EARTH SCIENCE

● Oxygen - OXIDATION - Iron

Exogenic Processes - It occurs on the surface of combined with oxygen in the
the Earth such as weathering, erosion, mass pressure of water in process is
wasting, and sedimentation. called OXIDATION.

Endogenic Processes - It occurs within the Earth ● Carbon Dioxide - CARBONATION

such as magmatism, volcanism, plutonism. - dissolves in rain water and creates
carbonic acid.
WEATHERING
● Plants and Animals - plants that
WEATHERING - breakdown of materials of grow on rocks produce weak acid
Earth’s crust into smaller pieces. that chemically weather rocks.

2 TYPES OF WEATHERING ● Acid Rain - compounds from

burning oil, coal, and gas react
chemically with water forming acids.
A. PHYSICAL WEATHERING /
It causes very rapid chemical
MECHANICAL WEATHERING - breaking
weathering.
down of rocks without changing its chemical
composition.
EROSION: CAUSE AND EFFECTS

● FREEZING AND THAWING - It

EROSION [ TRANSPORTATION ] - natural
occurs when water continually seeps
process that transports or carries rock / loosen
into cracks, freezes and expands,
particles from one place to another by water, wind,
eventually breaking the rock apart.
waves, glaciers, and gravity.

● PLANT ROOTS - when plant roots

SOIL EROSION - the removal of topsoil from one
grow into a rock, they break rocks
place to another. ( e.g. mining, construction,
apart as they grow.
deforestation, land conversion )

● ABRASION - It occurs when a

DEPOSITION - process by which sediments are
rock's surface is frequently exposed
laid down in new locations.
to water, wind and gravity.
AGENTS OF EROSION
● RELEASE OF PRESSURE /
EXFOLIATING - rocks exfoliate or
1. RUNNING WATER - large amounts of
break apart in layers as pressure
soil are scraped from the land.
from overlying rocks is reduced or
removed.
AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION : WATER

● ANIMAL ACTION - animals in the

➢ TRACTION - rolling or dragging of large
ground burrow and break particles
grains.
off of rocks.
B. CHEMICAL WEATHERING - breaking
➢ SALTATION - bouncing of grains as they
down of rocks caused by chemicals.
picked up.

AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING ➢ SUSPENSION - movement of fine particles

like silt and clay.
● Water (acids) - HYDROLYSIS -
weathers rock by decomposing, ➢ SOLUTION - movement of soluble
dissolving, or loosening part of the minerals.
rock.
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➢ DEBRIS AVALANCHE - variety of
very rapid to extremely rapid debris
flow.
2. WIND - will carry fine, clay sediments ➢ CREEP - the imperceptibly slow,
over long distances. steady, downward movement of
slope.
AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION : WIND ➢ SLIDE - downward movement of
mass material doing a certain path.
➢ SUSPENSION - particles are in the air for a ➢ SLUMP - occurs when a coherent
long period of time mass of loosely consolidated
materials.
➢ SALTATION - particles bounce around ➢ TOPPLE / TOPPLING - the forward
rotation out of the slope of a mass.
➢ DEFLATION - lowering of land surface due ➢ COMPLEX - a combination of two or
to removing surface. more principal types of movements.

➢ ABRASION - rocks shaped by abrasion are DEPOSITION - sediments settle out of the
called ventifacts. transport.
- DUNES - when something blocks
the movement of sands gets SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT
deposited.
● MOUNTAIN STREAM ENVIRONMENT -
3. GLACIERS - large ice fields that slowly turbulent streams can carry large sediments
flow downhills over time. during flood thick gravel and boulder layers.
4. GRAVITY - the steeper the slope the
more weathering takes place. ● MOUNTAIN FRONT ENVIRONMENT -
when the streams enter the flat area of the
MASS WASTING / MASS MOVEMENT / SLOPE base of the mountain.
MOVEMENT - movement of sediments downslope
under the influence of gravity. ● DESERT ENVIRONMENT- wind carries
sand and silt materials.
CAUSES OF MASS WASTING
● OVER STEEPING - the balance between ● RIVER ( fluvial ) ENVIRONMENT - in flat
the focus acting on slope. areas, rivers are slow moving and
● OVERLOADING - the load can be commonly carry an assortment of pebbles,
increased. sand, and silt.
● ADDING WATER TO A SLOPE - makes it
more likely to slide. ● LAKE ( lacustrine ) ENVIRONMENT - a
quiet environment.
10 TYPES OF DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT
● DELTA ENVIRONMENT - when the river
➢ FALL - are abrupt movements of enters the sea, it implies its load in a delta
mass materials which extends to the shallow coastal area.
➢ FLOW - mass movement of material
containing a large amount of water ● BEACH ENVIRONMENT - tidal currents
while moving downslope as thick transport sand along the coastline.
liquid.
➢ MUDFLOW - earthflow consisting of ● SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENT - the
material that is wet enough to flow mud and silt removed from the shoreline.
rapidly.
➢ DEBRIS FLOW - form of rapid mass
movement.
EARTH SCIENCE
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES METAMORPHISM - process that some rocks
undergo when heat and pressure changes
PRIMORDIAL HEAT - heat from accretion and them.
bombardment of the earth.
2 TYPES OF PROCESSES
RADIOGENIC HEAT - the thermal energy released
as a result of spontaneous nuclear disintegration. ● VERTICAL STRESS or confining
pressure - executed on the rock by the
RADIOACTIVE DECAY - process of an unstable weight of overlying material
atom transition to a more stable form.
● DIRECTED STRESS or differential
GRAVITATIONAL PRESSURE - the pressure pressure - a force applied to an object, but
exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point the force is not the same in all directions.
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.

