KEYBOARD.

The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the
computer memory.
It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard.
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT.
The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the
usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to
represent data items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the
computer.
SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.
Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -
(a). Function/ Command keys.
These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They are
used to issue commands into the computer.
Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application packages,
e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.
Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with
different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.
(b). Alphanumeric keys.
This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used for
typing of text.
It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and Number
keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are Punctuation
marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.
At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate words
or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).
(c). Numeric Keypad keys.
It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked
on them in rows from the bottom upwards.
The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the
multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the
decimal point (.).
The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on.
(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.
They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.
They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.
 Arrow keys:
To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press the
Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one line
down, press the Down arrow key.
 Page Up & Page Down:
To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the Page
Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.
 Home & End keys:
 To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move
the cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.

Editing keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i). Backspace key.
It has a backward arrow () marked on it.
√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same
line).
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate
letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
iii). Insert (Ins) key.
√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype mode.
When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace a
character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).
(e). Special PC operation keys.
They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
TAB key ( ).
It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a certain
text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g., 10mm,
20mm, etc.
A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear.
CAPS Lock.
Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner of
the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off, all the
text typed will appear in small letters.
SHIFT key ( ).
This special key works in combination with other keys.
 √ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an alphabet
key to get the letter in its capital form.
√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on top of
certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.
To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a certain
key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
ENTER key (↵).
√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a word
processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line or
paragraph.
√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the
computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the
screen.
ESCAPE (ESC) key.
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to
quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.
CONTROL (CTRL) key.
It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to
give the command for saving the text/object.

Commonly confusing keys.

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are
working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is
wrong.
The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.
Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and
between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.
The slash (“/”) is used as:
- A division symbol when writing a formula.
- A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (“\”) is used:
- In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.
- In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.
The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.
Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is
printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
 The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical
key top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words,
but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of
the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The Underscore takes the
places of the blank space.
Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.
Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“).
Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.
Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in
Mathematics, foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home
subdirectory.
The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).
Slash (/) - used for division,
Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.
Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the item
you want to select.
To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left button
(Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly accomplish
common tasks.
Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an
object/item on the screen.
Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without
moving the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the right
mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This
list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is because; the
commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.
Shortcut menu:
 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.
 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to
another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still holding
down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE.
This is a set of programs, which is developed & installed in a computer system for the purpose of
developing other programs, and to enhance the functional capabilities of the computer system.
System programs control the operation of the various hardware parts & make them available to
the user. They also enable users make efficient use of the computing facilities in order to solve
their problems.
System programs manage the computer resources such as Printers, Memory, disks, etc, automate
its operations & make easier the writing, testing and debugging of users’ programs.
They also control the various application programs that we use to achieve a particular kind of
work.
Notes.
 System software are developed & installed by the manufacturer of the computer hardware.
This is because to write them, a programmer needs in-depth knowledge of the hardware
details of the specific computer.
 Some of the system software are supposed to put initial ‘life’ into the computer hardware and
are therefore, held permanently in the ROM.
Program routines that are permanently maintained in the computer’s memory are called
Resident software/ routines.
 System programs dictate how the programs relate to the hardware, and are therefore said to be
Hardware-oriented.
System programs consist of Operating Systems, Language translators (Assemblers, Compilers),
System utilities, and Device drivers.
System software is further sub-classified as:
(a). Operating system.
(b). System utilities.
EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM PROGRAMS.
(a). FIRMWARE (or Microprogram).
It refers to a series of special program instructions.
The Microprogram is held in the Control Unit (CU), and is used to interpret the external
Instruction set of a computer.
The Instruction set is the list of instructions available to the programmer that can be used to
give direct orders to the computer.
Firmware is fixed into the ROM, and cannot be changed.
 Firmware is usually a combination of hardware and software. It deals with very low-level
machine operations, such as moving data, making comparison, etc, and thus acts as an
essential substitute for additional hardware.
(b). OPERATING SYSTEMS.
An Operating System is a set of programs designed to ensure the smooth running of the
computer system.
They are developed to manage all parts of the basic computer hardware & provide a more
hospitable interface to users and their programs.
It controls the way the way the software uses the hardware. This control ensures that the
computer system operates in a systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the
user.
OS are supplied by the computer manufacturer. They are designed to reduce the amount of
time that the computer is idle, and also the amount of programming required to use a
computer.

(c). UTILITY SOFTWARE (Service programs).

Modern OS does a lot more than manage the hardware efficiently. It normally provides the
user with facilities that make the job of developing programs or doing something useful on
the computer much easier.
A Utility program is a program, which performs a generally useful task.
Utility programs are used by end-users to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, sorting, merging, program debugging, manage computer files, diagnose
and repair computer problems that occur, etc. They are normally supplied the
manufacturers to enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
Most OS have many of the Utility programs needed to assist with the upkeep of the
computer. For example, DOS 6.x includes utilities for managing memory, protecting a
system of viruses, backing up files, restoring accidentally deleted files, etc.
Some of the common Utility programs are those concerned with: -
 Searching.
They help to search for a file from one or more specified records. For example, in a
Sales record, the Search facility assists in finding the salesperson with the highest sales.
 Moving data from one medium to another.
For example, from tape to disk & vice versa, or from a floppy disk to hard disk.
 Spell-checking of words.
After a document is typed, the words in the document are checked against those in a
‘custom dictionary’ in secondary storage. If any word used is not found in the
dictionary, a warning is given indicating a possible spelling error.
 Formatting programs.
Before a floppy disk can be used, it must be ‘initialized’ or formatted. This means that,
the system must put certain information on the disk, which helps with the storing and
retrieving user’s programs & data at a later time.
 Therefore, a computer system that uses disks would have a utility program for
initializing or formatting these disks.
 Debugging (removing program errors).
The programming process usually includes debugging (removing errors from) a
program. Statements of the program are studied to determine the cause of an error.
Again, useful information can be obtained by studying the contents of memory at the
time the program failed.
Examples of the common Service programs.
(i). Text Editors.
(ii). Language Translators.
(iii). Diagnostic Tools/ Programs.
(iv). Sort utility.
(v). Merge utility.
(vi). Copy utility.
(vii). Core/ Dump utility.
(viii). Linker.
(ix). Loader.
(x). Library Program.
(xi). Database management system (DBMS) – a utility program that manages data contents.

