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Instructor’s Preface
This is an introduction to abstract algebra. It is anticipated that the students have studied
calculus and probably linear algebra. However, these are primarily mathematical ma-
turity prerequisites; subject matter from calculus and linear algebra appears mostly in
illustrative examples and exercises.
As in previous editions of the text, our aim remains to teach students as much about
groups, rings, and fields as we can in a first course. For many students, abstract algebra
is their first extended exposure to an axiomatic treatment of mathematics. Recognizing
this, we have included extensive explanations concerning what we are trying to accom-
plish, how we are trying to do it, and why we choose these methods. Mastery of this
text constitutes a firm foundation for more specialized work in algebra and also provides
valuable experience for any further axiomatic study of mathematics.
New to This Edition

[Editor’s Note: You may have noticed something new on the cover of the book. Another
author! I am thrilled that Neal Brand agreed to update this classic text. He has done so
carefully and thoughtfully, staying true to the spirit in which it was written. Neal’s years
of experience teaching the course with this text at the University of North Texas have
helped him produce a meaningful and worthwhile update to John Fraleigh’s work.]
Updates for the eText

A focus of this revision was transforming it from a primarily print-based learning tool to
a digital learning tool. The eText is therefore filled with content and tools that will help
bring the content of the course to life for students in new ways and help you improve
instruction. Specifically,
r Mini lectures. These brief author-created videos for each section of the text give
an overview to the section but not every example or proof. Some sections will have
two videos. I have used these videos effectively with my students, who were
assigned to watch them ahead of the lecture on that topic. Students came to class
with a basic overview of the topic of the day, which had the effect of reducing
lecture time and increasing the class time used for discussion and student
vii
viii Instructor’s Preface
presentations. Students reported that the videos were helpful in giving an overview
of the topics and a better understanding of the concepts and proofs. Students were
also encouraged to view the videos after the topic was covered in class to reinforce
what they learned. Many students also used the videos to review topics while
preparing for exams. Although I have not attempted to flip the classroom, my
intention was to provide sufficient resources in the eText to make it feasible
without requiring other resources.
r Key idea quizzes. A database of definitions and named theorems will allow
students to quiz themselves on these key ideas. The database can be used in the
way that flash cards were traditionally used.
r Self-assessments. Occasional questions interspersed in the narrative allow
students to check their understanding of new ideas.
r Interactive figures and utilities. I have added a number of opportunities for
students to interact with content in a dynamic manner in order to build or enhance
understanding. Interactive figures allow students to explore concepts geometrically
or computationally in ways that are not possible without technology.
r Notes, Labels, and Highlights. Notes allow instructors to add their personal
teaching style to important topics, call out need-to-know information, or clarify
difficult concepts. Students can make their eText their own by creating highlights
with meaningful labels and notes, helping them focus on what they need to study.
The customizable Notebook allows students to filter, arrange, and group their notes
in a way that makes sense to them.
r Dashboard. Instructors can create reading assignments and see the time spent in
the eText so that they can plan more effective instruction.
r Portability. Portable access lets students read their eText whenever they have a
moment in their day, on Android and iOS mobile phones and tablets. Even without
an Internet connection, offline reading ensures students never miss a chance to
learn.
r Ease-of-Use. Straightforward setup makes it easy for instructors to get their class
up and reading quickly on the first day of class. In addition, Learning Management
System (LMS) integration provides institutions, instructors, and students with
single sign-on access to the eText via many popular LMSs.
Exercises
Many exercises in the text have been updated, and many are new. In order to prevent
students from using solutions from the previous edition, I purposefully replaced or re-
worded some exercises.
I created an Instructor Solutions Manual, which is available online at www.pearson.com
to instructors only. Solutions to exercises involving proofs are often sketches or hints,
which would not be in the proper form to turn in.
Text Organization Modifications

For each part of the text, I provide an overview of the changes followed by significant
changes to sections. In cases where changes to parts or sections were minor, I have not
included a list of changes.
Part I: Groups and Subgroups
r Overview of changes: My main goals were to define groups and to introduce the
symmetric and dihedral groups as early as possible. The early introduction of these
Instructor’s Preface ix
groups provides students with examples of finite groups that are consistently used
throughout the book.
r Section 1 (Binary Operations). Former Section 2. Added definition of an identity
for a binary operation.
r Section 2 (Groups). Former Section 4. Included the formal definition of a group
isomorphism.
r Section 3 (Abelian Examples). Former Section 1. Included definition of circle
group, Ra , and Zn . Used circle group to show associativity of Zn and Ra .
r Section 4 (Nonabelian Examples). Based on parts of former Sections 5, 8, and 9.
Defined dihedral group and symmetric group. Gave a standardized notation for the
dihedral group that is used consistently throughout the book. Introduced both
two-row and cycle notation for the symmetric group
r Section 5 (Subgroups). Former Section 5. Included statement of two other
conditions that imply a subset is a subgroup and kept the proofs in the exercise
section. Made minor modifications using examples from new Section 4.
r Section 6 (Cyclic Groups). Former Section 6. Added examples using dihedral
group and symmetric group.
r Section 7 (Generating Sets and Cayley Digraphs). Minor modification of former
Section 7.
Part II: Structure of Groups
r Overview of changes: The main goal was to give the formal definition of
homomorphism earlier in order to simplify the proofs of Cayley’s and Lagrange’s
theorems.
r Section 8 (Groups of Permutations). Included formal definition of homomorphism.
Based on parts of former Sections 8, 9, and 13. Used two-row permutation
notation to motivate Cayley’s theorem before proof. Deleted first part of section 13
(covered in Section 4). Omitted determinant proof of even/odd permutations since
definition of determinant usually uses sign of a permutation. Kept orbit counting
proof. Put determinant proof and inversion counting proof in exercises.
r Section 9 (Finitely Generated Abelian Groups). Former Section 11. Added the
invariant factor version of the theorem. Showed how to go back and forth between
the two versions of the fundamental theorem.
r Section 10 (Cosets and the Theorem of Lagrange). Former Section 10. Changed
the order by putting Lagrange’s Theorem first, motivating G/H later in the section.
r Section 11 (Plane Isometries). Minor modification of former Section 12.
Part III: Homomorphisms and Factor Groups
r Overview of changes: My main goal was to include a few more examples to

motivate the theory and give an introduction to using group actions to prove
properties of groups.
r Sections 12-15 are based on former Sections 14-17, respectively.
r Section 12 (Factor Groups). Started section with Z/nZ example to motivate
general construction. Defined factor groups from normal subgroups first instead of
from homomorphisms. After developing factor groups, showed how they are
formed from homomorphisms.
r Section 13 (Factor-Group Computations and Simple Groups). Added a few more
examples of computing factor groups. Explicitly used the fundamental
homomorphism theorem in computation examples.
x Instructor’s Preface
r Section 14 (Group Action on a Set). Expanded examples of the general linear