2 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
MAGMA - molten rocks beneath the Earth’s
● CONTACT - contact with heat
surface. ( 600-1300c)
● REGIONAL - pressure
[ oxygen, silicon, iron, aluminium, sodium,calcium,
potassium, magnesium ]
TEXTURE AND FOLIATION
Foliation - aligned in layers.
PARTIAL MELTING - heat and pressure cause
Schistosity - a type of foliation characterised by
mantle rocks to melt.
the parallel slope.
Gneissic - a layered texture
2 TYPES OF MELTING
1. DECOMPRESSION MELTING - when a
GRADES IN METAMORPHISM
body of rock is held at approximately the
same temperature but the pressure is
1. LOW GRADE
reduced.
2. MEDIUM GRADE
2. FLUX MELTING - occurs when water or
3. HIGH GRADE
carbon dioxide are added to rock.
TYPES OF STRESS
INTRUSION - magma that moves up into a volcano
without erupting. 1. TENSIONAL - rocks are pulled apart
( stretches rock )
EXTRUSION - an eruption of magmatic materials. 2. COMPRESSIONAL - rocks are folded or
fractured.
GEOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES 3. SHEAR - happens when a process slides
past each other in the opposite direction.
PLUTONISM - happened beneath the surface of
the earth. GEOLOGIC FRACTURE
FOLDS - formed when rocks experienced
VOLCANISM - geological phenomena that occurs compressive stress. ( bending of rocks )
on the terrestrial surface.

METAMORPHIC

METAMORPHIC ROCKS - form when rocks are TYPES OF FOLDS

subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich
● SYNCLINE - the fold is downward
fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these
● ANTICLINE - the fold is upward
factors.
● MONOCLINE - the fold has simple bending
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FAULTS - a rock under ample stress can crack or
fracture.
● NORMAL FAULT - common faults at OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES
divergent boundaries.
● REVERSE FAULT - upward 1. Continental Shelf - partly shallow
● STRIKE-SLIP FAULT - sideways extension of the continent underwater.

2. Continental Slope - transition zone of

SEAFLOOR SPREADING continental shelf and deep ocean floor.

SONAR - a device that bounces sound waves off 3. Continental Rise - where the ocean
underwater objects and then records the echoes of begins.
these sound waves.
4. Abyssal plain - flattest part of the ocean
★ Using magnetometers attached to ships .
scientists discovered a lot about the 5. Island - extends up from the ocean floor.
magnetic properties of the seafloor.
6. Seamount - an undersea mountain.
★ The normal and reversed magnetic polarity
of seafloor basalts creates a pattern of 7. Trench - deepest part of the ocean.
magnetic stripes.
8. MId-oceanic Ridge - seafloor mountain
Harry H. Hess explained how the convection system, where upwelling of magma
currents in the Earth's interior make the seafloor happens which causes the seafloor to
spread. spread.

CONVECTION CURRENT - carry heat from the EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASIN

molten materials in the mantle and core towards
the lithosphere. JOHN TUZO WILSON ( 1908-1993 )

EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT THE IDEA THAT WILSON CYCLE - cyclical opening and closing of
SEAFLOOR IS CONTINUOUSLY SPREADING ocean basins

A. Evidence from molten materials - rock OCEAN BASIN - regions that are below sea level
shaped like pillows
B. Evidence from magnetic strips - rocks STAGES OF THE WILSON CYCLE
that make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern
of magnetised stripes. 1) EMBRYONIC - thick continental crust that
C. Evidence from drilling sample - older inhibits the heat flow from the earth's
rocks are found farther from the ridge; interior.
youngest rocks are in the mid-ocean ridge. - Rifting - happens when hot material from a
mantle plume reaches the base of a
OCEAN BASIN continental plate.
- AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY
OCEAN BASIN - a vast geological basin that - The motion is uplift
covers the large area of Earth’s surface is formed.

