Drying of AB Materials

Lecture
8 - 10 am - 12 noon (Mon.)
October 14, 2024
Lerjun M. Penaflor PhD
Agricultural and Biosystem Engineering Department
Bicol University Guinobatan Campus

Drying / Dehydration
- One of the oldest methods of preservation and is still used today
- Accomplished by vaporizing the water that is contained in the foodstuff.
- Drying vs Dehydration

Drying
- process, wherein moisture moves from wet
material to the Surrounding atmosphere.
- practically, the only mass transfer considered
in this process is the migration of
moisture (water) from the wet material
- generally, a preservation technique used by
human, pertains to the traditional way of
removing moisture from food product
(solar drying)
Sun drying- oldest and cheapest method

BASIC PROBLEMS of SUN DRYING

 Contamination
 Labor Intensive
 Uncertainty of weather
 Large Area required
 Long Drying time

Dehydration
 removal of moisture, with the primary objective of preserving the food.
 use of controlled environment (RH, air velocity and temperature)
 aims to reduce the moisture to about 2.5% (db) or less

APPLICATIONS OF DRYING
 Noodles
  Grains, cereals
 Fish and Meat
 Powdered Milk and Juices

IMPORTANCE OF DRYING/DEHYDRATION
 Extended storage life
—risk of unfavorable oxidative and
enzymic reactions in the product is
reduced.
 Quality enhancement
—favorable quality and nutritional values
are enhanced by drying, palatability is
improved, likewise digestibility and
metabolic conversions are increased.
 Ease of handling
— packaging, handling and
transportation of dry products are
easier and cheaper because of
volume and weight Reductions.

FURTHER PROCESSING
-To improve milling
-Less energy required
-Dry product mixes wel with materials uniformly an is less sticky compared to the wet product.
-Provide an important modern marketing requirements.
-Easy and economical way to save surplus food for a later time.
-Portability — Can take it anywhere you go.
-Helps in minimizing post-harvest loses.

CHANGES DURING DRYING:

*=Food materials do not have perfect elasticity and water is no
removed evenly throughout food as it 1s dried and causes shrinkage.
*= Due to high surface temperature and unbalanced drying, dry skin
will form and causes case hardening.
= Enzymatic browning of products due to poor blanching.
= Caramelization of sugars due to excess heat.
= Loss of volatile flavor constituents.
# Partial loss of some essential nutrients like Vit C.
EFFECTS OF DRYING ON FOODS
-- Biological Change (Inhibition of microbial growth)
-Change in physical properties of food (size, shape, texture)
-Shrinkage after drying will result in lower bulk volume and easier transport
-Changes in chemical properties (change in color, odor, and flavor)

SPOILAGE OF DRIED PRODUCTS

DEFECTS
1. MOULDING
Cause: High product moisture, above ERH
Prevention: Reduce moisture content. Pack in hermetic airtight packages
2. INFESTATION
Cause: Presence of larvae or insects in dried products
Prevention: Storage room disinfection with fumigants. Disinfection by heat (60- 65"C) of products before
packing
3. BROWING
Causes: Chemical reaction & Reduce water content, store at low temp.
Prevention: Enzyme catalyzed reactions
Enzyme in activation by blanching before drying
4. REDUCED REHYDRATION RATIO
Cause: Too high temperature at final stage of storage
Prevention: Operate final temperatures as recommended

FOOD DRYING SYSTEMS

Drying Methods
1. Thermal Drying — heat is mainly used to
removed moisture from the food.
a. Air drying
b. Low air environment drying
c. Modified atmosphere drying
2. Osmotic dehydration — involves soaking
the food in a concentrated solution.
3. Mechanical dewatering — water removal
using physical force.

I. PRE-TREATMENTS
1. Blanching- Partial pre-cooking treatment in which vegetables are
generally heated in boiling water.
 To inactivate natural enzymes.
  ‘To remove hardness.
 To reduce bacterial load.
2. Sulphuring — Whole/pieces are exposed to fumes of burning sulphur in
closed chamber known as sulphur box.
 To check growth of mould.
 To act as preservative/antimicrobial agent.
 To prevent oxidation and darkening.
3. Fruit juice dip.
4. Honey dip.
5. Syrup blanching.