group and the dihedral group acting on sets. Added some applications of group
actions to finite groups in anticipation of the Sylow Theorems, including Cauchy’s
Theorem and that fact that p-groups have a nontrivial center.
r Section 15 (Applications of G-sets to Counting). Minor modifications.
Part IV: Advanced Group Theory
r Overview of changes: I moved this part to be closer to the rest of the group theory
sections. More examples were included to help clarify the concepts.
r Section 16 (Isomorphism Theorems). Former Section 3. Added two examples and
rewrote proofs of two theorems.
r Section 17 (Sylow Theorems). Former Sections 36 and 37. Since Cauchy’s
Theorem and a few other theorems leading to the Sylow Theorems were covered in
new Section 14, this material was removed and the old Sections 36 and 37 were
combined. A few examples and exercises were added and a proof was rewritten.
r Section 18 (Series of Groups). Former Section 35. The proof of the Zassenhaus
Lemma was placed after the theorem instead of making the argument before
stating the theorem. One example added.
r Sections 19 (Free Abelian Groups), 20 (Free Groups), and 21 (Group
Presentations). Minor modifications of former Sections 38–40.
Part V: Rings and Fields
r Overview of changes: The previous Part IV was split into two parts, one giving an
introduction and the second giving methods of constructing rings and fields.
r Section 22 (Rings and Fields). Minor modification of former Section 18.
r Section 23 (Integral Domains). Former Section 19. Changed former Theorem 19.3
to classify all elements in Zn . Added corollary that Zp is a field, anticipating the
theorem that all finite integral domains are fields.
r Section 24 (Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems). Former Section 20. Simplified proof
of Euler’s generalization using classification of elements in Zn .
r Section 25 (Encryption). New section outlining how RSA encryption works. This
provides a nice application of the material in Section 24.
Part VI: Constructing Rings and Fields
r Overview of changes: Part VI includes sections from the previous Parts IV and V.
The change emphasizes construction techniques used to form rings and fields.
r Section 26 (The Field of Quotients of an Integral Domain). Former Section 21.
Rewrote the introduction to include two examples of integral domains and their
field of quotients to motivate the general construction.
r Section 27 (Rings of Polynomials). Minor modification of former Section 22.
r Section 28 (Factorization of Polynomials over a Field). Former Section 23.
Rewrote former Theorem 23.1 by making a lemma showing how to reduce degree
of polynomials in set S. Included proof of former 23.11 in the exercises.
r Section 29 (Algebraic Coding Theory). New section introducing coding theory,
focusing on polynomial codes. This gives an application of polynomial
computation over a finite field.
r Section 30 (Homomorphisms and Factor Rings). Former Section 26. Motivated
why you need the usual conditions for an ideal by starting the section with the
example of Z/nZ. Rearranged the order by showing that I an ideal of R gives rise
Instructor’s Preface xi
to the factor ring R/I, then included the material on homomorphisms and factor
rings from the kernel. Expanded the statement of former Theorem 26.3 to make it
easier to read and more approachable.
r Section 31 (Prime and Maximal Ideals). Minor modification of former Section 27.
r Section 32 (Noncommutative Examples). Minor modification of former Section 24.
Part VII: Commutative Algebra
r Overview of changes: This part includes sections that fit under the general heading
of commutative algebra.
r Section 33 (Vector Spaces). Former Section 30. Added two examples and a brief
introduction to R-modules over a ring motivated by vector spaces and abelian
groups. Moved Former Theorem 30.23 to Section 45 on field extensions.
r Section 34 (Unique Factorization Domains). Former Section 45. Included
definition of a Noetherian ring and made other minor changes.
r Section 35 (Euclidean Domains) and Section 36 (Number Theory) are minor
modifications of Sections 46 and 47, respectively.
r Section 37 (Algebraic Geometry). Based on the first half of former Section 28.
Added a proof of the Hilbert Basis Theorem.
r Section 38 (Gröbner Bases for Ideals). Based on the second half of former Section
28. Added two applications of Gröbner Bases: deriving the formulas for conic
sections and determining if a graph can be colored with k colors.
Part VIII: Extension Fields
r Overview of changes: Part VIII consists of minor changes from former Part VI.
r Section 39 (Introduction to Extension Fields). Former Section 29. Divided former
Theorem 29.13 into a theorem and a corollary. Rewrote former Theorem 29.18 and
its proof to make it easier to follow. Included example moved from former
Section 30.
r Section 40 (Algebraic Extensions), Section 41 (Geometric Constructions), and
Section 42 (Finite Fields) are minor modifications of former Sections 31–33,
respectively.
Part IX: Galois Theory
r Overview of changes: The previous Part X was rewritten to form Part IX. The goal
was to improve the readability of the material while maintaining a rigorous
development of the theory.
r Section
√ √43 (Introduction to Galois Theory). New section. Uses the field extension
Q( 2, 3) throughout to motivate and illustrate basic definitions and theorems
including field automorphism, field fixed by an automorphism, group of
automorphisms fixing a subfield, conjugates, and the conjugate isomorphism
theorem. By using an easy-to-understand example consistently throughout, the
concepts become more concrete.
r Section 44 (Splitting Fields). Includes the contents of former Sections 49 and 50,
but it is completely rewritten. Less emphasis is given to the algebraic closure of a
field and more emphasis is given to subfields of splitting fields.
r Section 45 (Separable Extensions). Contents include most of former Section 51
and a little from former Section 53, but material has been rewritten. The notation
{E:F} was omitted and definition of separable was given in terms of multiplicity of
zeros. Emphasized subfields of the complex numbers.
xii Instructor’s Preface
r Former Section 52 on totally inseparable extensions was omitted since it was not
used elsewhere and it detracts from the flow of the rest of Part IX.
r Section 46 (Galois Theory). Former Section 53. Separated the parts of Galois
Theory into separate theorems. Continued the same example throughout the
section to motivate and illustrate the theorems. By the end of the section, the
continued example illustrates how Galois Theory can be used.
r Section 47 (Illustrations of Galois Theory). Minor modification of former Section
54.
r Section 48 (Cyclotomic Extensions). Former Section 55. In order to make the text
more readable, restricted the field extensions to subfields of the complex numbers
over the rational numbers since this is the only case that is used in the book.
r Section 49 (Insolvability of the Quintic). Former Section 56. Replaced
construction of a polynomial that is not solvable by radicals with a specific
concrete polynomial. The previous construction of a nonsolvable polynomial was
moved to the exercises.
Part X: Groups in Topology (Online at bit.ly/2VBCiej)
r Sections 50-53 are minor modifications of former sections 41-44.
Some Features Retained

I continue to break down most exercise sets into parts consisting of computations, con-
cepts, and theory. Answers to most odd-numbered exercises not requesting a proof again
appear at the back of the text. I am supplying the answers to parts a, c, e, g, and i only
of our 10-part true-false exercises. The excellent historical notes by Victor Katz are, of
course, retained.
Suggestions for New Instructors of Algebra

Those who have taught algebra several times have discovered the difficulties and devel-
oped their own solutions. The comments we make here are not for them.
This course is an abrupt change from the typical undergraduate calculus for the stu-
dents. A graduate-style lecture presentation, writing out definitions and proofs on the
board for most of the class time, will not work with most students. We have found it
best to spend at least the first half of each class period answering questions on home-
work, trying to get a volunteer to give a proof requested in an exercise, and generally
checking to see if they seem to understand the material assigned for that class. Typi-
cally, we spent only about the last 20 minutes of our 50-minute time talking about new
ideas for the next class, and giving at least one proof. The videos for each section can
effectively be used to supplement or replace lectures. From a practical point of view, it
is a waste of time to try to write on the board all the definitions and proofs. They are in
the text.
We suggest that at least half of the assigned exercises consist of the computational
ones. Students are used to doing computations in calculus. Although there are many
exercises asking for proofs that we would love to assign, we recommend that you assign
at most two or three such exercises and try to get someone to explain how each proof
is performed in the next class. We do think students should be asked to do at least one
proof in each assignment.
Students face a barrage of definitions and theorems, something they have never
encountered before. They are not used to mastering this type of material. Grades on
tests that seem reasonable to us, requesting a few definitions and proofs, are apt to be
low and depressing for most students and instructors. To encourage students to keep up
Instructor’s Preface xiii
0--10
12--13
16 14 20 19
22--24
21 50--53
15
17 25 26
27--28
18
29
30--31
33
32
34
35--36 37--38
39--40
41 43--47 42
48
49
Dependence Chart
with the basic material, I give approximately ten pop quizzes per semester that typically
involve stating a definition, giving an example, or stating a major theorem.
At the University of North Texas, abstract algebra is a two-semester sequence. The
first semester is required of all math majors and the second semester is optional. Because
most students opt not to continue with the second semester, it is not offered every year.
When I teach either class, I give three 50-minute in-class exams. With exam reviews
and going over completed exams, this leaves approximately 36 class periods for new
material.
In the first-semester class, the base material I always cover includes Sections 0-6,
8, 9, 12, 13, and 22-25. I average approximately two class periods per section, so I can
usually cover a few more sections. Options I have used for the remaining time include
xiv Instructor’s Preface
Sections 14 and 15, Sections 26-28, Section 17, or Sections 30 and 31. One semester
I attempted to cover enough field extension material in order to cover Section 41. This
required me to carefully select material in Sections 27, 28, 39, and 40 in order to prepare
the students for Section 41.
For the second semester, I usually have as goals proving the impossibility of bi-
secting an angle using compass and straightedge and the insolvability of quintic poly-
nomials. Assuming that students have seen the basic material in the first semester as
described above, these goals require covering material from Sections 16, 18, 27, 28, 30,
31, 33, 34, and 39-49. This turns out to be an ambitious undertaking, but the purpose of
rewriting Part IX was to make the material more accessible to students, and therefore
make the goal of covering Galois Theory in a second-semester class more feasible.
Acknowledgments
I am very grateful to those who have reviewed the text or who have sent suggestions
and corrections. Below is a list of faculty who contributed their thoughts on improving
the text.
r Deb Bergstrand, Swarthmore College
r Anthony E. Clement, Brooklyn College
r Richard M. Green, University of Colorado
r Cheryl Grood, Swarthmore College
r Gary Gordon, Lafayette College
r John Harding, New Mexico State University
r Timothy Kohl, Boston University
r Cristian Lenart, University at Albany, SUNY
r Mariana Montiel, Georgia Southern University
r Anne Shiu, Texas A&M University
r Mark Stankus, California Polytechnic State University
r Janet Vassilev, University of New Mexico
r Cassie L. Williams, James Madison University
r T. E. Williamson, Montclair State University
r Michael Zuker, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
I also wish to express appreciation to Jeff Weidenaar, Tara Corpuz, and Jon Krebs
at Pearson for their help with this project.
Neal Brand
University of North Texas
Student’s Preface
This course may well require a different approach than those you used in previous math-
ematics courses. You may have become accustomed to working a homework problem
by turning back in the text to find a similar problem, and then just changing some num-
bers. That may work with a few problems in this text, but it will not work for most of
them. This is a subject in which understanding is all-important, and where problems
should not be tackled without first studying the text.
Let us make some suggestions on studying the text. Notice that the text bristles
with definitions, theorems, corollaries, and examples. The definitions are crucial. We
must agree on terminology to make any progress. Sometimes a definition is followed by
an example that illustrates the concept. Examples are probably the most important aids
in studying the text. Pay attention to the examples.
Before reading a section, it may be helpful to watch the video associated with the
section. I have two general pieces of advice for watching a video or reading the text.
First, minimize your distractions. It takes a good deal of concentration for most of us to
learn new technical information. Second, have paper and pen (or the electronic equiva-
lent) at hand to take notes and to occasionally work out computations on your own.
I suggest you skip the proofs of the theorems on your first reading of a section,
unless you are really “gung-ho” on proofs. You should read the statement of the theorem
and try to understand just what it means. Often, a theorem is followed or preceded by an
example that illustrates it, which is a great aid in really understanding what the theorem
says. Pay particular attention to the summary at the end of each video to get an overview
of the topics covered.
In summary, on your first viewing and reading of a section, I suggest you concen-
trate on what information the section gives and on gaining a real understanding of it.
If you do not understand what the statement of a theorem means, it will probably be
meaningless for you to read the proof.
Proofs are basic to mathematics. After you feel you understand the information
given in a section, you should read and try to understand at least some of the proofs. In
the videos you will find a few proofs. Watching the videos a second time after you have
a better understanding of the definitions and the statements of the theorems will help
to clarify these proofs. Proofs of corollaries are usually the easiest ones, for they often
follow directly from the theorem. Many of the exercises under the ”Theory” heading
xv
xvi Student’s Preface
ask for a proof. Try not to be discouraged at the outset. It takes a bit of practice and
experience. Proofs in algebra can be more difficult than proofs in geometry and calculus,
for there are usually no suggestive pictures that you can draw. Often, a proof falls out
easily if you happen to look at just the right expression. Of course, it is hopeless to
devise a proof if you do not really understand what it is that you are trying to prove. For
example, if an exercise asks you to show that a given thing is a member of a certain set,
you must know the defining criterion for a thing to be a member of that set, and then
show that your given thing satisfies that criterion.
There are several aids for your study at the back of the text. Of course, you will
discover the answers to odd-numbered problems that do not involve a proof. If you run
into a notation such as Zn that you do not understand, look in the list of notations that
appears after the bibliography. If you run into terminology like inner automorphism that
you do not understand, look in the index for the first page where the term occurs.
In summary, although an understanding of the subject is important in every mathe-
matics course, it is crucial to your performance in this course. May you find it a reward-
ing experience.
SECTION 0 S ETS AND R ELATIONS
On Definitions, and the Notion of a Set
Many students do not realize the great importance of definitions to mathematics. This
importance stems from the need for mathematicians to communicate with each other.
If two people are trying to communicate about some subject, they must have the same
understanding of its technical terms. However, there is an important structural weakness.
It is impossible to define every concept.
Suppose, for example, we define the term set as “A set is a well-defined collection of
objects.” One naturally asks what is meant by a collection. We could define it as “A
collection is an aggregate of things.” What, then, is an aggregate? Now our language is
finite, so after some time we will run out of new words to use and have to repeat some
words already examined. The definition is then circular and obviously worthless. Math-
ematicians realize that there must be some undefined or primitive concept with which
to start. At the moment, they have agreed that set shall be such a primitive concept. We
shall not define set, but shall just hope that when such expressions as “the set of all real
numbers” or “the set of all members of the United States Senate” are used, people’s
various ideas of what is meant are sufficiently similar to make communication feasible.
We summarize briefly some of the things we shall simply assume about sets.
1. A set S is made up of elements, and if a is one of these elements, we shall

denote this fact by a ∈ S.
2. There is exactly one set with no elements. It is the empty set and is denoted
by ∅.
3. We may describe a set either by giving a characterizing property of the
elements, such as “the set of all members of the United States Senate,” or by
listing the elements. The standard way to describe a set by listing elements is
to enclose the designations of the elements, separated by commas, in braces,
for example, {1, 2, 15}. If a set is described by a characterizing property P(x)
of its elements x, the brace notation {x | P(x)} is also often used, and is read
“the set of all x such that the statement P(x) about x is true.” Thus
{2, 4, 6, 8} = {x | x is an even whole positive number ≤ 8}

= {2x | x = 1, 2, 3, 4}.
The notation {x | P(x)} is often called “set-builder notation.”

4. A set is well defined, meaning that if S is a set and a is some object, then
either a is definitely in S, denoted by a ∈ S, or a is definitely not in S, denoted
by a ∈/ S. Thus, we should never say, “Consider the set S of some positive
numbers,” for it is not definite whether 2 ∈ S or 2 ∈ / S. On the other hand, we
can consider the set T of all prime positive integers. Every positive integer is
definitely either prime or not prime. Thus 5 ∈ T and 14 ∈ / T. It may be hard to
actually determine whether an object is in a set. For example, as this book
65
goes to press it is probably unknown whether 2(2 ) + 1 is in T. However,
65
2(2 ) + 1 is certainly either prime or not prime.
1
2 Section 0 Sets and Relations
It is not feasible for this text to push the definition of everything we use all the way
back to the concept of a set. For example, we will never define the number π in terms
of a set.
Every definition is an if and only if type of statement.
With this understanding, definitions are often stated with the only if suppressed, but
it is always to be understood as part of the definition. Thus we may define an isosceles
triangle as follows: “A triangle is isosceles if it has two congruent sides” when we really
mean that a triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent sides.
In our text, we have to define many terms. We use specifically labeled and num-
bered definitions for the main algebraic concepts with which we are concerned. To avoid
an overwhelming quantity of such labels and numberings, we define many terms within
the body of the text and exercises using boldface type.
Boldface Convention
A term printed in boldface in a sentence is being defined by that sentence.
Do not feel that you have to memorize a definition word for word. The important
thing is to understand the concept, so that you can define precisely the same concept
in your own words. Thus the definition “An isosceles triangle is one having two sides
of equal length” is perfectly correct. Of course, we had to delay stating our boldface
convention until we had finished using boldface in the preceding discussion of sets,
because we do not define a set!
In this section, we do define some familiar concepts as sets, both for illustration
and for review of the concepts. First we give a few definitions and some notation.
0.1 Definition A set B is a subset of a set A, denoted by B ⊆ A or A ⊇ B, if every element of B is in

A. The notations B ⊂ A or A ⊃ B will be used for B ⊆ A but B = A. ■
Note that according to this definition, for any set A, A itself and ∅ are both subsets of A.
0.2 Definition If A is any set, then A is the improper subset of A. Any other subset of A is a proper
subset of A. ■
0.3 Example Let S = {1, 2, 3}. This set S has a total of eight subsets, namely ∅, {1}, {2}, {3},
{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, and {1, 2, 3}. ▲
0.4 Definition Let A and B be sets. The set A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B} is the Cartesian product
of A and B. ■
0.5 Example If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4}, then we have

A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4)}. ▲
Throughout this text, much work will be done involving familiar sets of numbers.
Let us take care of notation for these sets once and for all.
Z is the set of all integers (that is, whole numbers: positive, negative, and zero).
Q is the set of all rational numbers (that is, numbers that can be expressed as quo-
tients m/n of integers, where n = 0).
Sets and Relations 3
R is the set of all real numbers.