Text Editor.
This is a utility program that enables/ allows users to create files in which they can store any
textual information they desire using the computer.
Once the files are created, the Text editor provides facilities which allow the user modify
(make changes to) the files; such as adding, deleting, or changing information in the file.
Data can be copied from one file to another. When a file is no longer needed, it can be
deleted from the system.
The operations of the Text editor are controlled by an interactive OS that provides a
‘dialogue’ between the user and the Operating system.
The Text editors are used to create, e.g. program statements through the Keyboard connected
to the computer. Editing can then be carried out using the Edit keys on the Keyboard or by
using a sequence of commands.
There are 3 major classes of Text editors:
(i). Character text editors – deals with 1 character at a time.
(ii). Line text editors – deals with a whole line at a time.
(iii). Page text editors - deals with a whole screen full of text at a time.
Note. The Text Editor is probably the most often used utility program of an OS.
Sort utility.
The Sort utility is used to arrange the records within a file according to some predetermined
sequence. The arrangement can either be in Ascending or Descending order of the alphabets
or numerals.
For example, a user may wish to sort data into some desired sequence, such as; sort a student
file into ascending order by name or into descending order by average grade or sort a mailing
list by postal code, etc.
Merge utility.
Merging is the process by which the records in two or more sorted files are brought together
into one larger file in such a way that, the resulting file is also sorted.
The Merge utility is used to influence the combining of the contents of 2 or more input files
to produce one output file.
Copy utility.
It is usually advisable to maintain duplicate copies of the operational files so that in case
something goes wrong with the original files, then their contents can be recreated from the
duplicate/ backup copy or copies.
The duplication process, i.e. copying the contents of one file to another is done through the
influence of the Copy utility. The copying can be from one media to a different media or
from one media to another media of the same make, e.g. from diskette to hard disk or from a
diskette to another diskette.
Dump utility.
The term Dumping is used to describe the copying of the contents of the main memory. The
Dump utility is therefore, used to transfer (copy) the contents of the computer’s internal
memory into a storage media, e.g. the disk or through the Printer (to get a Hard copy output).
The result of dumping is that the main memory ‘image’ is reflected by the stored or the
printed contents.
Language Translator.
Programs written in high-level languages have to be translated into binary code (Machine
language), before the computer can run these programs.
A Translator is a utility program written & supplied by the computer manufacturers, used to
convert the Source Codes (the program statements written in any of the computer
programming languages) to Object Codes (their computer language equivalents).
Each language needs its own translator. Most OS provide users with Compilers or
Interpreters for the common high-level languages. In addition, an Assembler is usually
available for those wishing to write programs in the Assembly language of the particular
machine.
Note. These translators are not part of the OS, but they are designed to be used under the
operating system & are accessible to it.
Linker.
Computer programs are usually developed in Modules or Subroutines (i.e. program
segments meant to carry out the specific relevant tasks).
During the program translation into their machine code, these modules are translated
separately into their object code equivalents.
The Linker is a utility software that accepts the separately translated program modules as its
input and logically combines them into one logical module, known as the Load Module that
 has got all the required bits & pieces for the translated program to be obeyed by the computer
hardware.
Loader.
The Loader is a utility program that transfers the load module (i.e. the linker output) into the
computer memory, ready for it to be executed by the computer hardware.
The transfer process is from the backing store, e.g. magnetic disk into the computer’s main
memory. This is because some systems generate object codes for the program, but instead of
being obeyed straight away, they store them into the media.
Diagnostic Tools (Programs).
Diagnostic tools/programs usually come with the translators and are used to detect &
correct system faults –both hardware and software.
They provide facilities which help users to debug (remove errors from) their programs more
easily.
E.g., Dr.Watson is a diagnostic tool from Microsoft that takes a snapshot/ photograph of your
system whenever a system fault occurs. It intercepts software faults, identifies the software
that faulted, and offers a detailed description of the cause & how to repair the fault.
Other diagnostic tools for detecting hardware faults are, Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus,
etc.
(d). PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
A computer usually ‘works’ by executing a series of instructions called the Program. A
Computer Program is simply a sequence of numeric codes (‘0’s & ‘1’s). Each of these
codes can be converted directly by the hardware into simple instructions.
The set of instructions that the computer can recognize is referred to as the Instruction Set.
A Computer program can be written in a variety of programming languages.
A Programming language is a language used in writing a computer program. The
languages must be understood by the computer for it to execute.
The languages are broadly classified into 5 categories: -
(i). Machine (computer) language.
(ii). Low-level programming language (also referred to as Assembly language).
(iii). High-level programming languages.
(iv). 4th Generation languages (4GL’s).
(v). 5th Generation languages (5 GL’s).
1. Machine language (1ST Generation Computer language).
This is the language that is readily understood by the computer.
Machine language uses machine codes (binary digits) that consist of 0’s & 1’s.
2. Low-level languages/ Assembly language (2ND Generation languages).
Assembly language is very close to the vocabulary of the machine language.
It uses many English-like acronyms (Mnemonic codes or labels). Words like ADD,
SUM could be used in programs, and a program called an Assembler translates these
words into Machine language.
 It was developed (in early 1950’s) to speed up programming.
The Assembly language instructions are Symbolic representations of the machine code
(computer language) instructions.
Comments can be incorporated into the program statements to make them easier to be
understood by the human programmers.
3. High-level languages (3RD Generation languages).
These are languages developed to solve the problems encountered in low-level
programming languages.
The grammar of High-level languages is very close to the human being’s natural
languages vocabulary, hence easy for the human beings to understand and use.
They allow a problem solution to be specified in a human & problem- oriented manner.
The programs are able to run in any family of computers provided the relevant
translator is installed.
Programs written in high-level languages are shorter than their low-level equivalents,
since one statement translates into several machine code instructions.
Examples.
* COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language).
* FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation).
* BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
* PASCAL.
* C.
* C++ (Object C).
* LISP (LISt Processing).
* LOGO.
* COROL.
* RPG (Report Program Generator).
* SNOBOL (String Oriented Symbolic Language).
Exercise I.
1. (a). Define System software.
(b). Name and explain the main categories of system software.
(c). Name THREE programs which can be classified as ‘System programs’
2. Write short notes on the following:
(a). Text editor.
(b). Linker.
(c). Loader.
3. (a). What is a Programming language?
(b). Identify the various types of programming languages.