II. POST-DEHYDRATION TREATMENTS

1. Sweating — It is a process to hold the dehydrated foods for
equalization of moisture before packing.
2. Screening — The unwanted size of pieces of products are removed
by passing the dried products through various screens.
3. Inspection — The dried product is inspected to remove discolored
pieces. These are removed manually.
4. Fumigation — It fix the insect including their eggs. Great care is
necessary in using fumigants as CO, and (HCN) gas are highly
poisonous. The mixture of Ethylene Dichloride, Ethylene oxide are
also used for fumigation.

MECHANISM OF DRYING
 Liquid diffusion: if the wet solid is at a temperature
below the boiling point of the liquid
 Vapor diffusion: if the liquid vaporizes within
material
 Condensation diffusion : if drying takes place at
very low temperatures and pressures, e.g., in freeze
drying
 Surface diffusion (possible although not proven)
 Hydrostatic pressure differences: when internal
vaporization rates exceed the rate of vapor transport
through the solid to the surroundings
 Combinations of the above mechanisms
Theory of Drying
Two fundamental processes occurring
simultaneously:
1. Heat transfer to the solid to evaporate water
2. Mass transfer in liquid or vapor within the
material and vapor form from the surface
 Similar to other simultaneous heat and mass
transfer (SHMT) operations such as
evaporation for fluid concentration and
Theory of Drying, con’t.
+ Heat is supplied to the material in excess of
the latent heat of vaporization
+ the mode of heat transfer is predominantly
by convection with a small proportion by
conduction and radiation
» Airis used as the medium for heat flow
+ The transfer of mass is in liquid or vapor
form from within the material and as vapor
from the surface
Drying Zones
» Initial Induction Period
> Constant Rate Period
» First Falling Rate Period
» Second Falling Rate Period
AB - Initial induction period
BC - Constant rate period
C - Critical moisture content
CD - First falling rate period
DE - Second falling rate period