PANGEA - supercontinent that incorporated almost

all of Earth's landmasses in early geologic time.
World ocean is divided into the NORTH AND SOUTH
PACIFIC, NORTH AND SOUTH ATLANTIC, INDIAN, 2) JUVENILE - narrow seas with parallel
AND ARCTIC OCEANS. coasts are formed
EARTH SCIENCE
- RED SEA STRATIFIED ROCKS
- The motion is spreading
STRATIFIED ROCKS - also known as
3) MATURE - widening of the ocean basin sedimentary rocks, made up of layers or strata, that
- ATLANTIC OCEAN are formed over time.
- The motion is spreading
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS FORMED
4) DECLINING - becomes unstable and away
from the ridge. 1. EROSION AND TRANSPORTATION
- Ocean basin begins to die, and subduction 2. DEPOSITION
begins 3. COMPACTION
- PACIFIC OCEAN 4. CEMENTATION
- The motion is SUBDUCTION
- Trenches and Island arcs form STRATIFICATION - process leading to the
formation or deposition of layers.
5) TERMINAL - subduction outpaces the
formation of new crust. The ocean begins to The rock layers are formed by erosion and
contract. weathering of mountains.
- MEDITERRANEAN SEA
- The motion are collision and uplift ➢ LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
- youngest layer is on top and the oldest on
6) SUTURING - subduction closes up the bottom
ocean and continents collide.
- HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN RANGE ➢ LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALLY
- The motion is uplift - the layers of sediments were originally
deposited horizontally under the action of
MOVEMENT OF PLATES gravity.

TECTONIC PLATES - the Earth’s crust is divided ➢ LAW OF LATERAL CONTINUITY

into pieces with various sizes. - the layers of rock are continuous until
they encounter other solid bodies that block
MOTION OF PLATES their deposition.

● SPREADING - occurs when 2 plates are ➢ LAW OF CROSS CUTTING

moved away from each other. RELATIONSHIP
● COLLISION - 2 continental plates are - If a fault or other body of rocks cuts
moved toward each other. through another body of rock then it must
● SUBDUCTION - when 1 plate subsides be younger in age than the rock through
beneath the other plate. which it cuts and displaces.
● SLIDE PAST EACH OTHER - transform
faulting occurs when 2 plates slide past DATING METHODS
each other.
1. RELATIVE DATING - a method of
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY - occurs determining the age of rocks in each
when two plates collide layer by identifying the relative order
of previous events. [ ex. The trilobite
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY - occurs when 2 fossil is older than the dinosaur tooth
plates move away from each other fossil? ]

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY - where 2

plates slide past each other 2. ABSOLUTE DATING - a method of
determining the actual age of rocks
EARTH SCIENCE
using radioactive decay. [ ex. The ● (a) Amber-an organism, such as
trilobite fossil is 489 million years insect, is trapped in a
old] tree’s sticky resins and dies.

INDEX FOSSILS ● (b) Tar an organism, such as

mammoth, is
Fossils - the preserved remains, or traces trapped in a tar pit and dies.
of remains of ancient organisms.
● (c) Ice-an organism, such as wooly
5 MAIN TYPES OF FOSSILS mammoths die in very cold regions.

1. PETRIFIED FOSSILS -
formed through petrification Geologic time is divided into four large
that means turning into segments called Eons:
stones. Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and
Phanerozoic.
2. MOLDS AND CASTS
- form when hard parts of an ● The Phanerozoic
organism are buried in Eon (the eon of visible life)
sediments such as sand, silt,
or clay. A cast is formed as It is divided into Eras:
the result of mold.
● Cenozoic ("recent life")
3. CARBON FILMS ● Mesozoic ("middle life")
- When an organism dies ● Paleozoic ("ancient life")
and is buried in sediments,
the material that makes up Precambrian - the longest era.
the organism breaks down. Eras - the longest subdivisions

4. TRACE FOSSILS - show the ● Eras are subdivided into periods

activities of organisms. An
animal makes a footprint Periods - units of geologic time
when it steps in sand or mud. characterized by the types of life existing worldwide
Over time the footprint is at the time.
buried in layers of sediment,
then sediment becomes solid Periods can be divided into smaller units of time
rock. called Epochs.

5. PRESERVE REMAINS, Epochs are subdivided into units of shorter

AND SOME ORGANISMS duration called system.
GET PRESERVED IN OR
CLOSE TO THEIR
ORIGINAL STATES.

THERE ARE SOME MANY WAYS: