LATEX

LATEX
Text Formatting with LATEX
Table of Contents
1. LATEX Basics 1
1.1 What is TEX? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What is LATEX? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 How LATEX Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The LATEX Input File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Entering LATEX Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.2 Entering Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Structure of the Input File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Some LATEX Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Creating A LATEX Document 7
2.1 Document Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Class Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Making a Title Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Making a Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 Behind the Scenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6.1 Auxiliary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6.2 How a Page is Built . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Example: Report Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Example: Letter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Document Layout 13
3.1 Line Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Text Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Headers, Footers, and Page Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ii ♦ Contents
4. Within the Text 16

4.1 Section Headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Changing Type Style and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Starting New Lines and New Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Leaving Horizontal and Vertical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Drawing Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.7 Centering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8 Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.9 Reproducing Text As-Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.10 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.11 Cross References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Tabular Material 23
5.1 Tabbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 Tabular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2.1 A Simple Ruled Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2.2 Using Paragraph Columns, Spanning Columns . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2.3 Aligning on the Decimal Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.4 Suppressing Leading or Trailing Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6. Mathematics 28
6.1 In-line Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.2 Display Math (for unnumbered equations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Equation Environment (for numbered equations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4 Eqnarray Environment (for multiline equations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 Array Environment (for matrices, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6 Building Mathematical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6.1 Superscripts and Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6.2 Spaces in Math Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6.3 Dots, Braces, and Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6.4 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.6.5 Radicals, Integrals, and Summations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.6.6 Large Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7. Including Graphics 35
7.1 Creating the Graphics File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2 Importing the Graphic into your LATEX Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3 Viewing the Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8. Placing Figures & Tables (Floats) 37
8.1 Making a Caption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.3 Overcoming Problems with Float Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.4 Landscape Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Contents ♦ iii
9. Preparing a Bibliography 41
9.1 Using LATEX’s built-in Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.2 Using BibTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.2 Creating the .bib File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2.3 Running BibTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2.4 Bibliography Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10. Special Topics 46

10.1 Managing a Large Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.2 Generating an Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.3 Including hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Appendix A: Mathematical Symbols 50

Appendix B: Error Messages 53
Text Formatting with LATEX
Chapter 1. LATEX Basics

1.1 What is TEX?
• TEX is the typesetting language upon which LATEX is built. It was designed and
written by Donald Knuth especially for math and science. TEX is pronounced
“Tech,” similar to “Bach.”
• TEX is portable. It is available for most computers and is used all over the world.
TEX documents can be moved easily from one system to another, as long as the
required fonts are on both systems.
• TEX comes with its own set of fonts, called “Computer Modern,” used by default.
These fonts exist in a variety of styles, including serif, sans serif, typewriter (fixed
pitch), and an extensive set of mathematical symbols. It’s also possible to use
other font families, such as Times, Palatino, etc.
• TEX is also a programming language, making it possible to create commands that
simplify its use.
1.2 What is LATEX?

• LATEX is a TEX macro package, originally written by Leslie Lamport, that simplifies
the use of TEX. All the above features of TEX, including portability, also apply to
LATEX. LATEX is pronounced either “Lay-tech” or “Lah-tech.”
• Most LATEX commands are “high-level” (such as chapter and section) and specify
the logical structure of a document. The author rarely needs to be concerned with
the details of document layout, concentrating instead on the content. Most plain
TEX commands also work with LATEX.
• The document class determines how the document will be formatted. LATEX pro-
vides several standard document classes from which to choose.
• LATEX is flexible, gives you complete control, handles big, complex documents with
ease, and never crashes or corrupts your files.
1
2 ♦ Chapter 1. LATEX Basics
1.3 How LATEX Works

To use LATEX, you first create a plain ASCII text file with any text editor. In this file
you type both the text of your document and the LATEX commands to format it. You
then typeset your document, usually by clicking a button on a toolbar or selecting a
menu item. Nowadays there are two routes for processing a LATEX document:
• The traditional way is to run the latex program, which creates a DVI (Device
Independent) file. This file is in binary format and not viewed directly. You
then run a previewing program for viewing on screen and/or the dvips program
to create a PostScript file for viewing or for printing via the ghostview/GSView
program. GSView can also convert the document to PDF format.
• Alternatively you can run the relatively recent pdflatex program to create a PDF
file for viewing or printing, usually with Adobe’s Acrobat Reader.
The second method is more direct for PDF output, but the first is quicker and more
convenient for previewing.
1.4 The LATEX Input File

LATEX input files have names that end with the extension .tex: for example, an accept-
able file name might be myfile.tex. (Never use spaces in file names.) The input file
contains both the text of your document and the LATEX commands needed to format it.
The first command in the file, \documentclass, defines the style of the document.
1.4.1 Entering LATEX Commands

To distinguish them from text, all LATEX commands (also called control sequences) start
with a backslash “\”. A command name consists of letters only and is ended by a space
or a non letter (such as a comma, period, brace, etc). If it ends with a space, the space
is “consumed” by LATEX and does not appear in the output. An example is \today,
which prints the current date. To avoid having the space after the command disappear,
do the following:
\today\ is a good day. produces: April 16, 2017 is a good day.
There are also commands that consist of the backslash followed by exactly one non-
letter. They are most often used to put a special symbol in the text. For example \$
prints a $ (which cannot be entered directly because LATEX uses it to begin math mode).
Spaces after these control symbols are not consumed.
LATEX commands are case-sensitive. Most are all lowercase. A few commands use the
first letter in uppercase such as \Delta → ∆. Fewer still use all uppercase.
1.4 The LATEX Input File ♦ 3
Some commands take an “argument,” placed within curly braces { } after the command
name. For example, \textbf{this text is bold} prints the text inside the braces in
boldface type: this text is bold
LATEX uses grouping to limit the effect of certain commands. Braces { ... } are used to
begin and end groups. (An environment is also a group; see page 5.) For example, the
\large command is usually used inside a group:
{\large this is bigger than normal} produces: this is bigger than normal
A command such as \large is called a “declaration” because, unless it is given within
a group, its effect will continue until another declaration (in this case \normalsize)
counteracts it. Note the difference between a declaration used inside a group and a
command like \textbf{...}, which will not work unless an argument is provided inside
a pair of braces following the command name.
The symbol % can be used to put a comment in your input file. When LATEX sees a %, it
ignores the rest of the line.
When you use commands that specify a length, such as a command to set the size of a
margin or a command to leave a certain amount of space, you will need to specify the
units of measurement. LATEX recognizes the following units:
cm centimeter pt printer’s point, ≈ 72 per inch
mm millimeter em font-dependent width of “m”
in inch ex font-dependent height of “x”
1.4.2 Entering Text

In the input file, words are separated by leaving one or more blank spaces. Paragraphs are
separated by leaving one or more blank lines. (You can also use the command \par to indicate
a new paragraph.) LATEX ignores multiple blank spaces and multiple blank lines in input files.
Type single quotation marks by using the left (‘) and right (’) single quote marks on
your keyboard. Type left double quotation marks by using using two single left quotes
(‘‘), and type right double quotation marks by using either two single right quotes (’’)
or the double quote key (").
There are three kinds of dashes in typeset documents: the hyphen (for compound
words), the endash (for such things as page number ranges), and the emdash (used as a
punctuation mark in English prose). Since there is only one dash on the keyboard, type
-, --, and --- to get -, –, and — .
To prevent two words from being split at a line break, tie them together with the tilde
character: for example Mr.~Smith will never appear with “Mr.” at the end of one line
and “Smith” at the start of the next.
Note that some characters have special meaning to LATEX and must be entered in a
special way, as described in the next section.
1.4.3 Special Characters

Certain characters have special meaning to LATEX. An example is the % sign, which
indicates that the remainder of the line is a comment and should not be processed.
Below is the complete list of special characters. To have these characters print in your
output, you must type them in your input file as shown below.
Character Type in file Special LATEX meaning
# \# Parameter in a macro; also used in tables
$ \$ Used to begin and end math mode
% \% Used for comments in the source file
& \& Tab mark, used in alignments
\ Used in math mode for subscripts
ˆ \ˆ{} Used in math mode for superscripts
˜ \˜{} Tie character, used to produce a “hard” space
{ \{ Used to begin a group or an argument
} \} Used to end a group or an argument
\ $\backslash$ Used to begin a control sequence
< $<$ (or \textless) Otherwise, produces ¡
> $>$ (or \textgreater) Otherwise, produces ¿
1.4.4 Structure of the Input File