The Initial Induction period

Air and product comes
into equilibrium
Small proportion of the
total drying curve and
is most often
neglected in the
analysis of the drying
process e.g. 2-3
minutes
THE CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
Solid surface that is saturated with liquid
Heated air
free water present
ee in the surface
Movement of moisture is sufficiently rapid to
maintain the saturation of the surface
- Mechanism of moisture removal is similar
to the evaporation of water from a free surface
~ Uniform amount of water removed per hour,
the straight line portion of the drying curve
~The surface temperature of the solid remains
constant because of the balancing effect of
heat and mass transfer
The surface temperature is equivalent to the wet-bulb
temperature of the drying air
The end of the CRP is called the CRITICAL
MOISTURE CONTENT which is defined as the
moisture content at which saturation of the surface
can not be maintained and the drying rate begins to
fall
The following equation characterizes the CRP:
The surface temperature is equivalent to the wet-bulb
temperature of the drying air
The end of the CRP is called the CRITICAL
MOISTURE CONTENT which is defined as the
moisture content at which saturation of the surface
can not be maintained and the drying rate begins to
fall
The following equation characterizes the CRP:
Factors affecting the Constant Rate Period
Surface Area
Drying air
temperature
RH of the drying air
Velocity of the
ofalalem-lis
Rate of removal of
water at the surface
Notes on the Constant Rate Period
« The CRP is sometimes observed in drying foods
especially those with high MC (70-75% Mc,,,) where
the internal resistance to moisture movement is
much less than the external resistance to the
removal of water from the surface
« Pinaga et a/. (1984) reported a short CRP for low
temperature drying of garlic
« Mazza and Le Maguer (1984) found a short CRP at
50 °C and disappeared at higher temperatures (60,
80 and 90 °C) for Jerusalem artichoke (a vegetable)
The Falling Rate Period (FRP)
Divided into two zones namely:
— Unsaturated surface drying - first FRP
— sub-surface drying - second FRP
At this point, the internal resistance to
moisture movement becomes greater than the
external resistance
The rate of water removal will start to fall
The FRP is governed by the internal
mechanisms for moisture or water movement
The Falling Rate Period (FRP), con't.
A number of physical mechanisms were
reported in the literature:
= liquid movement due to SUmMace Torces (Capillary
action)
= liquid MeOvement Gue to Moisture Concentration
Giferences (JiGuIG! GIffUsSion)
a) bY Gravity
J Stirfeies eltiftision) eltis te) pioVasrisrit OF mioistlirS op)
ins oore Surfaces
4 Sroyweriler) mrioverrisrit
The Falling Rate Period (FRP), con't.
vapor movement due to concentration
differences (vapor aiffusion)
Vaporzation-Congensation sequence
Vapor movement due to thermal differences
hnyGrodynamic ilow Gue to shrinkage ana
pressure Giiferences
TYPE F DRYIN
© Direct :Convective Dying
Drying is established through direct contact between the
product and the gas heating medium .Material reaches
steady state temperature near gas wet temperature
© Indirect Drying:
Established from heated surface in contact with the product.
The heating medium and product are separated by wall.
Material reaches steady state temperature near lquid
boiling point for contact rate drying .
©° Radiation:
Heat transfer establishes by radiation from energy source.
This is no contact from heated surface or medium and product es
Classification of Drying Systems
Mode of heat transfer - Natural convection vs
forced convection, Direct vs indirect
nef, a —— Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: | i ee I 2 | : a ti
Hi, r SS i 5 re ec ee TOP ValMOus VIyers
Type of Dryer U (Win? -K)
Vacuum Shelf 5-6
gees ES fe = =e = | Blic i = ears ARS
Indirect Rotary 11-57
{ Jacketed Trough 11-85
> -— Rotary Vacuum 28 - 284 Z
N/a Agitated Tray 28 - 340
Drum 1135 - 1700 \
vs small (0.02 - 0.05 tph)
~ Scale - Large (>1tph) vs Medium (0.05 - Itph)
Small scale Medium scale Large scale
(20 - 50 kg/hr) (50 - 1000 kg/hr) (=—1000 kg/hr)
batch batch continuous continuous
Vacuum Tray Agitated Fluidized Bed Indirect Rotary
Through
Circulation
Agitated Fluidized Bed Wacuum Bed Spray
‘convection Tray
=" Through Indirect Rotary Pneumatic
Circulation
Flouidized Bed Spray Dryers Direct Rotary
Pneumatic FPluidized Bed
Dryers
Band Conveyor
‘Tray
Through
1 Circulation
Classification of Drying Systems
Mode of drying - Continuous flow vs
Batch type dryers
Continuous - Mixing vs Non-mixing type
Batch - Flatbed vs Deep bed dryers
OTHER TYPES OF
DRYING SYSTEMS
TRAY OR CABINET DRYERS
al - This type of drying system -
uses trays or similar
product holders to expose
the product to heated air in
an enclosed space so that
dehydration will proceed.
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-Air movement over the product surface is at
relatively high velocities to ensure that heat and
mass transfer will proceed in an efficient manner.
Exhaust
Screens
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BASIC PARTS OF A CABINET DRYER
> This type has the disadvantage
of non-uniform drying ofa
product at different locations
within the system.
> The product trays must be
rotated to improve uniformity o
drying.
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Rotary Dryers
¢ Used for free flowing granular products
¢ Variation in design:
— directly heated counter-current
— directly heated con-current
— Indirectly heated
— direct-indirectly heated