Z+ , Q+ , and R+ are the sets of positive members of Z, Q, and R, respectively.
C is the set of all complex numbers.
Z∗ , Q∗ , R∗ , and C∗ are the sets of nonzero members of Z, Q, R, and C, respectively.
0.6 Example The set R × R is the familiar Euclidean plane that we use in first-semester calculus to
draw graphs of functions. ▲
Relations Between Sets

We introduce the notion of an element a of set A being related to an element b of set B,
which we might denote by a R b. The notation a R b exhibits the elements a and b
in left-to-right order, just as the notation (a, b) for an element in A × B. This leads us to
the following definition of a relation R as a set.
0.7 Definition A relation between sets A and B is a subset R of A × B. We read (a, b) ∈ R as “a is

related to b” and write a R b. ■
0.8 Example Let S be any set. We can define an Equality Relation = between S and itself as the
subset {(x, x) | x ∈ S}. Of course, this is nothing new. It is simply the usual idea of what
it means for two “things” to be equal. So if x, y ∈ S are different elements, then they are
not related by the equality relation and we write x = y, but if x and y are the same then
we write x = y. ▲
We will refer to any relation between a set S and itself, as in the preceding example,
as a relation on S.
0.9 Example The graph of the function f where f (x) = x3 for all x ∈ R, is the subset {(x, x3 ) | x ∈ R}
of R × R. Thus it is a relation on R. The function is completely determined by its graph.
▲
The preceding example suggests that rather than define a “function” y = f (x) to be
a “rule” that assigns to each x ∈ R exactly one y ∈ R, we can easily describe it as a
certain type of subset of R × R, that is, as a type of relation. We free ourselves from R
and deal with any sets X and Y.
0.10 Definition A function φ mapping X into Y is a relation between X and Y with the property that
each x ∈ X appears as the first member of exactly one ordered pair (x, y) in φ. Such a
function is also called a map or mapping of X into Y. We write φ : X → Y and express
(x, y) ∈ φ by φ(x) = y. The domain of φ is the set X and the set Y is the codomain of
φ. The range of φ is φ[X] = {φ(x) | x ∈ X}. ■
0.11 Example We can view the addition of real numbers as a function + : (R × R) → R, that is, as a
mapping of R × R into R. For example, the action of + on (2, 3) ∈ R × R is given in
function notation by +((2, 3)) = 5. In set notation we write ((2, 3), 5) ∈ +. Of course,
our familiar notation is 2 + 3 = 5. ▲
Cardinality
The number of elements in a set X is the cardinality of X and is often denoted by
|X|. For example, we have |{2, 5, 7}| = 3. It will be important for us to know whether
two sets have the same cardinality. If both sets are finite, there is no problem; we can
simply count the elements in each set. But do Z, Q, and R have the same cardinality?
To convince ourselves that two sets X and Y have the same cardinality, we try to exhibit
a pairing of each x in X with only one y in Y in such a way that each element of Y is also
used only once in this pairing. For the sets X = {2, 5, 7} and Y = {?, !, #}, the pairing
2 ↔?, 5 ↔ #, 7 ↔!
shows they have the same cardinality. Notice that we could also exhibit this pairing as
{(2, ?), (5, #), (7, !)} which, as a subset of X × Y, is a relation between X and Y. The
pairing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ···
0 −1 1 −2 2 −3 3 −4 4 −5 ···
shows that the sets Z and Z+ have the same cardinality. Such a pairing, showing that
sets X and Y have the same cardinality, is a special type of relation ↔ between X and
Y called a one-to-one correspondence. Since each element x of X appears precisely
once in this relation, we can regard this one-to-one correspondence as a function with
domain X. The range of the function is Y because each y in Y also appears in some
pairing x ↔ y. We formalize this discussion in a definition.
∗
0.12 Definition A function φ : X → Y is one-to-one or injective if φ(x1 ) = φ(x2 ) only when x1 = x2 .
The function φ is onto or surjective if the range of φ is Y. If φ is both injective and
surjective, φ is said to be bijective. ■
If a subset of X × Y is a one-to-one function φ mapping X onto Y, then each x ∈ X

appears as the first member of exactly one ordered pair in φ and also each y ∈ Y appears
as the second member of exactly one ordered pair in φ. Thus if we interchange the first
and second members of all ordered pairs (x, y) in φ to obtain a set of ordered pairs (y, x),
we get a subset of Y × X, which gives a one-to-one function mapping Y onto X. This
function is called the inverse function of φ, and is denoted by φ −1 . Summarizing, if
φ maps X one-to-one onto Y and φ(x) = y, then φ −1 maps Y one-to-one onto X, and
φ −1 (y) = x.
0.13 Definition Two sets X and Y have the same cardinality if there exists a one-to-one function map-
ping X onto Y, that is, if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between X and Y.
■
0.14 Example The function f : R → R where f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one because f (2) = f (−2) = 4
but 2 = −2. Also, it is not onto R because the range is the proper subset of all nonneg-
ative numbers in R. However, g : R → R defined by g(x) = x3 is both one-to-one and
onto R. ▲
We showed that Z and Z+ have the same cardinality. We denote this cardinal num-
ber by ℵ0 , so that |Z| = |Z+ | = ℵ0 . It is fascinating that a proper subset of an infinite set
may have the same number of elements as the whole set; an infinite set can be defined
as a set having this property.
We naturally wonder whether all infinite sets have the same cardinality as the set Z.
A set has cardinality ℵ0 if and only if all of its elements could be listed in an infinite row,
so that we could “number them” using Z+ . Figure 0.15 indicates that this is possible for
the set Q. The square array of fractions extends infinitely to the right and infinitely
∗ We should mention another terminology, used by the disciples of N. Bourbaki, in case you encounter it
elsewhere. In Bourbaki’s terminology, a one-to-one map is an injection, an onto map is a surjection, and a
map that is both one-to-one and onto is a bijection.
Sets and Relations 5
0 1 21 2 22 3 23 …
1
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
3
2
5
2
2
5
2
7
2
…
1
3
2
1
3
2
3
2
2
3
4
3
2
4
3
5
3 …
1
4
2
1
4
3
4
2
3
4
5
4
2
5
4
7
4 …
1
5
2
1
5
2
5
2
2
5
3
5
2
3
5
4
5 …
1
6
2
1
6
5
6
2
5
6
7
6
2
7
6
11
6 …
1 1 2 2 3 3 4
7
2
7 7
2
7 7
2
7 7 …
0.15 Figure
downward, and contains all members of Q. We have shown a string winding its way
through this array. Imagine the fractions to be glued to this string. Taking the beginning
of the string and pulling to the left in the direction of the arrow, the string straightens
out and all elements of Q appear on it in an infinite row as 0, 12 , − 12 , 1, −1, 32 , · · · . Thus
|Q| = ℵ0 also.
If the set S = {x ∈ R | 0 < x < 1} has cardinality ℵ0 , all its elements could be listed
as unending decimals in a column extending infinitely downward, perhaps as
0.3659663426 · · ·
0.7103958453 · · ·
0.0358493553 · · ·
0.9968452214 · · ·
..
.
We now argue that any such array must omit some number in S. Surely S contains
a number r having as its nth digit after the decimal point a number different from 0,
from 9, and from the nth digit of the nth number in this list. For example, r might start
.5637· · · . The 5 rather than 3 after the decimal point shows r cannot be the first number
in S listed in the array shown. The 6 rather than 1 in the second digit shows r cannot be
the second number listed, and so on. Because we could make this argument with any
list, we see that S has too many elements to be paired with those in Z+ . Exercise 15
indicates that R has the same number of elements as S. We just denote the cardinality of
R by |R|. Exercise 19 indicates that there are infinitely many different cardinal numbers
even greater than |R|.
Partitions and Equivalence Relations

Sets are disjoint if no two of them share a common element. In Example 0.17 we break
up the integers into subsets. Eventually we will see how to define an algebraic structure
on these subsets of Z. That is, we will be able to “add” two of these subsets to get another
subset. We will find that breaking a set into subsets is a valuable tool in a number of
settings, so we conclude this section with a brief study of partitions of sets.
0.16 Definition A partition of a set S is a collection of nonempty subsets of S such that every element
of S is in exactly one of the subsets. The subsets are the cells of the partition. ■
When discussing a partition of a set S, we denote by x̄ the cell containing the ele-
ment x of S.
0.17 Example Splitting Z into the subset of even integers and the subset of odd integers, we obtain a
partition of Z into the two cells listed below.
0 = {. . . , −8, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . . }

1 = {. . . , −7, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . . }
We can think of 0 as being the integers that are divisible by 2 and 1 as the integers
that when divided by 2 yield a remainder of 1. This idea can be used for positive integers
other than 2. For example, we can partition Z into three cells:
0 = {x ∈ Z | x is a multiple of 3},
1 = {x ∈ Z | the remainder of x divided by 3 is 1}, and
2 = {x ∈ Z | the remainder of x divided by 3 is 2}.
Note that when dividing a negative number by 3, we still obtain a non-negative
remainder. For example, −5 ÷ 3 is −2 with remainder 1, which says that −5 = 1.
Generalizing, for each n ∈ Z+ , we obtain a partition of Z consisting of n cells,
0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. For each 0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1, an integer x is in the cell r exactly when the
remainder of x ÷ n is r. These cells are the residue classes modulo n in Z and n is called
the modulus. We define the set Z/nZ as the set containing the cells in this partition. So,
for example, Z/3Z = {0, 1, 2}. As we can see, Z/nZ = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} has exactly
n elements. ▲
Each partition of a set S yields a relation R on S in a natural way: namely, for

x, y ∈ S, let x R y if and only if x and y are in the same cell of the partition. In set
notation, we would write x R y as (x, y) ∈ R (see Definition 0.7). A bit of thought
shows that this relation R on S satisfies the three properties of an equivalence relation
in the following definition.
0.18 Definition An equivalence relation R on a set S is one that satisfies these three properties for all
x, y, z ∈ S.
1. (Reflexive) x R x.
2. (Symmetric) If x R y, then y R x.
3. (Transitive) If x R y and y R z then x R z. ■
To illustrate why the relation R corresponding to a partition of S satisfies the sym-

metric condition in the definition, we need only observe that if y is in the same cell as x
(that is, if x R y), then x is in the same cell as y (that is, y R x). We leave the similar
observations to verify the reflexive and transitive properties to Exercise 28.
0.19 Example For any nonempty set S, the equality relation = defined by the subset {(x, x) | x ∈ S} of
S × S is an equivalence relation. ▲
0.20 Example (Congruence Modulo n) Let n ∈ Z+ . The equivalence relation on Z corresponding

to the partition of Z into residue classes modulo n, discussed in Example 0.17, is con-
gruence modulo n. It is sometimes denoted by ≡n . Rather than write a ≡n b, we usu-
ally write a ≡ b (mod n), read, “a is congruent to b modulo n.” For example, we have
15 ≡ 27 (mod 4) because both 15 and 27 have remainder 3 when divided by 4. ▲
Exercises 7
0.21 Example Let a relation R on the set Z be defined by n R m if and only if nm ≥ 0, and let us
determine whether R is an equivalence relation.
Reflexive a R a, because a2 ≥ 0 for all a ∈ Z.
Symmetric If a R b, then ab ≥ 0, so ba ≥ 0 and b R a.
Transitive If a R b and b R c, then ab ≥ 0 and bc ≥ 0. Thus ab2 c = acb2 ≥ 0.
If we knew b2 > 0, we could deduce ac ≥ 0 whence a R c. We have to examine
the case b = 0 separately. A moment of thought shows that −3 R 0 and 0 R 5, but
we do not have −3 R 5. Thus the relation R is not transitive, and hence is not an
equivalence relation. ▲
We observed above that a partition yields a natural equivalence relation. We now

show that an equivalence relation on a set yields a natural partition of the set. The
theorem that follows states both results for reference.
0.22 Theorem (Equivalence Relations and Partitions) Let S be a nonempty set and let ∼ be an
equivalence relation on S. Then ∼ yields a partition of S, where
ā = {x ∈ S | x ∼ a}.
Also, each partition of S gives rise to an equivalence relation ∼ on S where a ∼ b if and
only if a and b are in the same cell of the partition.
Proof We must show that the different cells ā = {x ∈ S | x ∼ a} for a ∈ S do give a partition of
S, so that every element of S is in some cell and so that if a ∈ b̄, then ā = b̄. Let a ∈ S.
Then a ∈ ā by the reflexive condition (1), so a is in at least one cell.
Suppose now that a ∈ b̄. We need to show that ā = b̄ as sets; this will show that a
cannot be in more than one cell. There is a standard way to show that two sets are the
same:
Show that each set is a subset of the other.
We show that ā ⊆ b̄. Let x ∈ ā. Then x ∼ a. But a ∈ b̄, so a ∼ b. Then, by the transitive
condition (3), x ∼ b, so x ∈ b̄. Thus ā ⊆ b̄. Now we show that b̄ ⊆ ā. Let y ∈ b̄. Then
y ∼ b. But a ∈ b̄, so a ∼ b and, by symmetry (2), b ∼ a. Then by transitivity (3), y ∼ a,
so y ∈ ā. Hence b̄ ⊆ ā also, so b̄ = ā and our proof is complete. ◆
Each cell in the partition arising from an equivalence relation is an equivalence
class.
■ EXERCISES 0
In Exercises 1 through 4, describe the set by listing its elements.

1. {x ∈ R | x2 = 3} 2. {m ∈ Z | m2 + m = 6}
3. {m ∈ Z | mn = 60 for some n ∈ Z} 4. {x ∈ Z | x2 − 10x + 16 ≤ 0}
In Exercises 5 through 10, decide whether the object described is indeed a set (is well defined). Give an alternate
description of each set.
5. {n ∈ Z+ | n is a large number} 6. {n ∈ Z | n2 < 0}
7. {n ∈ Z | 39 < n3 < 57}
8. {r ∈ Q | When r is multiplied by a sufficiently large power of 2, one obtains a whole number.}
9. {x ∈ Z+ | x is an easy number to factor}
10. {x ∈ Q | x may be written with positive denominator less than 4}
11. List the elements in {a, b, c} × {1, 2, c}.
A B
x
C D
0.23 Figure
12. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}. For each relation between A and B given as a subset of A × B, decide
whether it is a function mapping A into B. If it is a function, decide whether it is one-to-one and whether it is
onto B.
a. {{1, 2}, {2, 6}, {3, 4}} b. [[1,3] and [5,7]]
c. {(1, 6), (1, 2), (1, 4)} d. {{2, 2}, {3, 6}, {1, 6}}
e. {(1, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6)} f. {{1, 2}, {2, 6}}
13. Illustrate geometrically that two line segments AB and CD of different lengths have the same number of points
by indicating in Fig. 0.23 what point y of CD might be paired with point x of AB.
14. Recall that for a, b ∈ R and a < b, the closed interval [a, b] in R is defined by [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤
b}. Show that the given intervals have the same cardinality by giving a formula for a one-to-one function
f mapping the first interval onto the second.
a. [0, 1] and [0, 2] b. [1, 3] and [5, 7] c. [a, b] and [c, d]
15. Show that S = {x ∈ R | 0 < x < 1} has the same cardinality as R. [Hint: Find an elementary function of cal-
culus that maps an interval one-to-one onto R, and then translate and scale appropriately to make the domain
the set S.]
For any set A, we denote by P (A) the collection of all subsets of A. For example, if A = {a, b, c, d}, then {a, b, d} ∈
P (A). The set P (A) is the power set of A. Exercises 16 through 19 deal with the notion of the power set of a
set A.
16. List the elements of the power set of the given set and give the cardinality of the power set.
a. ∅ b. {a} c. {a, b} d. {a, b, c}
17. Let A be a finite set, and let |A| = s. Based on the preceding exercise, make a conjecture about the value of
|P (A)|. Then try to prove your conjecture.
18. For any set A, finite or infinite, let BA be the set of all functions mapping A into the set B = {0, 1}. Show that
the cardinality of BA is the same as the cardinality of the set P (A). [Hint: Each element of BA determines a
subset of A in a natural way.]
19. Show that the power set of a set A, finite or infinite, has too many elements to be able to be put in a one-to-one
correspondence with A. Explain why this intuitively means that there are an infinite number of infinite cardinal
numbers. [Hint: Imagine a one-to-one function φ mapping A into P (A) to be given. Show that φ cannot be
onto P (A) by considering, for each x ∈ A, whether x ∈ φ(x) and using this idea to define a subset S of A that
is not in the range of φ.] Is the set of everything a logically acceptable concept? Why or why not?
20. Let A = {1, 2} and let B = {3, 4, 5}.
a. Illustrate, using A and B, why we consider that 2 + 3 = 5. Use similar reasoning with sets of your own
choice to decide what you would consider to be the value of
i. 3 + ℵ0 , ii. ℵ0 + ℵ0 .
b. Illustrate why we consider that 2 · 3 = 6 by plotting the points of A × B in the plane R × R. Use similar
reasoning with a figure in the text to decide what you would consider to be the value of ℵ0 · ℵ0 .
21. How many numbers in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 can be expressed in the form .##, where each # is a digit
0, 1, 2, 3, · · · , 9? How many are there of the form .#####? Following this idea, and Exercise 15, decide what
you would consider to be the value of 10ℵ0 . How about 12ℵ0 and 2ℵ0 ?
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THE
ARTILLERIST’S MANUAL,
AND
BRITISH SOLDIER’S COMPENDIUM.
By MAJOR F. A. GRIFFITHS,
R. F. P. ROYAL ARTILLERY.
Si quid novisti rectius istis,

