it would not be
important to arrange how far rice might occasionally be made a
substitute for some of the articles usually issued to our troops in the
field by the commissariat? A little of it becomes a considerable
quantity of nourishing food when cooked, but its great advantage is,
that the means of transport required for it is trifling when compared
with what it takes to bring bread or biscuit from perhaps a distant
point, to an army acting in the field. Soldiers may not like rice at
first, but it should be remembered, that it constitutes in India, the
principal part of their food.
It is at all times very hazardous to allow the roads in the vicinity of
an army, especially when near the enemy, to become blocked up,
but especially in bad weather, by heavy waggons or carts of any
kind; so that pack-horses or mules, (the breeds in Great Britain and
Ireland of the former have mostly become too large for this purpose)
with well fitted saddles, and perhaps panniers, are the only
conveyances for provisions or stores, which should be allowed to
come up to an army in the field. But all such subjects require much
consideration, and also able arrangements, which should, as far as
possible, be completed before troops are allowed to quit our shores.
The expense is always great to provide even what is indispensable in
this respect for an army, but it would cost, in all probability, twice as
much, to form such an establishment in a country in which war had
already commenced. This naturally leads the mind to form plans so
as to meet the difficulties which will certainly present themselves,
and to calculate as to the manner in which a well-organized
department, with means at its command, can be produced; and
though its vast extent may be apt to discourage, yet it ought to be
wisely looked into by a Commander of the Forces, his quarter-master
and commissary generals. But if the commissariat consists of able,
responsible and experienced officers, much apprehension on this
head may be removed. The selection therefore of gentlemen
qualified for this branch of the service, ought always to be of
primary importance, and their advancement in rank, and consequent
higher payment, should depend upon the ability and habits of
business they evinced in the discharge of their duties; and to the
exclusion, if such a thing can be, of interest or patronage.
I hope I shall be excused for here introducing what I may call a
commissariat anecdote; which those who knew Sir Thomas Picton
will at once recognize as characteristic of him.
During the splendid movement which Lord Wellington made from the
frontiers of Portugal, and which ultimately compelled the French to
concentrate their army and fight the disastrous battle of Vittoria; the
Assistant-commissary-general attached to one of the divisions, had,
through mistake, come into a part of the country, the supplies to be
got from which were allotted to the 3rd; and he was waiting
patiently, in a neat Spanish village, for the baking of a large quantity
of bread, to be finished; which he intended for his own division.
Whilst this was going forward, he had taken care, as commissaries
usually did, to establish himself in one of the best houses. Sir
Thomas Picton very soon learnt what he was about; and ordered
that he should be brought before him. "How dare you, Sir, to plunder
that village?" "I am no plunderer, Sir, and am only procuring bread
for my division," "Neither you nor your division, have a right to any
thing in that village; and if you don't instantly be off, Sir, I will order
the provost-marshal to hang you up on that tree." The zealous
commissary (indeed he was one of the most efficient in the army,
and well known to be so by Sir Thomas, who during the scene could
scarcely conceal how much he was amused), set off in great alarm,
and without further reply, at speed, to head-quarters; which
happened to be not very distant, where, we were told, he requested
to see Lord Wellington: "What is the matter?" demanded his
Lordship, upon observing the commissary's great perturbation. He
told his story; concluding by declaring, "and he was actually going to
hang me!" His Lordship, now scarcely able, as the story was told—to
keep his gravity, asked with much apparent earnestness, "Did he
really say, that he would hang you?" "Yes, he really did." "Then,"
said his lordship, "take my advice, and keep out of his way, or he will
certainly do so." The worthy commissary now began, for the first
time, to suspect that he had been made to cut a ridiculous figure.
Sir Thomas Picton, though stern in aspect, possessed a most warm,
benevolent, and feeling heart. As an instance of this I cannot help
relating what occurred on one occasion in Spain. An officer,
commanding one of the regiments of his division, was killed in
action. He, like too many soldiers who fell in battle, left his widow
and a child in very narrow circumstances. This by some means or
other came to Sir Thomas Picton's knowledge, when he sent for a
field-officer of the regiment, to find out from him the widow's
address; and his feeling remark on the occasion was, "that both grief
and poverty were hard to be borne at one time." Having got the
information he wanted, he took care that a large sum of money
(being apprehensive of making a mistake, I shall not venture to say
how much) was paid to her.
Towards the close of the war in the South of France, the Duke of
Wellington had brought his army—not only improved in its staff, but
in many other respects—into a complete state for service; indeed he
had made it as much so, as a British force, composed as it was and
still is, can be; and his plan of giving good commissariat
establishments to divisions and brigades, which enabled them to act
at all times efficiently and independently, was most admirable, and
should, as far as possible, be always imitated whenever our troops,
in any considerable numbers, may be hereafter required to take the
field; but those, who from experience, could properly form such
establishments, may most probably have then passed away, and the
advantages which might have been looked for from their practical
knowledge of commissariat duties, cannot be available, and I do not
know where I could recommend any one to look for correct
information upon such subjects. But does not this most clearly point