+ Basic design of the IRRI conduction
type rotary dryer
Drum Dryers
@ Indirectly heated metal drum with steam
@ Suitable for fluids and semi-fluids with high surface
tension (ability to adhere)
@ Dried material can be removed with knives
@ Before feeding, product is pre-heated to drum temp.
@ Advantages:
@ Low cost, continuous flow and high throughput
@ Used for potato chips and breakfast cereals
Internolly heated drum
ADVANTAGES OF THE DRUM
DRYER
|. The method gives rapid drying, the thin film
spread over a large area resulting in rapid heat
and mass transfer.
2 The equipment is compact, occupying much less
space than other dryers.
Heating time is short, being only a few seconds.
4. The drum can be enclosed in a vacuum jacket,
enabling the temperature of drying to be reduced.
5. The product is obtained in flake form, which is
convenient for many purposes.
DISADVANTA FD M
DRYER
© Operating conditions are critical and it is necessary to
introduce careful control on feed rate, film thickness,
speed of drum rotation and drum temperature.
©The uneven scrapping of the doctor's blade at the
rubbery and glassy parts of the sheet forms wrinkles in
the sheet which eventually become “sticks” in the final
product. The “sticks” reduce the quality of the product
by making it very hard to disperse and physically
unsatisfactory in appearance
APPLICATIONS:
© The drum dryer has been used extensively to dry chemicals
and food products. Examples of Chemicals are
polyacrylamides, and various salts such as _ silicate,
benzoate, propionate, and acetate salts.
©° Drum dryers have been successfully used in drying sludge
© The drum dryer is also extensively used to dry and
gelatinize or “cook” starch slurries, such as _ potato,
rice,wheat,maize,corn, soybean,banana,and cowpea slurries
to produce pregelatinized starch for instant foods.
© Non-starch, low-sugar foods, such as tomato puree, milk,
skim milk, whey, beef broth, yeast, coffee, and malt extract,
have also been successfully dried on a drum dryer.
© Heat-sensitive products such as pharmaceuticals30 and
vitamin-containing products can be dried in a vacuum drum
dryer.
Tunnel Dryers
¢ This type of dryer, heated air is introduced at one end of the
tunnel and moves at an established velocity through trays of
products being carried on trucks.
¢ The product trucks are moved through the tunnel at a rate
required to maintain the residence time needed for dehydration.
Con-current Dryers
The product and the air are moving in the
same direction
The hottest air is meeting the wet product
Rapid initial drying
Can have an effect on texture
Can be used to dry heat sensitive products
Can be used to avoid case hardening
Side entrance
for wet trucks
Counter-current Dryers
¢ The movement of the product and the
air are opposite directions
¢ The product of low moisture content
meets the hottest air
¢ Can lead to product scorching
« Waste of heat resulting in a lower
thermal efficiency
eee
Exhaust air
AAA
Cross-current Dryers
¢ The product and airflow
directions are perpendicular
¢« Can control temperature of
the air meeting the product
at different stages of drying
i.e. hot air accross the wet
product and cooler air for the
dry product
Fluidized Bed - Dryers
-In this system, the
product pieces are
suspended in the
heated air
throughout the time
required for drying.
> The movement of product
through the system is
enhanced by the change in
mass of individual particles
as moisture is evaporated.
>» The movement of the
product created by fluidized
particles results in equal
drying from all product
surfaces.
Moist granules in =”
\e \ Ss Ni
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———+ Moist air outlet
Insulated hood
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Fg i:
Fluidized bed
! a ‘ ; \ 4 ‘ 4 ‘ d ¥, 4 .
Porous plate f= 2 | |
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Fi / Plenum chamber i il granules
Hot alr in out
LIMITATION OF FLUIDIZED-BED DRYING
> Size of particles that will allow efficient drying
- Smaller particles can be maintained in
suspension with lower air velocities and will dry
more rapidly.
- Although these are desirable characteristics, not
all products can be adapted to the process.
Spray Dryers
+ The process of removing moisture from
pumpable fluids such as solutions, slurries
and or paste are dried by spraying fine
droplets into a heated chamber
Materials such as chemicals, milk, egg or
coffee can be dried using this technique
Rapid drying is achieved due to a high
Surface area to volume ratio as well as up
high temperature §
Oo Inlet temperature of the |
air is very high (at least
200 °C as it is only in
contact with the “a
particle for a short time
(HTST)
© Product temperature
will not reach the
boiling point of the
solution resulting in
minimal flavor and
volatile loss
& Retention time is short which is about 3 to
10 seconds only
f® A rapid drying cycle and the product is
ready for packaging as it leaves the dryer
® Classification:
— Countercurrent - reduced product quality, low
airflow rate
Concurrent - best for heat sensitive products
Mixed-flow - low evaporating capacity per vol.
Parallel flow - high inlet V's; high drying rates
————
ADVANTAGES
Spray dryers are characterized by their
ability to handle different products.
Can be designed for small productions up
to very considerable evaporative capacities.
lt employs minimal labor to operate.
Labor costs are compensated by a high
degree of automation possible.
Maintenance costs are low because of less
moving parts
—
ADVANTAGES
Corrosion can be controlled since the material is in