Candidus imperti: si non, his utere mecum.
SEVENTH EDITION.
Published by Authority.
LONDON:
SOLD BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL STREET;
PARKER AND SON, 445, WEST STRAND;
CLOWES AND SONS, CHARING CROSS;
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO., STATIONERS’ HALL COURT;
J. BODDY AND SON, AND W. P. JACKSON, WOOLWICH;
&C. &C. &C.
1856.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall.
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.

PREFACE.
SEVENTH EDITION.
Similar to each of the preceding editions of “The Artillerist’s Manual,

and British Soldier’s Compendium,” the present work contains much
additional matter; and notice has been taken of the subjects in
which improvements, or alterations have been adopted. To those
Officers, and Non-commissioned Officers, who are in possession of
the 6th edition of The Manual, it is advisable that I should specify
the chief additions, &c., in the present edition, viz.:—
Alterations:
Percussion small arms.
Manufacture of cartridges.
Ball cartridge barrels, and boxes.
Carcasses.
Quick match.
Shells, weight, &c.
Ordnance, length, weight, &c.
Service, and management of heavy ordnance.
Wads for heavy ordnance.
Charges for the Royal Navy.
Additions:
Manual, and platoon exercise of Riflemen.
Instructions for aiming with the rifle musket.
Light infantry signals, and sounds.
Fusil exercise.
Instructions for pitching, and striking tents.
Lights, long. Lights, signal.
Parachute light ball.
Water fuze.
To extricate a shot when jammed in a gun.
To ascertain if a magazine is damp.
Detail for active service of 9-Pounder Troop of Royal Horse
Artillery.
Reserve of gun, and small arm ammunition.
Detail for active service—18-Pounder Field battery.
” ” ” 9-Pounder Ditto.
” ” ” 32-Pounder Howitzer Ditto.
Small arm ammunition reserve.
Exercise of rockets.
To estimate distances in the field.
To find the distance from an object, height known.
Instructions for the exercise, and service of great guns, and
shells, on board Her Majesty’s ships.
Instructions for landing seamen, and marines, with Field pieces.
Charges for the Royal Navy, for boats.
Proportion of charges, for a 51-screw steam frigate.
Ditto Ditto 50-gun frigate.
Also—1 New Plate.
2 ” woodcuts.
1 ” diagram.
In the publication of each edition my object has been the same—
to render The Manual a Compendium of all that can be required by
Officers in the Field; and if I may be allowed to judge by the
gratifying manner in which the work has been received by the
Officers of the United Services, my humble exertions have indeed
been successful, ten thousand copies of The Manual, including the
present edition, having been printed.
The extensive circulation of “The Artillerist’s Manual, and British
Soldier’s Compendium,” is no doubt, however, chiefly to be
attributed,—
1st. To the highly favourable notice of the Military Authorities,

as evinced by the General order of the Master-General of
the Ordnance, dated 25th April 1840, and by the
Memorandum, dated Horse Guards, 10th December 1840.
2nd. To the considerate notice of The Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty, a copy of the work having been ordered to
be included in the libraries of all Vessels of war.
3rd. To the liberal distribution, by the Honourable Court of
Directors of the East India Company, of copies of each
edition to the military authorities at the several Presidencies
in India.
In conclusion, I have to express my grateful feelings to His Royal

Highness the General Commanding in Chief, who has been
graciously pleased to promulgate the Memorandum, dated Horse
Guards, 13th October 1856;[1] and my warm thanks are also due to
the Officers of the various Departments at Head Quarters, for the
kind manner in which they have invariably assisted me in the
revision of the work, in order that each succeeding edition may keep
pace with the improvements, alterations, or requirements of the
United Services.
F. A. GRIFFITHS.
Putney, October 13th, 1856.
(Copy.)
Horse Guards,
Memorandum. 13th October 1856.
His Royal Highness, the General Commanding in Chief, strongly
recommends to the Officers, and Non-commissioned Officers of the
Army, the Revised edition of a Work, entitled “The Artillerist’s
Manual, and British Soldier’s Compendium,” a work replete with the
most useful Military information, and of which Major Griffiths, R.F.P.,
Royal Artillery, is the author.
By command of
His Royal Highness,
The General Commanding in Chief,
(Signed) G. A. Wetherall,
Adj.-General.
GENERAL INDEX TO THE SUBJECTS.
PAGE
Preface iii
Memorandum, dated Horse Guards, 13th October 1856 vi
General Index to the subjects vii
Plates viii
Detailed Index to the subjects ix
Part. I. Infantry Exercise, Movements, &c. Sword
exercise. Pitching, and striking tents 1
II. Carbine exercise. Cavalry sword exercise 43
III. Ordnance. Carriages, &c. 48
IV. Ranges. Charges. Elevations. &c. 70
V. Stores. Implements. Combustibles. &c. 83
VI. Field battery Exercise. Detail for active service
of a Troop of Horse Artillery; Field batteries,
&c. Interior management of a Battery.
Embarking, and disembarking. Application of
Field artillery. Encamping, and picketing.
Tents. Horses. Forage. Veterinary directions.
Congreve rocket exercise 100
VII. Serving, and working heavy Ordnance 173
VIII. Gunnery 195
IX. Batteries. Fortification 223
X. Bridges, and Pontoons 250
XI. Fireworks 254
XII. Mathematics 265
PLATES.
PAGE
1. Brass Gun, with Names of principal parts 48
2. Field Gun Carriage. Elevation 102
3. ” Plan 103
4. Horse with harness 134
5. Harness. Description 134
6. Garrison Gun Carriage 173
7. Loading, &c. Naval Service 212
8. Vauban’s First system (Plan) 240
9. Do. do. (Profile) 242
10. Modern system of Fortification 243
11. Field Fortification 246
{ Mechanics
12. 294
{ Heights, and Distances
13. Surveying, and Reconnoitring 307
{ Heights, and Distances
14. 310
{ Practical Geometry
15. Practical Geometry 324
16. Do. 325
17. Do. 327
INDEX TO THE SUBJECTS,
ETC.
PA RT I .
INFANTRY EXERCISE, MOVEMENTS, &c.
Sword Exercise.
PITCHING, AND STRIKING, TENTS.
PAGE
Musket, Flint lock 1
Percussion Small arms, length, weight, bore, charge,
&c. 1
Blank cartridges 3
Manufacture of cartridges 3
Small arm ammunition, boxes, and barrels 5
Instructions for browning Gun barrels 5
Percussion firelocks, Instructions relative thereto 6
Infantry Exercise, and Movements;

Extracted from
“Field Exercise, and Evolutions of the Army.”
Paces, Length of, &c. 6
Flint firelocks, Manual, and Platoon exercise 7
Inspection, and Dismissal of a Company 8
Percussion firelocks, Manual, and Platoon exercise 8
Fusil exercise 9
The Manual, and Platoon exercise of Riflemen 10
Instructions for aiming with the Rifle musket 10
Words of command, for Funeral parties 11
COMPANY DRILL.
Sect. PAGE
1. Formation of the Company 11