Exercise II.
1. Describe a Firmware.
2. What is an Operating System?
3. (a). What is meant by ‘Machine language’?
(b). What is the difference between machine and Assembly language?
4. (a). Most computer programming is carried out using High-level or Third generation
languages. What is a High-level language?
(b). Name THREE popular High-level programming languages.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE.
Application programs are written to solve specific problems (or to handle the needs) of the end-
user in particular areas.
They interface between the user & system programs to allow the user to perform specific tasks.
Application software helps to solve the problems of the computer user, and are therefore said to
be user-oriented.
They are designed specifically to carry out particular tasks. For example, they can be used to
type & create professional documents such as letters, solve mathematical equations, draw
pictures, etc.
Notes.
 Application programs can be written by the user, programmers employed by the user, or by
a Software house (a company specializing in writing software).
 Application programs can be written with very little knowledge of the hardware details of a
specific computer, and can run on several different computers with little or no modification.
Application software falls into 2 main categories/groups: -
(i). General-purpose packages (Application packages).
(ii). Special-purpose applications (User programs).
General-purpose packages (Application packages).
They are usually pre-written programs made for non-specialists, in the home or business, and
may be used for a wide variety of purposes.
They are off-shelf programs that are developed & supplied by manufacturers, Bureaux &
software houses at a price.
They provide a general set of facilities that are used in dealing with similar types of tasks, which
arise in a wide variety of different application problems.
The range, quality and variety of the packages are continuously changing.
Examples of Application packages are: -
* Word processors * Spreadsheets.
* Databases * Graphic packages, etc.
Package - a set of fully described & related programs stored together to perform a specific task.
They are developed to solve particular problems in one or more organizations with little or no
alterations.
Advantages of Application packages as compared to other forms of applications.
(i). Packages save a lot time & programming effort, because the company buys the software
when it is ready-made.
(ii). Are relatively cheap to the user. These programs are usually sold in large numbers.
Again, the cost of developing the programs is effectively shared between the purchases.
(iii). They are appropriate for a large variety of applications.
(iv). Most packages are menu-driven, i.e., the user is provided with a set of options displayed on
the screen; hence, they are easy to learn & use, making them suitable for people with little
or no computing knowledge.
(v). Packages are extensively/thoroughly tested & debugged (has all errors corrected), i.e. if it
is a popular package, it is usually tried & approved by a large no. of people. The testing is
done by a pool of professional programmers and analysts.
(vi). Are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
(vii). Relatively quick results are obtained.
(viii). The packages are generally portable. In addition, there is usually a maintenance agreement
between the supplier & the buyer.
(ix). Application packages can be rented, especially by users who might require to use them
only periodically, hence cutting on costs, e.g. maintenance.
Disadvantages (drawbacks) of Application packages.
(i). The package is produced to meet general needs (a wide variety of user’s needs) &
therefore, may not be ideal for a particular customer/ company.
(ii). The purchaser has no direct control over the package, because he/she is not involved in
developing it.
(iii). Packages cannot be modified.
The user may not be free to correct any routines/ functions of the package, because there is
always a maintenance guarantee & the application of the developer’s copyright acts.
(iv). A package may include extra facilities, which are not required by an individual user or
company.
(v). Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the task at hand.
(vi). In the case of Spreadsheet or Database, the user must still develop the application, which
requires a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the package, which are usually quite
extensive.
(vii). The user must still provide documentation for the particular application that he/she has
created.
(viii). It is quite easy to forget the commands to use the package, especially if it is not used
frequently.
Special-purpose applications (User-developed/ in-house programs).
They are written to meet the specific needs of an organization.
They are usually customized (modified/ tailored) programs written by the user or a Software
house under contract, to perform a specific job.
They are developed by users to solve only the specific processing tasks in one organization, and
may not suit the needs of other organizations, hence the name In-house or Tailor-made
programs.
They are designed for a particular identifiable group of users such as Estate agents, farmers,
Hoteliers, etc.
They are usually aimed at providing all the facilities required for particular class of application
problem such as Payroll / Stock control.
Since the programs are occupation- specific; they sell fewer & tend to be more expensive.
Advantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). The user gets a well tried & tested program, which he/she is able to use with confidence.
(ii). The user is able to quickly implement the results obtained from the use of the package.
Disadvantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). Purchaser has direct control over the package, as he is involved in its production.
(ii). Are very expensive.