LATEX input files must conform to a certain structure. They begin with the command
\documentclass, and all the text of the document must be contained between the
commands \begin{document} and \end{document}.
\documentclass[options]{class}
Preamble
\begin{document}
Document text
\end{document}
In the first command above, class specifies the type of document you intend to create.
You can choose from one of the LATEX classes described in the next chapter. If you wish,
you can also include one or more options to modify the behavior of the document class.
The preamble is the section of the file between the \documentclass{...} command and
the \begin{document} command. This is the place to put commands that will influence
the style of your entire document and macro definitions that you will use later. You may
also load packages that add new features to LATEX. Text is not allowed in the preamble.
1.5 Some LATEX Vocabulary ♦ 5
The \begin{document} command indicates the end of the preamble and the beginning
of your text. A corresponding \end{document} command always ends your files. A
really short LATEX input file might look like:
\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
This LaTeX file is short and sweet. It uses the article class,
a good all-purpose layout. There is nothing in the preamble, which
is perfectly acceptable.
This is a new paragraph. \textit{Here’s some italic text}

and \textbf{some bold text}.
{\small The text inside these braces is smaller than normal.}
Now the text size is back to normal.
\end{document}
this produces:
This LaTeX file is short and sweet. It uses the article class, a good all-purpose layout.
There is nothing in the preamble, which is perfectly acceptable.
This is a new paragraph. Here’s some italic text and some bold text. The text inside
these braces is smaller than normal. Now the text size is back to normal.
Longer examples, one using report class and one using letter class are included at the
end of the next chapter.
1.5 Some LATEX Vocabulary

Commands produce text or space. For example, \hspace{2in} and \vspace{2in} are
commands that create 2 inches of horizontal and vertical space, respectively, and
\textit{some italic words} puts the contents of its argument in italic type.
Many commands take arguments, either mandatory or optional; some commands,
like \today don’t.
Mandatory arguments supply information required for a command to execute. For

example, \hspace{2in} needs the information provided by the argument to gen-
erate the horizontal space. Mandatory arguments are enclosed in braces: { }.
Optional arguments are allowed on some commands and are enclosed in square brack-
ets: [ ]. For example, the size of type to be used for your main text is an optional
argument in the {\documentclass} command. To use the article class in 11-point
type, you would type \documentclass[11pt]{article}. Without this optional
argument, you would get the default 10-point type.
Declarations produce neither text nor space, but either affect the way LATEX prints
the following text or provide information for later use. Font size changes are an
example of declarations. \large will cause any text that follows to appear in a
larger type size. Declarations are often used within a group to limit their scope. For
example: {\large Only the text inside these braces will be large.}
Environments are blocks of text that receive special processing. An environment is