out, the want of established system in this as well as in other
essential branches of our service, and for which I do perseveringly
contend.
It may appear to some, that to accomplish the various objects I have
alluded to, would be attended with vast expense to the country, yet
this will not be found, upon a calm consideration, or rather
investigation, to be so great as might be imagined; but no one
acquainted with military matters will pretend to say, that they can be
dispensed with, if the country is to be served by its armies as it
ought to be; and, I trust, that I have already shown in what manner
savings can be effected, more than sufficient to meet any increase of
expenditure I may venture to propose. I must now, however, leave
the subject of the staff of an army for the present, and proceed to
other matters which must still be brought before the reader.
CHAP. VI.
As I find that I have not yet touched upon some of the subjects
which I am anxious to bring under consideration. I must again beg
here to remind the reader, that having shown, in several instances,
in what manner considerable savings can be effected, I will now go
on to point out a very injudicious piece of economy, the
consequences of which have been always felt in our regiments, viz.
that of never allowing one quarter enough of ammunition for
practice; and the result was, that our soldiers, in general, I will
venture to say, were probably as bad marksmen as any in the world.
Our game laws are in a certain degree the cause that the lower
orders of the people are all so ignorant of the use of fire-arms; but
this is a subject with which I do not intend to meddle, and shall only
say, that when English archers were so formidable, the people were
encouraged and even compelled to assemble at various times of the
year to practise this to them amusing craft; and the result of this
wise policy on the part of their rulers was fully evinced in battle. I
must, however, observe, that our old-fashioned heavy muskets
recoil, or kick so violently, after firing even a few rounds, that if they
then go off at all, they cause a man to think twice, and probably to
raise his eye from the object aimed at, before he ventures to pull the
trigger; but since I made a note of this, with the intention of
bringing the subject under consideration, I find that an improvement
in fire-arms, for the army in general, is actually in contemplation.
I by no means wish to increase the quantity of blank cartridges
usually allowed to amuse grown children at mock-fights, &c. but of
ball and buckshot ammunition; for it is most desirable that the
soldier should know and be able to calculate, at what distances he
ought to use both with proper effect.
A general officer, now long in his tomb, entertained certain very odd
notions, in which I sometimes fancy that I participate; in one of his
usually laconic addresses, or exhortations, in which he was fond of
indulging even when going into action, upon one occasion, and
rather to the astonishment of the soldiers he led, though
accustomed to his ways, and after cautioning them, that he would
not give the word fire until he could see the white of the enemy's
eyes; and he was very near-sighted—he thus addressed them
—"Now, lads, there is the enemy, if you don't kill them, they will
certainly kill you; and it is better to break their shanks than to fire
o'er the crown of their heads." There was much to be admired in this
pithy address, which could be perfectly understood by soldiers. But I
must say, that I have often regretted seeing a useless, distant fire
kept up, which had no effect whatever upon the enemy, and
certainly did not improve the taste of our soldiers for the bayonet, in
whose hands it may be always made a very useful instrument for
deciding the fate of battles. I must, however, apologize for taking up
the reader's time with these remarks, and also for having so
unceremoniously introduced the general, my worthy ancestor, to
him; yet I must beg to add, that a very brave and esteemed friend
of mine, Major Smith, 45th regiment, who fell fighting gloriously, but
too rashly, for he really went up to the French bayonets at Busaco,
had also sometimes a very odd way of expressing himself. I
remember hearing him on one occasion emphatically observe, "I
don't like your prudent officers, Sir, who deal in long shots, and who
talk so much of sparing the effusion of human blood—their
prudence, Sir, always increases it in the end, Sir." But those who
knew him will readily recognize this to be genuine; and it may be
well supposed, that he must have come up to Sir Thomas Picton's
ideas of what a good soldier should be; at all events, he considered
that the 3rd division and the country, sustained an irreparable loss
when Major Smith fell. But to proceed—I beg to recommend, that
there be erected, as near as may be deemed consistent with the
safety of the passers by, and even against the high walls of barracks,
sufficient mounds of earth against which to fire with ball; and this
should not only be made the means of useful instruction, but also,
like the bayonet and sword exercises, conducive to the soldier's
amusement; and whilst I would greatly increase the allowance of
ammunition for practice, I would also suggest that a sum of money
be annually granted to regiments to be laid out at the discretion of
commanding officers, in rewards to the best shots and the best
swordsmen. This is very essential, as light troops are so much
employed in modern warfare, that their being good marksmen
cannot be dispensed with; therefore, with a superior description of
musket, having a good percussion lock, serviceable in wet as well as
in dry weather, and fire never being uselessly thrown away in action
in a volley like a single report, which in former times was considered
so fine, our soldiers would be more than a match for the Yankee
Back-woodsmen, or any other troops in the world.
I have now arrived at a part of my undertaking in which I am very
much interested, and to which I am desirous of attracting attention;
for I am sure it will be readily allowed, that amongst any body of
men, there will always exist irregularities and misconduct; it is
therefore indispensable, that there should be at hand the means of
making those guilty of offences promptly feel the consequences of
committing them. With this in view, I conclude it will be thought
necessary, that there should be several small, dark, dry, and well
ventilated cells in all prisons attached to barracks at home and
abroad, in which offenders can be separately confined, either upon
bread and water, low diet, or otherwise for fixed periods, according
to the present system, and to the sentences of courts-martial, for I
am obliged to write so as to suit the times, and whilst undergoing
this kind of punishment, the inmates should be subjected to the
most perfect silence; which, if duly attended to, will soon be found
to constitute the severest part of the punishment, and to produce
the most desirable results; every necessary precaution should,
therefore, be taken on this head; but it should never be overlooked,
that such kinds of punishment for the maintenance of discipline, can
never be resorted to when regiments are in the field.
In no regiment that I have ever had any thing to do with, have I yet
found the link of responsibility perfectly kept up. For instance, the
majors were not made answerable for the state of their respective
wings. The captains were almost never interfered with by the
majors, who were really little else than sinecurists: indeed,
commanding officers in general, did not like their doing so; as they
too frequently looked upon it as meddling with what did not concern
them; and they too often rendered the captains also mere
nonentities with their companies; managing all promotions, &c. (so
powerful is the love of patronage) between themselves and their
adjutants. It was the same as to granting leave of absence from the
regiments, or even from common parades; and thus captains were
entirely stripped of influence. It was also much the same with regard
to men guilty of crimes or irregularities: their names were found in
guard reports; the adjutants were made to inquire into the reasons
of their confinement, and they were sometimes sentenced by courts-
martial, and even punished, without any reference whatever being
made to their captains; and I have heard commanding officers say,
that there was no use in consulting them, as they knew nothing
about their companies; but whose fault was that, and why were they
not encouraged and made to do their duty, and to look after their
men's conduct?
In former days (and I may go back even to the days of Marlborough)
captains were men of some importance, and were allowed to
exercise much more authority over their companies, than has for
many years past been the fashion. They could keep them at drill, or
confined to barracks, or camp, if their conduct was irregular, till the
offenders were found out, and punished by the soldiers themselves.
These offenders were tried by what were then called Company
Courts-Martial, which consisted of a non-commissioned officer and
four privates. The sentence (nothing else being written) having been
approved of by the captain, or officer commanding the company, it
was in presence of the non-commissioned officers, and sometimes of
a subaltern, privately carried into execution, either by the drummers
of the company giving the culprit a certain number of blows, or else
all the soldiers had to do so with the slings of their firelocks. This
having been properly, and often severely done by themselves, the
company was considered as purified, and were then dismissed from
drill, or released from confinement to barracks or camp. If a plan of
this kind in spirit was properly followed up, how admirably it would
be found calculated for service in the field even in our days. When
the importance of company officers is raised, so is proportionally
that of the non-commissioned officers; and does not the superiority
of our companies of guards consist in the respectability of their non-
commissioned officers?
Not very long ago, what, I believe, was called Picketting, was
practised as a punishment in our regiments of cavalry for minor
offences, and I have heard from old officers, that the soldiers had a
great dread of it; they assured me it did not in the least injure their
health, or unfit them for immediate duty; and it almost entirely
obviated the necessity for flogging. Would it not therefore be well, if
the reviving of this kind of punishment in every corps, when an army
took the field, were to have due consideration. I am aware of the
outcry which most likely would be raised by injudicious men against
such a plan, and nothing would have induced me to venture to
mention it, but my abhorrence of flogging, and my fear that capital
punishments might become frequent and unavoidable, if there were
no other mode, of maintaining discipline amongst our troops. I
therefore must not shrink from suggesting it, as I feel convinced,
that in the field, our military police, might be safely trusted with the
power of using it as a punishment; and it would, I have no doubt,
deter soldiers from straggling from their corps in search of liquor or
plunder.
We are constantly hearing of the horrors of flogging in our
regiments, and scarcely an instance occurs, but that some of the
newspapers endeavour to hold it up in the most exaggerated
language, and strongest colouring, to the detestation of the nation;
but after all, what is such punishment, as now inflicted, to what
takes place all over Germany, and in the armies of the Czar? We are
told—and it should be known in Great Britain—that the kind of
bastinado, by which the flesh is most cruelly torn off by the point of
the stick, is so severe in the German and other armies, that few men
can stand many blows of the corporals who inflict it; and as for the
Russian knout, half a dozen strokes, or even less, can be made fatal
by a skilful hand.
Unluckily, by our mode of proceeding, punishment is, in some
measure, converted, by its slowness, into a kind of torture; and if
flagellation is to be unfortunately allowed to continue in a British
army, it most probably would be better if fewer lashes were awarded
by the sentences of courts-martial, but to be inflicted more after the
manner practised in our navy. At all events, what may be termed the
teasing system, which now prevails in regiments, and to which
commanding officers, in compliance with existing circumstances,
must adhere, cannot be productive of good, and must from
necessity, and want of time and means, be nearly abandoned when