Factors to consider when buying an Application package.

The following are some of the factors that a buyer who is intending to acquire an Application
package should consider: -
1). Cost of the package in relation to the expected benefits against the cost of developing in-
house programs.
2). Compatibility: - (fitting) of the package with/within the existing computer resources, e.g.,
hardware, software, etc.
3). Whether there is maintenance support from the suppliers.
4). Whether there is accompanying documentation (the descriptions), which helps in using,
maintaining & installing the package.
5). The portability of the package, i.e. whether the package can be used on different families of
computers.
6). A good package is that which is easy to learn & use. This helps to determine the duration of
training that might be involved & the subsequent cost of training.
7). Before buying a particular package, its current users should be interviewed to find out
whether the package is successful and famous in the market.
Exercise.
1. (a). What do you mean by Application software?
(b). Describe the main forms of Application software.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION PACKAGES.

WORD PROCESSORS.
A Word processor is a computer system with a special piece of software used for the production
of documents.
Word processors can be used to prepare & produce letters, documents, books, articles, mailing
lists and any material that involves text.
Common examples of Word processors: -
* Microsoft Word. * WordPerfect.
* Lotus Word Pro. * WordStar.
* Wang writer.
Depending on the task & the type of output required, either Text Editors or Word processors can
be used.
TEXT EDITORS.
A Text editor is the simplest Word processor. Text editors are mainly used to write small notes,
memos and programs.
A Text editor is used to type text without any special formatting; however, the document can be
saved, retrieved and modified at will.

The 2 types of Text Editors.

(i). Line Editors - allow users to work with one line of text at a time.
An example of a line editor is the DOS COPY CON.
(ii). Screen Editors. These are full screen editors that allow users to work with large files of up
to 64 KB in size.
They use Special keys that can be used to Cut, Copy, Paste & Delete blocks of text.
They also have a Search & Replace facility, which can be used to easily search for a
specific text and replace it with something else.

SPREADSHHETS.
Spreadsheets are application packages used for manipulation of figures. A spreadsheet
application lets the user enter numerical data.
A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.
The figures or text are inserted into the Cells. A cell is referred to by the column letter and row
number (e.g., A1 refers to the first cell).
The package is suited for Accounts oriented work since it has in-built formulas that enable users
to perform complex calculations.
 Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means for financial planning.
- Using Spreadsheets, Sales & purchases can be recorded, Invoices produced and
statements compiled.
- The management can keep track of the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods dispatched.
 Researchers can compile and analyse their results.
 Teachers can compile their students’ marks and produce results.
 Clerks and secretaries can easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as
required.
Examples of Spreadsheet packages in the market today: -
* Microsoft Excel. * Lotus 1-2-3.
* Quattro Pro.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

A Database is a tool that is used to store large volumes of data in a compact & well-organized
manner.
A Database application can be used to store, track and manage files/ records containing related
information.
They generally allow users to create database files, enter data, organize that data in various ways,
and create reports.
You can create a database for customer’s records, financial records, library records, personal
records, etc. The database will help you sort through your records & compile lists based on any
criteria you like to establish.
Examples of Database management system programs;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro.
* Dbase. * Paradox.

GRAPHICS PROGRAMS.
Graphics applications are used to create artwork that can be printed or incorporated into other
applications such as, Desktop publishing packages and Word processing programs.
They can be used to create simple line drawings, charts or presentations.
There are different kinds of Graphics programs, all designed to help the user create drawings and
illustrations that can be used for different purposes.
Some of the basic categories of Graphics programs include: -
(a). Clip Art Programs that come with pre-drawn artwork that you can simply copy into any
document.
(b). Draw & Paint programs that have tools you need to create your own artwork.
(c). Computer Aided Design (CAD) Programs, which are sophisticated versions of draw and
paint packages that you use to create detailed images, such as schematics and Blueprints.
CAD programs often include 3-D imaging.
(d). Presentation Graphics software.
Presentation Graphics software is mainly used to create & design outputs (usually Slides)
for presentations. They can be used, for instance, by an advertising agency for creating
advertisements for Television. These could be sales presentations, management reports and
product demonstrations.
Features of a Presentation program.
√ You can create slides, which can be used in a slide show.
√ You can incorporate ClipArt pictures in a slide (ClipArt is a collection of ready-made
graphics you can add to your presentation).
√ Presentation Graphics software allows the user to draw charts, graphs & other pictorial
data using in-built objects such as, rectangles, ellipses, lines, etc. The user can also add
text, and scanned images/ photographs. All the objects can be transformed by sizing,
rotating & flipping.
The pictures can be decorated using different colours & shadings, making the
presentation look great.
 To create a Slide show, all the pages/ slides required should be created first. The user can
then arrange them in the desired sequence to form a complete presentation (or Slide show).
Special effects can be added to each slide as it is activated & deactivated during the
presentation.
Examples of Presentation Graphics packages: -
* Microsoft PowerPoint. * Corel Draw.
* Adobe Photoshop. * Harvard Graphics.
* Lotus Freelance Graphics. * Adobe Illustrator.

DESKTOP PUBLISHERS (DTP).

Desktop publishing is used to create documents that look like typeset professional publications.
Usually, Desktop publishing programs combine data from other applications such as, text from
Word processors and artwork from a Graphics package.
DTP is used to handle documents involving printed text, diagrams and images.
DTP programs can be used to create Newsletters, Reports, Books, & any other documents that
may require page layout.
Common features of a Desktop publishing package.
√ Page formatting features that are used to set Margins, Headers, Footers, Columns, and other
page design features.
√ Templates that save a page layout for use in other documents.
√ Text editing features that enable the user to make changes to text, set fonts & styles, move and
position text on a page.
√ Built-in fonts that give the user printed materials a unique and original appearance.
Examples of Desktop publishing packages: -
* Adobe PageMaker. * FrameMaker.
* Microsoft Publisher.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD).

CAD is mainly used in Engineering design & Architectural drawings. It is used by engineers,
scientists, architects to speed up their design process.
CAD is widely used in Computer simulation.
SIMULATION
Computer simulation involves trying to predict what will happen in a real-life situation from a
model of that situation.
For example, a CAD program may be used by;
(i). An Architect to ‘try out’ various designs of a building.
(ii). CAD is widely used in the design of electronic circuits, ships, roads & cars.
(iii). When designing a bridge, an Engineer would like to know the effects of various loading
conditions on the bridge without actually having to build the bridge.
(iv). An Aeronautical engineer to determine how a different tail design will affect the
performance of an aircraft.
 The Aircraft designer would like to know the effect on lift, say, of changing the shape of
the wings or the tail without having to build an aircraft with these changes.
A computer is a useful tool in providing answers to these questions.
(v). It is used in computers in the manufacture of industrial products, in what is referred to as
Computer Aided Manufacturer (CAM).
(vi). CAD programs are also used to simulate the timing of traffic lights or a nuclear attack for
testing national defenses.
CAD makes it easy to make drawings & modify them at will, allowing the designer to focus
more on the actual design, the specifications and functionality of the final product.
Note. The results obtained depend heavily on the models used. The more accurate the model,
the
more reliable the results will be.
Examples of CAD packages: -
* AutoCAD. * ArchCAD.
* Architectural Desktop. * Planix Home Designer 3D Deluxe.
* SoftPlan. * Draffics.
*3dsMacs.