defined by a matching \begin{environment name} ... \end{environment name}.
An environment is also a group, in the same way that a pair of braces delimits a
group. For example, a quotation might be formatted as follows:
\begin{quote}
\small
This text is set off from surrounding text and indented from
both margins. The font size of this quotation will be smaller
because of the "small" command inside the quote environment.
\end{quote}
Note that a blank line before an environment ends the previous paragraph. A blank
line following an environment indicates that the next line starts a new paragraph.
Environments can be nested, i.e., the first started is the last ended.
* Some commands can have a * appended to the name, which indicates a variation on a
command or environment. For example, \\ indicates a line break. \\* indicates a
line break with the restriction that LATEX is not allowed to begin a new page at that
point. Space printed by \vspace and \hspace commands is normally dropped if
it appears at the beginning or end of a line or page. If you want the space printed
no matter where it falls, you would use \hspace* or \vspace*. Normally, section
headings are automatically numbered, but \section*{My Heading} will produce
an unnumbered section heading.
Chapter 2. Creating A LATEX Document
2.1 Document Classes
The document class determines the overall layout of the document. There are five
standard classes distributed with LATEX:
article for simple or short documents, including journal articles, and short reports. A
good all-purpose class.
report for small books and longer reports containing chapters.
book for books.
letter for letters, either business or personal.
slides for making transparencies for projection on a screen.
These classes provide preset formats with default margins, paragraph formatting, and
special commands suitable for producing specific sections. For example, the article,
report, and book classes include a variety of commands to format section headings
(\part, \chapter, \section, \subsection, \subsubsection, etc.), as well as com-
mands to produce a title page and a table of contents. There are minor differences
between these three classes. The book class, for example, uses a smaller printed page
size—about 5×7.5 inches—and is formatted for two-sided printing by default. The
article class is intended for shorter works and does not have chapters (so articles can
be easily included in reports or books). The letter class provides special commands to
produce the salutation, address, and closing.
These four classes are single-spaced by default, and have 10, 11, and 12-point type sizes
available as options. 10 points is the default size.
The slides class uses sans-serif type fonts much larger than the usual ones and expects
the document to be divided up into 1-page sections.
2.2 Class Options

A document class may be modified by options, which are placed in square brackets after
the \documentclass command. Multiple options are separated by commas:
\documentclass[option,option,option ]{class }
8 ♦ Chapter 2. Creating A LATEX Document
The standard class options include:
10pt, 11pt, 12pt Selects the point size of main font for the document. If no option is
specified, 10pt is assumed. This document uses 12-point type.
twocolumn Produces two-column pages.
titlepage Causes the \maketitle command to generate the title page on a separate
page for the article class. This option is not necessary for the book and report
classes, as they print separate title pages by default.
leqno Puts equation numbers on left side. (They are on the right by default.)
fleqn Left-aligns equations. (They are centered by default.)
twoside Formats for printing on both sides of paper. (Whether the document is actually
printed two-sided depends on the printer.) Twoside is the default for the book class,
but not for any of the other classes.
openright If the twoside option is in effect, chapters will begin on right hand pages.
This is the default for the book class. It does not apply to the article class,
which does not contain chapters. (The opposite of openright is openany.)
2.3 Packages
There are a large number of LATEX packages available that provide a variety of
additional features. Many packages are considered part of LATEX; others are provided
by expert users worldwide. If you sometimes find that the features of standard LATEX
do not provide the special formatting you want, chances are good that you can find a
package to meet your needs. A package generally consists of one or more files that
contain extra definitions and macros. Some packages are simple; others are complex and
can contain options. The file names usually have the extension .sty.
You load a package with the \usepackage command, which should come immediately
after the \documentclass command in your input file. The command has the form:
\usepackage[options ]{package }
Each package may be included with its own \usepackage command, or you may use one
command to load several packages by separating their names with commas. For example,
if you are inserting graphics in your document (see chapter 7.), the package graphicx
provides the commands to do this. The beginning of your input file might look like:
\documentclass[11pt]{article}
\usepackage{graphicx}
The \usepackage command above instructs LATEX to read the file graphicx.sty.
2.4 Making a Title Page ♦ 9
In addition to graphicx there are many other packages available, including packages to
rotate text, use PostScript fonts (e.g., Times, Palatino, etc), and customize such things
as headers and footers, citations and captions. Packages come with their own documen-
tation. Many packages are routinely distributed with LATEX and will already be on your
system. You’ll find documentation for these packages in the doc subdirectory of your
installation. For example, if you are using the TeXLive 2005 distribution for Windows,
package documentation is in folders under C:\TeXLive2005\texmf-dist\doc\latex\.
To see a current list of all available packages with brief descriptions, look at the Com-
prehensive TeX Archive Network (CTAN) catalog,
http://texcatalogue.sarovar.org/brief.html.
2.4 Making a Title Page