contact with the atomizing device.
Atomizers can be replaced with equally resistant
materials.
Product purity is high (no danger of F.M.)
Allow steady state operation conditions and can be
started up and down quickly.
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Freeze Drying
(@ process in which the water is removed as vapor
directly from ice without passing the liquid phase
(sublimation) while retaining the odor, taste and
enzymatic activity
© also knownas_ lyophilization
( considered as the ‘gold standard" in drying
because of its superiority over other methods
(©) Reduces moisture content of the product
to around 1-3%
FREEZE DRYER
Products
on Shelves Drying Chamber
" / HA '
' > Ice Condenser
Door : fi ;
re —
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‘ fi ‘ Yac1u2
Sa
Heating Refrigeration
System Groups
Treeze Drying Principles
3 Phases of freeze drying:
1. Freezing or Solidification
2. Primary Drying
3. Secondary Drying
Cont’n...Principles of freeze drying
Freezing or Solidification
-done to solidify the material
-A phase separation occurs during solidification
-Most water present is converted into ice crystals
(containing almost pure water) while the unfrozen
water together with the solutes form an amorphous
or glassy phase
-Rate of cooling influences the structure of the
frozen matrix
a
Cont’n...Principles of freeze drying
* If high cooling rate: ice crystals will be small;
causes finer pore structure in the product with
higher resistance to flow of water vapor and
longer primary drying time
* If low cooling rate: large ice crystals; result to
coarser pore structure of the product and shorter
primary drying time
- method of cooling also affects the structure and
appearance of the matrix and final product
— —_
C ont’n...Principles of freeze drying
— Primary Drying
-Stage of freeze drying involving the sublimation of
ice,usually accompanied by concurrent desorption of
bound moisture
-chamber pressure is reduced and heat is supplied to
the product to cause the frozen water to sublime
-reduce moisture to around 4% w/w of the dry product
C_ontn...Primar Druin by US
-control of drying rate and heating rate is important
*rapid drying: dried product can be blown out of the
container by escaping water vapor
** | product will melt or collapse causing
degradation and change in physical characteristics of the
product (unappealing and harder to reconstitute)
-main form of heat transfer is by conduction from the
shelf to the bottom of the product container
Glass is an insulator so slow drying and not
efficient process
-can improve heat transfer mechanism _ by
introducing nitrogen gas to the drying chamber at
a controlled rate
-gas molecules facilitates the heating of the walls
of the container thus increasing the amount of
heat being supplied to the product per unit time
-result to enhanced drying rate,reduced cycle time
as well as energy and labor costs
SS
C ont’n... Secondary Drying
~ Secondary Drying
-reduced bound moisture to the required final
value (often below 1% w/w)
-bound moisture may be: water of crystallization;
randomly dispersed water in a glassy material;
intracellular water or absorbed water
-the usual 4% w/w remaining bound water can
be removed by heating the product under
vacuum (between 15°C-30°C) for about 1/3 of
primary drying time =
Co ont’n... Secondary Drying
-a critical factor in storage life is the residual
moisture content of the dry material
-overdrying can damage the material
*vaccines such as BCG:residual
moisture of 1.5%
*live rubella, measles and others: 2%
residual moisture
*xOther materials: must be dried to as
low as 0.1% residual moisture : =
Different Systems and Applications
[ Biological
-freeze drying is well suited to preserving
sensitive biological materials
freezing slows or stops most
chem’! reactions; process occurs under vacuum
and the absence of oxygen prevents oxidative
reactions; can be performed at very low temp.
-Starting cultures of products such as yogurt or
cheese may be freeze dried
——
Cont? n.... System and Applications
-"friendly bacteria” from supplements for healthy
intestinal flora such as Lactobacillus acidophilus
and Bifidobacteria are freeze dried
-Ex. of biological mat’l: Penicillum echinulatum
C_ont’n... Systems and A\pplications
Pharmaceutical
-for pharmaceutical compound that undergo
hydraulic degradation, freeze drying is their
means of improving stability and shelf life
-vaccines, proteins, peptides, and antibiotics have
been successfully freeze dried i ae
_ — ~ gL Oy ’
Cont’n.... System and Applications
Botanical/Floral
-basic principle of freeze drying is
the removal of water from
the flower as water vapor by
means of a vacuum. The vapor
is then collected in a condenser.
With the flower solidly frozen
during the process, shrinkage
and fading are minimized or
eliminated.
\\’
C_on’tn... Systems and Applications
-equipment used for drying consists of a vacuum
chamber, a pump, a condenser, and a means to
control the temperature of the vacuum chamber.
-The actual freeze drying process takes eight to
fourteen days depending on the flowers.
- when protected from humidity, sunlight, and
insects, freeze dried flowers can last for many
years. If left out in the open, it can last 2-3 years.
a
C_ont’n... Systems and A\pplications
-Flowers such as roses, lilies, orchids, and
carnations preserve well, while flowers like daisies,
tulips, mums do not.
[ melele|
-some foods are not good
candidates for freeze drying like
watermelon and lettuce since
they consist almost entirely of
~ water and when frozen or dried
hey tend to disintegrate
1\

Freeze [Driers
Parts of freeze. drying equipment:
-drying chamber with temperature controlled shelves
-a condenser to trap water removed from the product
-a cooling system to supply refrigerant to the shelves and
condenser
-a vacuum system to reduce pressure in the chamber and
condenser and to facilitate the drying process
A\dvantages and Disadvantages of
| reeze Drying
Retains original characteristics of the product
such as color, form, size , taste, texture, and
nutrients
Can be reconstituted to original state
when placed in water
No cold storage required
Shelf stable @ room temperature
Reduce weight of the product to 70-90%
with no change in volume
—a
—
| | ee:
C_ont’n... /A\dva ntages
No waste
« .Product is light weight and easy to handle
~. Reduced shipping costs because of light weight
and lack of refrigeration
Low water activity thus eliminating microbial
growth
Offer highest quality in dry product as compared to
other drying methods
A, .
Olid or liquid) Vax
ide range of materials that can be freeze —
Lisadva ntages
(_» High capital cost of equipment (about three times
more than other methods)
High energy costs (two to three times more
than other methods)
Lengthy process time (typically 24-48 h/drying
time)
Impingement brying
¢ For a larger scale drying operation
¢ Uses pressure blower and compressed air to have high
velocity air that may range from 10 m/sec to 100 m/sec
- Turbulence created aids in the evaporation
¢ Humid air is continuously exhausted
- Temperature may range from 100°C to 350°C
- Removes 95 to 100 % of surface moisture
in a much shorter period of time
¢ Moisture evaporates as material traverses along the
i\
length of the bed and is rendered dry at the discharge end \\ :
a
IMPINGE
70 sttkeé or Aash espectally with @ sharp
collistow
ES
Impingement flow occurs when the gas is
controlled directly onto the feed at an angle
perpendicular to the direction of the feed. | ct
J
ADVANTAGES
- Extremely popular and widely used in the industry
due to its flexibility & control of the air system.
¢ High volume productivity
¢ Higher efficiency
¢ Short cycle times
¢ Uniform drying
« Litthke manual labor
Applications of Impingement Drying J En,
Future trends
Many new dimensions came up in drying technology to reduce the energy utilization and operational cost.
Among the technologies, osmotic dehydration, vacuum drying, freeze drying, superheated steam drying,
heat pump dehumidifier drying, microwave drying and spray drying are offering great scope for the
production of best quality dried products and powders. Due to their selective and volumetric heating effects,
microwaves bring new characteristics such as increased rate of drying, enhanced final product quality and
improved energy consumption. The quality of microwave dried commodities is often between air-dried and
freeze-dried products. The rapidity of the process yields better color and aroma retention. Quality is further
improved when vacuum is used since the thermal and oxidative stress is reduced. Due to high cost, using
single unit operation to dry the produce is not cost effective. Therefore, cost effective alternate systems like
combination/hybrid drying should be promoted to reap the advantage of sophisticated drying systems with
minimum cost and simple technologies. Combination drying with an initial conventional drying process
followed by a microwave finish or microwave vacuum process has proven to reduce drying time while
improving product quality and minimising energy requirements. However, several factors should be taken
into consideration when developing drying system for the fruits and vegetables. An optimal drying system for
the preservation of fruits and vegetables should be cost effective, shorter drying time and with minimum
damage to the product. Researchers from different centres are focussing on mathematical modelling and
computer simulation as important technology that can provide information on the process parameters that
