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FINALS-REVIEWER-MATM111

The document is a review guide for a mathematics final exam, covering topics such as coding theory, modular arithmetic, cryptography, apportionment, voting methods, and graph theory. It explains key concepts like source code, channel coding, encryption, and various voting methods, providing examples and formulas for calculations. The guide emphasizes the importance of understanding the material rather than relying solely on it for exam preparation.

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42 views6 pages

FINALS-REVIEWER-MATM111

The document is a review guide for a mathematics final exam, covering topics such as coding theory, modular arithmetic, cryptography, apportionment, voting methods, and graph theory. It explains key concepts like source code, channel coding, encryption, and various voting methods, providing examples and formulas for calculations. The guide emphasizes the importance of understanding the material rather than relying solely on it for exam preparation.

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97fcqmnnmn
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MATM111
FINALS EXAM REVIEWER

 Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific
applications. Codes are used for data compression, cryptographic coding, error detection and
correction, data transmission and data storage.
o Communication Channel – Is the physical medium through which information is
transmitted.
Example: telephone lines, internet cables, fiber-optic lines, and air. Some storage data
can be considered channels (CD-ROMS, hard drives).
o Noise - It alters the message in the channel that will cause disruption and error in the
messages.
 Source code – original message that refers to data compression done at the receiver,
independently of any error control coding, in order to reduce transmission time or signal
bandwidth.
 Bit (Binary Digit) - is the smallest unit of measurement used to quantify computer data. It
contains a single binary value of 0 or 1.
 Byte - It refers to the number of bits used to represent a string of information. It is a unit of data
that is eight binary digits long. A byte is the unit most computers use to represent a character
such as a letter, number or typographic symbol.
o There is one byte per letter. 1 byte is 8 bits. Example: the word NEW has 3 bytes and 24
bits
 Channel coding - defined as adding some form of redundancy to the source encoded message
so that the errors can be detected or even corrected.
o Parity Check - It is a single bit added to the message as redundancy bit. It detects,
changes and corrects a single bit error
o Repetition Code (Encoding) – is one of the most basic error-correcting codes.
A code will be given, suppose that the source encoding is already done and that the
encoded message is of fix length k. The channel encoding by repetition is performed by
taking the k bits then repeating it 2r + 1, where r is greater than or equal to 1 is a fixed
integer.
Given that K=2 and the transmitted message is repeated 21 times, identify the value of r
and state the total bits that will pass through the medium.
If R is missing, minus 1 divided by 2
o Repetition Code (Decoding) – you will find the source code. Count the frequency of 0s
and 1s, the most dominant number will be the code.
110011 111001 001101
0 = 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 0
1 = 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3
111001
 MODULAR ARITHMETIC - is a system of arithmetic for integers, which considers the
remainder.
o M means modulo or divisor

 Congruence – when there is no least residue (remainder)


o Example: 30 ≡ 5(mod 5) (use subtraction when there is no operation indicated, or when
the symbol used is ≡)
 Least residue (Remainder) - To determine the least residue is to simply get the remainder when
b is divided by m. DO NOT GET THE DECIMAL. When there is no remainder, the least residue is
Zero.
 38 ≡ 5(mod 5) = 33 (mod 5) = 3
NOTE: Apply the operation
Example: Solve for b in the given congruence, 25 + 58 ≡ b (mod 7).
 Check digit: the last digit of a barcode number that helps confirm the integrity of the barcode
number.
 Formula for Check digits:

Note: If the final sum is divisible by 10, then the credit card is valid. If it is not divisible by 10, the
number is invalid or fake.

 CRYPTOGRAPHY - is a science of encrypting and decrypting written communication


o Plain text – readable text, original text
o Cipher text – unreadable text, coded or hidden text
o Key - strings of information that is used to encrypt and decrypt a secret message
 ENCRYPTION - is the process of transforming plain text into codes/cipher form using a certain
algorithm. (sender)
 DECRYPTION - is the process of returning/converting back the coded/cipher message into plain
text. (receiver)
o 2 simple methods:
1. SHIFT CIPHER (CEASAR CIPHER) -it is the simple type of substitution cipher. A is the
reference letter.
 ENCRYPT – look at the plain text letters first, then get the shifted letter
as a substitute
 DECRYPT – look at the coded text letters first, then get the plain text
letter

2.

MODULO OPERATOR -the sender of the code uses the key K to encrypt and to decrypt
the secret message. (ENCRYPT – ADD; DECRYPT – SUBTRACT), note: number the
alphabet 0-25
For 25 below, no computation. 26 and up, use mod 26. For 26 exact, 0. For negative
value, just subtract with 26.

 Apportionment – EQUAL PROPORTION. A method of distributing a few items proportionally into


several groups based on group population sizes.
o In Hamilton Plan, Get the standard divisor
total population N
D= =
no of representative R
 Representative also means “seat”

Get the standard quota - the whole part of the quotient when the population of the sub
– group is divided by the standard divisor.
¿−group population n
Q= =
Standard Divisor D

 Sub-group population also means “state”


If the total standard quota is not equal to given total apportioned or the number of
representatives, then an additional of one representative is added to each subgroup
with the highest decimal value until the representatives are complete.
o Jefferson Plan - This method uses a modified standard divisor that arrives at the correct
or exact numbers of representative using trial and error.
o Apportionment Principle - A new representative is added to a sub – group due to an
increase in population. The representative is assigned to the group in such a way it gives
the smallest relative unfairness of apportionment. (LOWEST will get the representative.)
o Huntington-Hill Method - The new additional representative to a sub – group must have
the highest Huntington number.

 Voting - is a powerful tool in decision making


o Majority vote - over 50 % of the people voting must vote for the candidate
o Plurality vote - Voting Method in which the candidate with the most first place
vote is the winner. In-case of ties, voting should be done using the run-off
election. Ex. National elections
o Borda count method– Award points to candidates based on preference
schedule/ranking, then declare the winner to be the candidate with the most
points.
o Plurality by Elimination - also known as an instant run-off voting and sequential
run-off voting. It is a preferential voting method and candidates that have the
least first place votes get eliminated until one candidate has majority of first
place votes.
o Pairwise comparison Voting - method that would determine the winner
between two-candidate competing head-to-head against each other and the
candidate with the most points win.

 Graph - a diagram that contains information and depicts connection and relationship
between the various parts of the diagram
Note: From example 3;

1. Edge e4 is known as Loop. Loop is an edge that connects a vertex to its self.

2. Edges e7 and e8 are called multiple edges or parallel edges. Parallel Edges – are edges that connect
the same vertices.
This is just a help. Do not depend everything on this reviewer. Some items on the exam only
need analysis. Try to figure it out.

GOD BLESS ON YOUR FINAL EXAM! I AM PRAYING FOR YOU! 😊

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