2. Marching to the front 12
3. The Side, or closing step 12
4. The Back step 12
5. To form four deep 12
6. File marching 12
7. Wheeling from a halt 12
8. Wheeling forward by sub-divisions 12
9. Wheeling backward by sub-divisions 13
10. Marching on an alignement 13
11. Wheeling into line 13
12. Entering into a new direction 13
13. Counter-marching 13
14. Wheeling on the centre 13
15. Diagonal march 13
16. Increasing front of open Column halted 13
17. Increasing front of open Column on the march 13
18. To pass a Defile, by breaking off files 14
19. To move to a flank, in Sections 14
20. Forming Company, &c., from file marching 14
21. To form to either Flank, from open Column 15
22. To gain ground to a flank, by marching in echellon 15
23. To form the rallying square 15
Dismissing a Company off Parade 15
Inspecting a Company on Parade 15
MOVEMENTS OF A BATTALION.
1. Commands 16
2. Degrees of march 16
3. Marching in line 16
4. Wheeling 16
5. Movements 16
6. The Alignement 17
7. Points of formation 17
8. Dressing 17
9. Open column 17
10. Quarter distance, and close column 17
11. Echellon 18
12. Squares 19
13. Firings 19
Street firing 20
Formation of the Battalion 20
Evolutions of the Battalion 21
Movements of the Battalion from Line 21
14. The Battalion, halted, is to advance in Line 21
15. When a Battalion, advancing in line, is to charge 22
16. When the Battalion moving in Line passes a wood,
&c., by the flank march of Companies 22
17. When the Battalion advances, or retires by half
battalion, and fires 22
18. A Battalion in line, to move to attack, &c., to the
front, &c. 23
19. A Battalion in line to retire over a bridge, &c., or
retreat from the flank in the rear of the centre 24
20. A Battalion in line to march off in Column of
Divisions, successively to a flank 24
21. When the Battalion, halted in line, is to form square 25
22. When the Battalion forms a square, &c., to protect
baggage against Infantry 27
23. A Battalion halted, in line, to change front to the
rear upon the centre 27
CHANGES OF POSITION OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE, BY

MOVEMENTS OF THE OPEN COLUMN.
On a fixed point.
24. The Battalion to change position to the front on the
right halted Company, by throwing forward the
whole left 28
On a distant point.
25. The Battalion in line changes position by breaking
into open column, marching up in column to the
point where its head is to remain, and entering
the line by the flank march of Companies 28
26. The Battalion in line changes position by breaking
into open column, marching to a point where its
head is to rest, and to which its rear divisions
form by passing each other, and wheeling up 29
OPEN COLUMN MOVEMENTS.

27. When the leading flank of the column is changed
by the successive march of divisions from the
rear to the front 29
28. To change the wings of a column formed where the
space does not admit of the flank movement 29
29. When the column is required to form a square 29
QUARTER DISTANCE, AND CLOSE COLUMN.
30. When a Battalion forms a close, or quarter distance
column from line 30
31. When the column marches to a flank 31
32. When the column at quarter distance, moving,
takes ground to right, or left, by the echellon
march of sections 31
33. When a column, halted, is to wheel 31
34. When a column is to change its front by the wheel,
and countermarch of sub-divisions round the
centre 32
35. When a column is to open out to full, or half
distance 32
DEPLOYMENTS.
36. When the Battalion, in column of Companies,
deploys into line 33
ECHELLON FORMATIONS, AND MOVEMENTS.

37. When a Battalion, from line, wheels forward by
Companies into echellon 34
38. When the Battalion, having wheeled from line into
echellon, has marched, and halted, and is to form
back parallel to the line it quitted 34
39. When the Battalion, having wheeled from line into
echellon, has marched, and halted, and is to form
up oblique to the line it quitted 34
40. When the Battalion formed in line, changes front,
on a fixed flank Company by throwing forward
the rest of the Battalion 35
41. When the Battalion changes front on a fixed flank
Company by throwing back the rest of the
Battalion 35
42. When the Battalion changes front on a central
Company, by advancing one wing, and retiring
the other 35
43. When, from Open column, the Companies wheel
backward into echellon, to form line on the front
Company 36
44. When from line the Companies of a battalion march
off in echellon to the front, and again form line 37
45. When a Battalion in echellon of Companies is
required to form square 37
46. When a Battalion marching in line is to take ground
to a flank by the echellon movement 37
Light infantry. Signals, and sounds 38
Infantry sword exercise 38
Extension motions, and positions 38
Preparatory instruction with the sword 39
Review, or inspection exercise 40
Attack, and defence 40
Stick drill 40
Instructions for pitching, and striking tents 41
PA RT I I .
CARBINE EXERCISE; SWORD EXERCISE, CAVALRY.
Royal Artillery. Carbine Exercise 43
Inspection, and dismissal of a Company 43
To fire a Feu-de-joie 44
Funeral exercise 44
Sword. Royal Artillery 44
Cavalry, sword exercise 45
Formation for Sword exercise, on foot 46
Formation for Sword exercise, mounted 46
Officers’ salute 46
PA RT I I I .
ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES, etc.
Names of parts. The Dispart. Point blank range 48
The Tangent scale. The sights. The Line of metal 49
The Centre of metal. Windage 49
The Vent. Bouching. Tertiating. Quadrating. Honey
comb. Length. Calibre. Gun metal 50
Brass, and Iron guns 50
Service charges of powder. Point blank range of
guns 51
Description of Howitzers, and Carronades 51
Description of Mortars, charges, ranges, &c. 52
Value of Brass, and Iron Ordnance 52
Proof of iron Guns, brass Guns 53
” Mortars, Howitzers, Carronades 54
Water proof of Ordnance 54
Marks on condemned Ordnance, and Shells 54
Instructions for the care, and preservation of iron
Ordnance 55
Ingredients for coating, and lacquering iron
Ordnance 56
Instructions for lacquering Shot, and Shells 56
To render Ordnance unserviceable, by Spiking, &c. 57
Unspiking Ordnance 58
Length, Weight, Calibre, and Charge of Ordnance
generally used in the service 59, 60
CARRIAGES.
Garrison, Ship, Field gun carriages. Sleighs,
equipment, &c. 61
Depression carriages 62
Weight of Field carriages, Limbers, &c. 63 to 67
Weight, and diameter of Wheels 67
Weight of Carriages for iron Guns, Howitzers,
Carronades 68
Weight of Traversing platforms 68
Weight, and dimensions of Trucks 69
Weight, and dimensions of Mortar beds 69
PA RT I V.
RANGES, CHARGES, ELEVATIONS, &c.
BRASS ORDNANCE.
Medium 12 Pr. Light 12 Pr. }
9 Pr. Long 6 Pr. Light 6 Pr. }
Heavy 3 Pr. } 70
24 Pr. Howitzer. 12 Pr. Howitzer }
5½-inch heavy Howitzer }
8-inch Howitzer 32 Pr. Howitzer 71
Shrapnell shells 72
Ricochet practice with brass Ordnance 73
CHARGES FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.

For boats 73
High, medium, low 74
RANGE, ELEVATION, &c.
IRON ORDNANCE.
Guns 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6 Prs. }
75
Carronades 68, 42, 32, 24, 18, 12 Prs. }
68 Pr. Carronade, 8-inch Howitzer,
Shrapnell shells
24 Pr. Gun, 18 Pr. Gun 76
Guns 12, 10, 8-inch }
Carronade 77
32 Pr. Howitzers. 8 and 10-inch }
gun
Guns 56, 68 Pr. 78
Gun 8-inch 79
Ricochet, firing 79
” practice 80
MORTARS.
Practical rules for charge, range, &c. 80
Practice, 13, 10, 8, 5½, 4⅖-inch mortars 81
Greatest charges, and ranges 82
PA RT V.
STORES, IMPLEMENTS, COMBUSTIBLES, &c.
Balls, light, smoke. Carcasses 83
Cartridges for guns, howitzers, carronades 85
Fuzes, old pattern, Boxer’s, metal 86
Grease. Grenades, hand 87
Gun cotton 88
Gunpowder, manufacture, proof, marks 89
” Magazines. Barrels. Boxes 90
Handbarrows. Handspikes. Levers. Lights, blue 91
Lights, long, signal. Match, quick, slow 92
Parachute light ball, Boxer’s. Pendulums 93
Portfires, common, percussion, miners’, slow, coast
guard 94
Quoins. Rockets, signal 95
Shells, common, naval, Shrapnell diaphragm 96
Shot, case, or canister, grape 96
Stool beds. Tubes, common, detonating, friction 98
Wadmiltilt. Wooden bottoms 99
PA RT V I .
FIELD BATTERY EXERCISE. DETAIL FOR ACTIVE SERVICE OF 9 Pr.
TROOP OF HORSE ARTILLERY, 9 Pr. FIELD BATTERY, 18 Pr.
FIELD BATTERY, 32 Pr. HOWITZER FIELD BATTERY, GUN AND
SMALL ARM AMMUNITION RESERVE. INTERIOR MANAGEMENT
OF A BATTERY. EMBARKING, AND DISEMBARKING.
APPLICATION OF FIELD ARTILLERY. ENCAMPING, AND
PICKETING. TENTS. HORSES. FORAGE. VETERINARY
DIRECTIONS. CONGREVE ROCKET EXERCISE.
Telling off the Detachment. Posts of the Detachment 100
Change of position. Detail of duties. Changing round 101
Exercise with reduced numbers. Distances required 102
Names of parts of a Field gun carriage 102
Limbering up. Unlimbering. Moving with the Prolonge 103
Exercise with Drag-ropes 103
Formation of a Battery. Posts, and duties of Officers,
104
&c.
MANŒUVRES OF A BATTERY OF SIX PIECES OF ORDNANCE.

1. To advance. 2. To retire. 3. To come into action. 4.
To diminish, or increase intervals on the march 106
5. To take ground to a flank. 6. To make a half turn 107
on the march. 7. To form column of divisions in
rear of a flank. 8. To form column of divisions in
front of a flank
9. To form column of divisions on the centre division 107
10. To change front to the rear 107
11. To change front to a flank 108
12. To advance from a flank, in column 109
13. To advance from the centre in double column of
sub-divisions.
14. To move from a flank along the front in a column
of divisions.
15. To advance from a flank in echellon of sub-
divisions.
16. To advance from a flank in echellon of divisions 110
17. To retire from a flank in column. 18. To retire from
the centre, in a double column of sub-divisions.
19. To retire from a flank by alternate half
batteries in action 111
20. To break into column to a flank 111
21. To increase, and diminish the front 112
22. To bring the rear to the front, in succession on the
march.
23. To form line on the leading division 113
24. To form line on the rear division. 25. To form line
on the centre division 114
26. To form line to the rear on the leading division 114
27. To form line to the rear of the rear division. 28. To
form line to the rear, on the centre division. 29.
To form line to the reverse flank on the leading
division 115
30. To wheel into line 115
31. To deploy on the rear division. 32. To deploy on
the centre division. 33. To countermarch 116
34. From double column of sub-divisions, to form line
to the front. 35. From double column of sub-
divisions to form line to a flank 117
Inspection, and Review 117
EQUIPMENT OF A BATTERY.
Packing the entrenching tools, camp equipage,
&c. 119
18 Pr. Gun 120
12 Pr. medium, Gun 121, 122
9 Pr. Gun 123, 124
Light 6 Pr. Gun 125, 126
8-inch Howitzer 127
32 Pr. Howitzer 128, 129
Weight of Riders, Harness, Ordnance,
Carriages, &c., of a Field battery equipped 134
9 Pr. Troop of Horse Artillery. Detail for active
service 135
Reserve of Gun, and Small arm ammunition.
Horse Artillery 136
9 Pr. Field battery. Detail for active service 137 to 140
18 Pr. Field battery. Detail for active service 141
32 Pr. Howitzer Field battery. Detail for active
service 142
Reserve of Gun, and Small arm ammunition.
Detail 143
Gun ammunition reserve. Detail for Reserve
Artillery 144
Small arm ammunition, reserve. Detail for
Reserve Artillery 145
On the interior management of a battery 146
Embarking, and disembarking 149
Embarking guns, and carriages 149
Embarking the horses 150
APPLICATION OF FIELD ARTILLERY.

General remarks. Ammunition waggons 151
On the march. Advanced guard 152
Crossing fords. Passage of bridges 153
Crossing a bridge, passing a defile, &c. 154
Artillery, acting with other troops 155
ENCAMPING, AND PICKETING.

First method 155
Second method. To strike the encampment 157
Weight, dimensions, &c. of tents 158
Horses. Power in draught, &c. 158
Management of draught horses. Horse-shoes 160
Forage. Method of carrying, &c. 161
VETERINARY DIRECTIONS.
Cathartic mass 162
Febrifuge mass 163
Sedative mass 164
Diuretic mass 164
Alterative mass 164
Tonic mass 165
Anti-spasmodic draught 165
Vermifuge powder 166
Anti-purgation powder 166
Discutient powder 166
Astringent powder 167
Ophthalmic powder 167
Blistering liquid 168
Turpentine liniment 168
Turpentine ointment 168
Black oil 168
Hoof ointment 169
CONGREVE ROCKETS.
On firing rockets 169
Exercise of rockets 171
PA RT V I I .
REPOSITORY COURSE.—SERVING, AND WORKING HEAVY ORDNANCE.
[2]
Part 1.—Art. 1. Telling off the detachments 173

Art. 3. To shift a gun from the firing to the travelling
176
holes, or vice versâ
Art. 4. Exercise of guns on siege carriages 176
Art. 5. Exercise of guns on dwarf, and casemate
177
traversing platforms
Art. 6. ” ” on common traversing
177
platforms
Art. 7. Disposition, and duties, Firing hot shot 177
Art. 8. Exercise of carronades 179
Art. 9. ” of guns, and carronades, on ship
179
carriages
Art. 10. ” of ” on depressing
180
carriages
Art. 11. ” of 10 and 8 inch howitzers 180
Art. 12. ” of mortars 180
Art. 13. Firing by night 182
Art. 14. Firing at moving objects 183
Part 2.—Art. 1. Lever, and handspike 183
Art. 2. Fulcrums, and props 184
Art. 3. Lifting jack 185
Art. 4. Rollers 185
Art. 5. Crab capstan 186
Art. 12. Sling cart 187
Art. 13. Sling waggon 189
Art. 15. Triangle gyns 190
Art. 16. Gibraltar gyn 193
PA RT V I I I .
GUNNERY.
Practical rules 195
Results from experiments on the velocities of Shot, &c. 196
Theory, and practice of Gunnery 198
Double shotting. The effects of Wads 198
Penetration of Shot 199
Eccentric spherical Shot 201
Resistance of Iron plates, Oak plank, &c., against
musketry, canister, grape-shot, hollow, and solid shot 203
Naval Gunnery 205
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r Overview of changes: My main goal was to include a few more examples to

r Section 14 (Group Action on a Set). Expanded examples of the general linear

Part IV: Advanced Group Theory

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r Sections 50-53 are minor modifications of former sections 41-44.

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Suggestions for New Instructors of Algebra

It is impossible to define every concept.

1. A set S is made up of elements, and if a is one of these elements, we shall

{2, 4, 6, 8} = {x | x is an even whole positive number ≤ 8}

The notation {x | P(x)} is often called “set-builder notation.”

Every definition is an if and only if type of statement.

0.1 Definition A set B is a subset of a set A, denoted by B ⊆ A or A ⊇ B, if every element of B is in

0.5 Example If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4}, then we have

R is the set of all real numbers.

Relations Between Sets

0.7 Definition A relation between sets A and B is a subset R of A × B. We read (a, b) ∈ R as “a is

If a subset of X × Y is a one-to-one function φ mapping X onto Y, then each x ∈ X

Partitions and Equivalence Relations

0 = {. . . , −8, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . . }

Each partition of a set S yields a relation R on S in a natural way: namely, for

To illustrate why the relation R corresponding to a partition of S satisfies the sym-

0.20 Example (Congruence Modulo n) Let n ∈ Z+ . The equivalence relation on Z corresponding

We observed above that a partition yields a natural equivalence relation. We now

In Exercises 1 through 4, describe the set by listing its elements.

Title: The artillerist's manual and British soldier's compendium

Release date: April 6, 2024 [eBook #73341]

Original publication: London: Published by Authority, 1856

Credits: Brian Coe, John Campbell and the Online Distributed

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

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PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.

Similar to each of the preceding editions of “The Artillerist’s Manual,

1st. To the highly favourable notice of the Military Authorities,

In conclusion, I have to express my grateful feelings to His Royal

Infantry Exercise, and Movements;

1. Formation of the Company 11

CHANGES OF POSITION OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE, BY