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SESS SRSA” tn t=] L=} 3 a Ss
be ‘
0 4 3 406 #45 «#+%8§ #§ 6 6 7 % 80 8 9 9&
Dry-bulb Temperoture - Deg, F.
Pounds of Water Per Found of Ory Air
PROPERTIES OF AIR-WATER VAPOR MIXTURE
Dry bulb temperature, Ty, sy .
¢«* Temperature of air is measured by
an ordinary bulb thermometer
= § a_i
*aa
<
*, i
i) a 1 1
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Wihowt tire
Temperature is obtained when the bulb
of an ordinary thermometer is covered
with wet cotton wick
>, “~ There is a drop in temperature of
the bulb because of evaporative
cooling, wherein the air that passes
through the wet wick absorbs the
evaporating water
ba a
q
p*
fe F
‘ r B a4
F #.
-r4
' ‘ —<
\) , 10 3 i) o cA] Ch 40
WET BULB DEPRESSION
- In condition where the RH
is at 100%, the dry bulb
temp and wet-bulb
temperature would have a
wet bulb depression equal
to zero. Meaning, at this
condition, the wet-bulb
temperature and dry-bulb
temperature are the same.
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
For Bocce Pressure of 29.92 In. Hg “3 ehSeaE 2 us e = <7 | SEHR pecctihi y BAe li - Temperature at Secser |
eC er STOR AAA I. feces
3-28 ort pa Omri OUT La | 2 ANON o : b-26Eg 82 oll Fee ed] es ath 4a nis, which the water Srece Eee
LINESZNAS NT fore 3-2 ohne 3240 50 60 70 @ . KN PATS ~~, AY
3-2.0L1, mss Ternperature of water added Se fo » , dine 30 rOoOs vapor condenses. retiserass ba mroncnecteg
PS ZS ss i i foo [8 PO: . . a-\ jan ee | v S O06 Point in the Pagiecas: é PASS ee ” Staos
1 3 9 gp RAEH é SENS f Shoo psychrometric chart poet aon at ESR
eo | 2 e | Lo A ae er Spore where the dry-bulb oper BS SeRee CRN Se foo ° 2 7 36 &s et Ae) “a8 Rie <P Lo &
Loo
° mperature ase bs Sd H er 4 temperature Is at 100% a a SOY. ae Bees ma ESSE il onoe . ope ‘6 ae a ee ps wa
SSS =lo007 RH given a specific % : aS SSI, #0008
Fr. ey ( , 5}0.008 ° ° ‘i or re : a D, — 30 humidity value. SS SSS SS 200s
wie S RSSSES88Ny, feoee
1 Sx SSS : DRS RSS,” hy x Dew point temp 20. «(25S 50, 88S BOSS SOS SSS 8S IO 0S a
Ory-bulb Temperature - Deg, F.
Pounds of Water Par Pound of Dry Air
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, BY
- define as the ratio
of the partial
pressure of water
vapor in to the
saturation
pressure of the
vapor at the same
temperature.
SETETTETITOIOQTIICiT
RH = _v 0 5 10 15 20 235 0
Ps
HUMIDITY RATIO (4)
e ry TT , %e For Barometric Pressure of 29.92 (Hg Tera A 7
sarttedt] | 8 08 3° senor i OR SNA foes A t of wat sare Poot Wageee Ss ACSI” fore - AMOUNT OT Water
sowed) 25 LN a copra Sap aa ‘ Jeo Fores viene Bee Po SEA AAICIAND bee
f £-2. EP? 25 a2 4 ao5 L : 408 “ 4 a A 4 oJ $50 ‘0.021 vapor per mass oO irae LS e cS ay ET
° S|. oe ia Temperature of water added vy A : , NM boos ge Ph 2a or rejected-deg. F. / 6 , : " 30 dry air me Qi re
2 ENCES. ! FO? a - 6 a3 PODeN é FOO fio Meee BMA a i < a 10 $40 as Poh x N Re ‘ lone
3 _osFS tt “é a! i q
2.0 eS 26 ef : ee SOO -Alsoknownasthe = f:3ae PERE ERT ioe
. -0.2 ry ey : 4 Sy. NSO RN ie ol
t t t f "saa = : ha » rs feeb flac moisture CONTENT O aoe P > et an; BRS ne Hoos
rs S;aooe
oN S
£&
0—;=
* 4g “ye = 22 Z = ‘ bs the air or the ae SS = SN See
e e = ry gt q , ! absolute humidity Wee ee We ee $ ee SSS NY e ive 8 nena PhS a L~ Ci SS 0.003 z iu, SSS S =
SSNs SS *. ago2
SSeS SS SSS SSS,” o wo i]
ae
S SSS i .
— 1. 20 2 30 35 40 4 0 55 60 65 70 75 a0 85 9 oo )=—105 ie
S = Ory-bulb Temperature - Deg, F.
P, — P,s
Pounds of Water Par Pound of Dry Air
of ai
system
amount of total heat in t
¢ Thermodynamic property
r quantifying the
ENTHALPY (h)
densi
- Reciprocal of the air’s
ty
volume to i ts mass
- Rati
SPECIFIC VOLUME
o of th eair's
(m3)
Constant Air Volume
Psychrometric Chart
HUMID HEAT, cp,
* amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry air
plus the watervapor present , kJ/kg dry air - °K
where,
c, watervapor = 1.88 kJ/kg water vapor. K
c, air = 1.005 kJ/kg dry air. K
cp, = 1.005 + 1.88H
for, cp, where,
y = (H,+H2)
2