our army is actually in the field. In what way then, I beg to ask, are
officers to maintain discipline, if their power and influence in their
companies are not increased?
It has always been the practice in our army to direct attention—and
in this commanding officers of regiments had no choice—more
particularly to what was necessary for home service, or garrison duty
abroad, or their attention was called (as in the Russian service) to
what would produce effect, through a splendid display of neatness,
uniformity, and regularity in dress, messing, barrack and other
arrangements; which in themselves are much to be lauded and
admired; but with regard to what were really essential and
indispensable in the field, for which most of this instruction or
knowledge, but little prepared them, such matters seemed generally
to be left to chance, or to be acquired by both officers and men
when once there; and this was one of the reasons why so few
regiments did not fall off in every respect, the very first campaign in
which they were employed.
One of the chief objects which I have in view being, however, to do
away with corporal punishment, and still to insure our having a well-
conducted and highly disciplined army, I consider as essential
towards securing this, that the utmost attention should be paid to
what was formerly so lamentably neglected—that is to say—the
religious instruction, and general education of corps. Without this all
our efforts must be useless and unavailing.
To expect that such objects can be attained by merely paying the
clergymen of towns, where troops are usually quartered, a certain
sum annually for performing clerical duties, is altogether out of the
question. Every regiment ought to have its own chaplain, and the
changes which have of late years taken place in the religious, as well
as in the moral feelings of the country, (for we ought not to attend
to the wild ideas and effusions of men, who in the present day are
leading the unwary astray,) have rendered their appointment to
corps no longer objectionable. The regimental chaplains should be
required, before appointment, to produce to the chaplain general,
certificates from bishops of the church of England, or from, at least,
two ministers of the church of Scotland, setting forth the
respectability of their characters, their fitness to discharge the
religious duties, and to direct and superintend the instruction of the
regiment, to which they might be attached, and in which a higher
description of education was hereafter to be looked for.
I must here declare, and I do so after long and serious consideration
of the subject, that the consequences of a mixture in corps of men
professing Protestant and Roman Catholic creeds have always been,
that religion, of any kind, became altogether a forbidden subject,
and I firmly believe, that much of the depravity and irregularities
committed by our soldiers, may be attributed to this cause; for what
could be expected from men, who, I may say, never gave religion
even a thought. The officers were almost all Protestants, whilst a
considerable proportion of the soldiers, in many regiments, from
having been raised in Ireland, were Papists; and it, unfortunately,
yet clearly, became the duty of those under whose command they
were placed, to show no respect of persons, or to hurt the feelings
of either party on account of religious opinions or differences; and
thus what is commonly looked upon as sacred amongst men, could
not even be named, and much less brought to the assistance of
officers in the management of their men, so that fear of punishment
was all they had to depend upon (and even corporal punishment
when too frequently resorted to, lost its effects,) for the
maintenance of discipline, it was, therefore, to the system pursued,
and not to the officers that blame ought to have been attached for
much of the misconduct which the commanders of our armies, and
Lord Wellington in particular, had to lament and contend with. Much
more might be said upon this subject, but I do not wish to pursue it
farther.
But let us for a moment look at the effects of unanimity in religious
views in a Russian army, in which, however, is to be clearly seen far
too much of the old Prussian severity of discipline to be productive
of good; and I am also aware, that in consequence of the power
that the upper class—themselves exempted from the conscription—
possess over their serfs, many bad characters are forced into their
ranks; yet their Emperor, generals, officers and soldiers are, I may
say, of one mind and of one religion. See the whole joining in its—to
them—sacred offices, and imposing ceremonies; and who then can
deny, but that their chiefs thus establish a firm hold upon the minds
and affections of their soldiers, who may, by this means, be led to
respect morality, and to imitate praise-worthy conduct, whilst they
are at the same time rendered more formidable as enemies.
Regimental chaplains ought to be married, and should be allowed
sufficient means to provide themselves with suitable lodgings, and
when it could be done, outside the barrack walls; and to insure their
respectability and fitness for the performance of their important
duties, they ought to receive the same pay and allowances as pay-
masters.
Very few churches in provincial towns, or villages, can afford proper
accommodation for the troops quartered in them, and they ought
not to be dependant upon this; and as regiments would thus have
their own clergymen, there should be attached to every barrack, at
home or abroad, a large comfortable school-house, in which divine
service might be performed twice a day on Sundays; so that one
wing of a regiment could be accommodated in the morning, and the
other in the afternoon.
Every corps ought to have a well paid, and highly respectable
school-master, with whom no one should have a right to interfere,
but the commanding officer and chaplain; and part of the duty of
the latter should be to superintend the school and to direct the
system of education to be pursued in it. Every school-house ought to
be furnished with a carefully selected collection of books, which
should be handed over, in good order, from one chaplain to another,
and according to an inventory kept for the purpose. Of course the