MULTIMEDIA PROGRAMS.
Multimedia refers to a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation and video.
Multimedia is essential in many software applications. For example, Word processing and
Desktop Publishing documents can be enhanced with graphics, photos and charts. Sound and
animation can be added to make presentations exciting.
Multimedia subjects include; children’s learning, History, Geography, hobbies, sports and
games.
Multimedia software comes on a Compact Disk (CD-ROM), because they require a large storage
space.
The minimum requirements for Multimedia software as set by the Multimedia Personal
Computer (MPC) Marketing Council include: -
 CD-ROM Drive.
 Hard disk drive with sufficient storage capacity.
 A 486, or Pentium processor.
 At least 4, 8, or 16 MB of RAM memory.
 A 256 colour or a better Video Adapter.
 A Sound card with Speakers or headphones. A Microphone (is optional) if you want to record
your own sounds.
Examples of Multimedia packages: -
* Animation Master 99. * 3D Studio Max.
* Extreme 3D. * Morpher.

COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE.
Communication software is used to exchange information, messages and ideas with people
around the world who have PCs equipped with Modems & communications software.
To use a communications package, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.
The basic purpose of a communication program is to control the way the computer transmits &
receives data.
Examples of communications packages: -
* WinFax Pro. * Zoc.
* ProComm Plus. * HyperAccess.

INTERNET SOFTWARE.
E-Mail (Electronic mail).
E-mail is a quick, convenient, efficient & cheap way of communicating with both individuals
and groups.
E-mail is much faster than regular mail. With e-mail, the message can reach the recipient in hrs,
minutes or even seconds.
E-mail is also convenient since you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and
your recipients respond at their convenient times.
Examples of e-mail packages: -
* Microsoft Exchange. * Outlook Express.
* Netscape Mail/Messenger.
Note. All e-mail software must have the capability of writing messages, sending & receiving
e-mail.
Browsers.
Browsers are software that enable the user to surf (log in / use) the World Wide Web (www).
The WWW provides users on computer networks with a consistent means to access a variety of
media in a simplified fashion.
The most commonly used browsers are: -
* Internet Explorer. * Netscape.
* Cello Internet browser. * NCSA Habanero.

MONEY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE.

Money management programs are designed specifically for working with money.
They have features that help people balance their Cheque books, manage a budget, keep track of
bills & payments, and control monies being spent.
Money management software falls into 2 categories: -
(a). Personal Finance programs.
They help people set up personal budgets, plan retirements & pay bills electronically.
Examples; * Quicken.
* Microsoft Money.
(b). Accounting programs.
Used by businesses to help them manage their financial affairs. They help to organize the
accounting & spending plans of small businesses.
 These programs keep track of expenditures, payrolls, inventory and operating income. The
programs usually include a budget system, cheque register, report system and savings
planner.
Examples; * Point-of- sale. * DAC Easy.
* Acc Pac. * Peachtree Accounting.
* Systematics. * Pegasus.

PERSONAL ORGANISERS.
Personal Organizers act as electronic Secretaries or Assistants. They are used to store addresses
& phone numbers, schedule meetings and appointments.
Examples of Personal Organisers are: -
* Organiser. * Goldmine.
* Ecco Pro. * Day-Timer Organiser.
* Day Runner Planner. * Sidekick Deluxe.
* Sharkware Pro. * Outlook.
Payroll programs - used to generate the payroll of many businesses.
Stock-control Programs - used by businesses to manage their stock efficiently.
Educational Programs - used in schools for teaching various subjects.
Administration Programs - used by organizations for maintaining records of employees,
customers, clients, students, creditors, members, etc.
Library Control Programs - used by libraries for maintaining records of books & borrowers
in order to provide faster & more efficient service.

SOFTWARE SUITES.
A Software Suite is a group of different compatible applications sold by one software company.
The programs are each individual applications, but they usually work in a similar manner, and
have some common features, such as menu commands, buttons, or keystrokes.
Although each of the programs in a suite can be purchased separately, they cost less when
purchased as a bundle.
Typically, a suite includes a Word processor, a Spreadsheet, a Database, Presentation graphics
applications, Personal Information Managers, and E-mail applications.
The applications are integrated with one another, making it easy to use them together and to
transfer data from one into the others.
Examples of Software Suites are: -
* Microsoft Office. * LotusSmart Suite.
* WordPerfect Suite. * Microsoft Works.
* ClarisWorks.