regiment relieved would have to pay for any books lost or damaged.
There ought to be also a sufficient allowance of fuel and candles
granted for the school-house; and it would be most desirable that
the soldiers should, as much as possible, be induced to spend their
evenings there; and in order to increase this inducement, the books
should not only be instructive, but also amusing; and as far as
practicable, different at every station. A place of public resort of this
kind, where a certain number of non-commissioned officers should
be required to be present, would be particularly desirable
everywhere, but especially in our North American possessions,
where in winter it is so difficult to find means of amusement, for
soldiers, and thereby to keep them out of mischief. But all kinds of
out-door amusements ought also to be encouraged in every part of
the world, and even money should be allowed to commanding
officers to provide what is required for them; and every thing
possible done, so as to make soldiers feel that their regiments are
their homes, and their officers their best friends. With this most
desirable object in view, officers must see what vast responsibility
devolves upon them, and how much they are called upon to teach
by example.
It is well known, that in the United Kingdom, society is very
differently circumstanced to what it is in any other part of the world.
No nation can boast of such a high-minded and enlightened middle
class as we possess; and education and manners place most of them
upon a level with the highest. Almost all the officers of our army and
navy are taken from this middle class; but I regret to say, that too
many of them, as well as the first class, know as little of the habits
or feelings of the lower orders, as the latter know of theirs. Thus the
very formation of society is against that community of feeling and
interest, which ought to exist between officers and soldiers, or
sailors; and to the want of this sympathy among us, may be
attributed much of that powerful influence which dangerous men are
able to exercise over the lower orders of the people of the present
day; for they are generally destitute of the virtues or principles to be
found among men in a similar state; and the dependence in which
they are held by the more wealthy part of the community, engenders
feelings of jealousy and even dislike towards them, which may be
expected at any time, when opportunity offers, to burst forth in
those acts of open violence, which occasionally disturb the
tranquillity of the empire.
The fancies and absurdities of some of our commanders in former
times, were most truly surprising; but to us who were their victims
they were any thing but amusing or laughable. Some of them ought
to be held up as beacons to warn others to avoid them; but doing
so, and showing their effects upon those under them, would occupy
much more time and space than I can devote to the purpose. But
how rapidly an army whose spirit has been already subdued by a too
severe system of discipline is vanquished, was clearly proved, by
what occurred in the year 1806. On the 7th of October in that year,
the Emperor Napoleon announced to the Senate, that he had quitted
his capital to repair to his army in Germany. Already had the
Prussian army, completed to its war establishment, passed their
frontier, in all the confidence of discipline, and had invaded Saxony;
and their advanced posts had even made their appearance not far
from the cantonments of the Imperial army.
The French were instantly put in motion to cross the Rhine, and by
forced marches, the several corps occupied the points assigned
them, and every thing was arranged for advancing against the
Prussians. By the evening of the 8th, the French, after several
brilliant affairs, in which the Prussians were invariably beaten, had
passed the Saale. Events succeeded each other with great rapidity,
and according to the Emperor's account of what occurred, Marshal
Davoust arrived at Naumbourg on the night of the 12th of October.
The Prussian army being thus caught, "en flagrant délit," their left
being turned, and many of their depots of provisions taken. The king
of Prussia intended to have commenced hostilities on the 9th of
October, by moving his right upon Frankfort, his centre upon
Wurtzbourg, and his left upon Bamberg; but the Emperor seems to
have anticipated this arrangement by marching upon Saalbourg,
Lobenstein, Schleitz, Gera, and Naumbourg, when the 9th, 10th,
11th, and 12th, were necessarily occupied by the Prussians in
changing their positions, and in recalling their detachments; so that
upon the 13th they were, by concentrating their troops, in number
about 150,000, enabled to offer battle to the French between
Capelsdorf and Amerstadt.
At two o'clock in the afternoon of the 13th, the Emperor arrived at
Jena; and from a height occupied by his advanced guard, he
reconnoitred the Prussian position, and made his dispositions for the
morrow.
The Prussian army on the morning of the 14th displayed a splendid
front of infantry, cavalry, and seven or eight hundred pieces of
cannon. All their manœuvres were executed with that precision and
rapidity which might be expected from troops who spent their lives
at constant drill, and in military evolutions; in all of which the French
were very inferior; yet they had been sufficiently taught their
business as soldiers, without that severity of discipline having been
resorted to, which too frequently dispirits men, and renders them
indifferent to events.
The results of this campaign, of seven days duration, and the
famous battle of Jena, were 30,000 prisoners, and amongst them
twenty generals; upwards of twenty colours, three hundred pieces of
cannon, and great quantities of provisions taken by the French. The
Prussian loss was estimated at 20,000 in killed and wounded; and
the wreck of their army fell back in consternation and disorder, whilst
the French admitted only the loss of a few generals, and about
1,500 men killed and wounded.
We are not to suppose that the Emperor Napoleon could have
gained such advantages over a Prussian army, manœuvred by such
able officers as those who led it, by superiority of tactics, though he
evidently wished the world to think so; and we must attribute the
results of the battle to the gallantry and superior intelligence of the
French officers and soldiers over troops in whom such a spirit no
longer existed; for had it not, in a great measure been banished, for
the time, from amongst them, by the severity of Prussian discipline,
which is most certainly calculated to eradicate courage out of any
army in the world but that composed of English, Scotch, and
Irishmen, upon whom its effects were but too long tried; and though
it did not exhaust their innate national bravery, and love of war, yet
it rendered them at all times ready and anxious to free themselves
from the restraint under which they were so tightly kept; and when
once they could contrive to get out of the sight of their officers, and
to think for themselves,—to do which they perhaps had very few
opportunities in the course of their lives—they bade farewell to
subordination, and took good care, in every kind of excess, to make
up for what they had suffered, under the kind of discipline we had in
a great measure copied from the Prussians; and to this I venture to
ascribe many of our soldiers' irregularities, and even their crimes.
Let us see the effects of such absurd discipline upon a Russian army.
In the month of June, 1807, the Russians occupied Heilsburg, where
they had collected vast quantities of provisions, and all that was
necessary for an army. Their position was excellent, and during a
period of four months every thing possible had been done to render
it, by field works, more formidable. The Russians even attempted to
be the first to commence hostilities, but they were attacked by the
French, and completely beaten with the loss of 30,000 killed and
wounded, and 4,000 prisoners; while the French lost (and the results
go to prove their statements to be correct) only 700 killed, and
about 2,000 wounded; and I do not hesitate to attribute the loss of
the battle of Eylau to the same cause as I do that of Jena; that is to
say, the injurious, depressing effects of Prussian discipline; and
which system seems to be even to this day followed up in the
Russian armies.
In further proof of this, I must beg the reader's attention to what I
am going to mention, and which actually occurred in a regiment that
shall be nameless.
The day was fixed upon which it was to be reviewed. Its
commanding officer was suddenly taken ill, and he was confined to
his bed. So far had preparations been carried for this great event,
that even the large cards, as was the practice in those days,
containing the manœuvres to be performed, had been made out for
the inspecting General. This illness of the Lieutenant-Colonel was an
event quite unforeseen, and the senior Major, a good-natured old
gentleman, whose military career had been in the West Indies, and
who was more agreeably occupied at the time than in studying
Dundas, was completely thunderstruck when he found that at the
shortest notice he had to make up his mind to assume the command
on this truly alarming occasion; for the General was well known to
be a first-rate tiger. It was, therefore, a very hopeless case with the
gallant Major, as he really could not at any time manœuvre a
battalion, and much less under such trying circumstances; and what
made matters worse, his Lieutenant-Colonel would rarely allow him
to try whether he could do so or not, for he was one of those
commanders who carried on every thing himself, aided by his
adjutant, and a well trained set of drummers, whom he kept in
constant practice.
His Adjutant was a well-meaning man, and in kindly feelings, and
good will towards the Major, and in his great zeal for the reputation
of his corps, he went with the beautifully written out card of the
manœuvres (the produce of many an anxious hour of the
Lieutenant-Colonel's valuable time) to the Major, to explain it fully to
him, and also comfort him with the hope, that as the regiment had
most diligently practised every march, counter-march, and wheel of
it, things must go off well, if he would only not be alarmed.
Accordingly, that very evening, well prompted by the Adjutant, he
actually got the regiment through it handsomely enough. At night
the Adjutant went to see and condole with his most yellow, billious-
looking commander. "How will ever the poor Major get through with
the review to-morrow?" "O, there is no fear whatever of him, for he
put the regiment through it tolerably this evening." "Through what,
Sir—have you presumed to show him my manœuvres?" "Yes, Sir, but
I thought there could be no harm in doing so, as——" "You thought,
Sir—no harm, Sir. Go immediately, Sir, and bring back my
manœuvres, and let Major —— make out a review for himself—he
shall certainly not have mine."
The cards were consequently delivered up to their unselfish owner.
But the Adjutant, who flattered himself, that he was also something
of a manœuvrer, though, at the risk of irritating the Lieutenant-
Colonel, thought it would be well, before he should terrify the Major
out of his senses with this awful intelligence, to sit down and
concoct a very pretty review—one, at all events, which would show
that the battalion knew how to act against an enemy in its front and
rear, and probably upon both its flanks at the same moment. In
short, he went that very night with a splendid plan, which he proudly
and confidently displayed before the astounded Major; who, at last,
after a good deal of trouble, made so far to comprehend it, that he
was able next morning, at five o'clock, to put the regiment through it
very tolerably. But this was rather sharp work upon all concerned;
for the grand review was to take place at 11, a.m.—the Major was
quite hoarse—and a new card had to be finely written out for the
General.
The review came off admirably—the Major (his voice cleared by the
yolks of eggs) was not often wrong; at least this was not observed,
and it did not signify, as both officers and men had fully determined
to do well, not only on the Major's account, but on their own.
At the long wished-for conclusion, the General came solemnly
forward, and in front of the regiment, really covered the blushing,
but exhausted, Major with praises and honourable
acknowledgments, and approbation of his own and the corps' most
admirable performances.
On the return of the Adjutant from the field, he, as in duty bound,
waited upon his Commanding officer. "I suppose, poor —— made a
very pretty business of it to-day?" "A most admirable review; and I
have, upon no occasion, ever seen the regiment do better; so much,
so, that the General expressed in the strongest terms his admiration
of our day's performance!"
This was quite enough, but the symptoms of the Lieutenant-
Colonel's attack of bilious fever, were not alleviated by the account
of the Major's unlooked-for success. Such were the men to whom
the command of our regiments was too often confided, and who
generally contrived to render soldiers indifferent to events, and
reckless in their conduct.
I had the luck to be stationed in the West of Ireland under a
General, who considered that nothing tended so effectually to make
first-rate soldiers, as to accustom them to prolonged exposure,
under arms, to deluges of rain, and to all kinds of weather; and
certainly in that part of Ireland, there was no want of his favourite
specific—rain. I must, however, at the same time acknowledge, that
of this he himself took ample doses. Two other regiments, and the
one to which I belonged, and a body of cavalry and artillery, formed
his brigade; and the more gloomy and threatening the weather, the
more certain were we of a repetition of the General's admired
refrigerant system, for his practice in this line was extensive and
unwearied; we had frequently, on such occasions, to take up
favourite positions, and to make long and fatiguing excursions, over
high sand-hills, which were some miles distant from our
cantonments. But, notwithstanding this excellent treatment, our
soldiers did not become a whit the more water-proof; and many of
them most provokingly went into hospitals with violent pains in their
backs, bones, &c. and which, to the General's surprise, often
terminated in fever.
How differently were Sir Thomas Brisbane's kindly feelings evinced
for those placed under his care (indeed Sir Thomas Picton always
wished his commanding officers to act in the same manner). No
officer commanding a corps was allowed, under any pretence, to
keep his men unnecessarily under arms, especially after a march. As
soon as the soldiers reached their cantonments, or ground of
encampment, they were ordered to be instantly dismissed, and
allowed to go into their quarters or tents to take off their
accoutrements, knapsacks, &c. so that they might as soon as
possible recover from the fatigues of the march; for keeping men
standing, after being heated, till they became chilled, was always
found to be injurious to their health.
After the troops came down the river Plata from Buenos Ayres, we
were kept in what our Generals chose to denominate, barracks afloat
—that is to say—in transports off Monte Video. One of these great
officers came unexpectedly on board our head-quarter ship, which
was certainly kept in fine order. The moment he set his foot on deck
he called for the officer of the day, who happened to be also the
senior officer on board, and ordered him to show him all over the
ship. I believe he must have been surprised at the man-of-war style
adopted, and at the extreme cleanliness and regularity of every
thing (for even in spite of the remonstrances of the masters of the
transports, as to their decks being ruined, the soldiers were kept
constantly rubbing away with the holy stones), at all events, he
found no fault, but unfortunately in passing the ship's coppers, he
thought fit to demand what was in them, and being told rice for the
soldiers' dinners, he, with great dignity and gravity, inquired of the
alarmed officer the quantity of rice in them? The unlucky wight, not
knowing well what to say, and being fully aware, that to betray
ignorance upon such important points, was an unpardonable crime,
answered at once, about 1000 pounds—terrible mistake, at least the
threatened consequences were terrible—for this worthy coadjutor of
General Whitelock, in an instant, set upon the unlucky miscalculator
of boiled and unboiled rice, and declared that he had never met with
such a downright ignorant blockhead in all his life; for the hold of
the ship (and she was 700 tons burden) could not contain that
quantity when boiled; "and now, Sir," continued this great
commander, "I shall take care to make you suffer for such ignorance
and inattention to your duty, and shall report your conduct upon this
occasion to the Horse Guards, in order to have your promotion
stopped." Whether he kept his word or not I cannot tell; but I am
rather inclined to believe, that he had other matters to occupy his
attention, on his return to England, which came more home to
himself.
I could bring many more examples of this kind forward, but I must
no longer occupy the reader's attention with such frivolous matters.
But it is impossible to show in a more satisfactory manner, what was
the state of a British army in the field than by giving, as I intend to
do after a few observations, a letter from his Grace the Duke of
Wellington to the Generals commanding divisions and brigades; yet,
I trust it will not be deemed presumptuous if I venture to say that
the real causes of irregularities and bad conduct on the part of
soldiers, are not always perceived or ascribed even by men of the
greatest talents and experience to the proper sources; but having, in
the retreat from Madrid and Burgos, which is that alluded to by his
Grace, had much to do with the part of the rear-guard under Sir
Edward Pakenham, who then commanded the 3rd division of
infantry, during the absence of Sir Thomas Picton, and having also
seen a good deal on many other occasions, I hope I may be
considered authorized to remark, that owing to the admirable
management and unwearied exertions of Sir Edward Pakenham, the
conduct of the division on that retreat was, I may say, tolerably
good, except upon the night after we left Madrid; when many a pig
was slain in the woods, and the lives of the staff and other officers
of the division and brigades seriously endangered in their
endeavours, under a sharp fire of musketry, kept up at these
animals, to put a stop to such disorderly conduct on the part of the
soldiers, as actually left the division, from the hunt having become
almost general, at the mercy of the French, had they known what
we were about; for they were close at hand, and must have
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1. Basic arithmetic skills 1

Key Features self-assessment (examples of these questions

The text and illustrations

theoretical concepts as well as

C = A260 * dilution factor * 50 mg>mL (9.1.2)

reflecting the practical nature

Figure 7.1.3 Upright optical microscope.

Worked example 12.1.11

Solving for x, gives:

Practice skills through

and check your solutions in

Chapter 11 • Statistical calculations Chapter 11 • Statistical calculations

Table 11.1.10 Heights (cm) of female athletes, n = 9

1.1.2 Basic operations

Worked example 1.1.1

Figure 1.1.1 Germinated cress seeds.

Pot 1 500 - 326 = 174

The number of seeds that failed to germinate is:

Worked example 1.1.2

Worked example 1.1.3

1.2 Indices, BODMAS and use of equations

which is the same as a * a * a * a.

Worked example 1.2.1

Worked example 1.2.2

Worked example 1.2.3

Worked example 1.2.4

Fourth law of indices Any number raised to the power of 0 is equal to 1:

Worked example 1.2.5

Worked example 1.2.6

Worked example 1.2.7

23 = 8 and 1 -22 3 = -2 * 1 -22 * 1 -22 = -8

Worked example 1.2.8

Worked example 1.2.9

Division and Multiplication 4 * 42 , 6 - 1 = 28 - 1

Worked example 1.2.10

Brackets (round) [213 + 42]2 , 28 - 5 = [2 * 7]2 , 28 - 5

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