If you are using the article, report, or book class, you may want a title page for your
document. To do this, you need to supply text for the title, author, and date, and then
tell LATEX to generate the title page with the command \maketitle. In your LATEX
input file, type commands such as the ones below. The \maketitle command, which
actually prints the title page, must follow the \begin{document} command; the other
commands, which just provide the information, can be placed in the preamble if you
prefer.
\title{This is the Title} % provide title info
\author{My Name} % provide author info
\date{the date} % provide date
\maketitle % format and print title page
This is illustrated in the example of using the report class later in this chapter. If there
are several authors, you can separate their names with \and, or you can separate them
with \\ if you would like each name centered on a separate line. If you omit the \date
command, LATEX will use the current date. If you want no date at all, use \date{}.
In the report and book classes, the title information appears on its own page. In the
article class, it appears at the top of the first page of text. You can instruct the
article class to make a separate page by using the documentclass option titlepage.
2.5 Making a Table of Contents

The command \tableofcontents, usually placed in the input file right after the
\maketitle command, creates a table of contents using the information in the sec-
tion headings (part, chapter, section, etc.). Since this information is taken from the
previous run, you will need to run LATEX twice on a new document for the entries in the
table of contents to show up.
2.6 Behind the Scenes

2.6.1 Auxiliary Files
Part of the convenience of LATEX is its ability to do cross references (see section 4.11)
and to create a table of contents, a list of tables, and a list of figures.
Forward reference numbers, as well as page numbers for sections, figures and tables, are
unknown when LATEX is first processing the input file. LATEX stores this information
in auxiliary files as it processes the job. A second run allows LATEX to extract the
information from its auxiliary files and complete the table of contents, etc. Therefore all
information used by LATEX for tables of contents, etc. is from the previous run. The only
way to be sure that all this material is correct is to format the file twice after making
any changes. Usually for drafts, the difference between runs is not enough to matter,
but for final versions you should remember to run LATEX twice before printing.
The auxiliary files have the same “root” name as the LATEX input file, but different
extensions. For example, all documents need an AUX file. If the input file is named
myfile.tex, the AUX file will be named myfile.aux. Other auxiliary files (see the list
below) are needed only if you are producing a table of contents, etc. Auxiliary files are
created automatically as they are needed.
filename.aux always needed
filename.toc for table of contents
filename.lot for list of tables
filename.lof for list of figures
2.6.2 How a Page is Built

When TEX or LATEX builds a page, it considers all the parts (words, lines, paragraphs,
etc.) to be different sized boxes. It starts with a simple box, an individual letter, and
then builds words, which are considered to be hboxes (horizontal boxes). The words
are then put together with glue to form a line, which is a larger hbox. A group of
hboxes stacked together vertically (with glue between them) form a vbox (vertical box).
A page is a large vbox made up of several smaller ones. You do not normally need to be
concerned with this, but sometimes (such as when an error message refers to an “overfull
hbox,” meaning a line is too long and sticks out into the margin) it is helpful to know
how TEX works.
2.7 Example: Report Class ♦ 11
2.7 Example: Report Class

\documentclass[11pt]{report} % Report class in 11 points
\raggedright % Do not right-justify
\parindent0pt \parskip8pt % make block paragraphs
\begin{document} % End of preamble, start of

% document text.
\title{\bf An Example of Report Class} % Supply information
\author{Yours Truly} % for the title page.
\date{\today} % Use current date.
\maketitle % Print title page.
\pagenumbering{roman} % Roman page number for toc
\setcounter{page}{2} % Make it start with "ii"
\tableofcontents % Print table of contents
\chapter{A Main Heading} % Make a "chapter" heading

\pagenumbering{arabic} % Start text with arabic 1
Most of this example applies to the article and book classes
as well as to the report class. In article class, however,
the default position for the title information is at the top
of the first text page rather than on a separate page. Also, article
class does not have a ‘‘chapter" command.
A blank line starts a new paragraph. \textit{Note this: it will be

printed in italic type.}
\section{A Subheading} % Make a "section" heading

The following sectioning commands are available:
\begin{quote} % Start "set off", indented text
part \\ % "\\" forces a new line
chapter \\ % not available in article class
section \\
subsection \\
subsubsection \\
paragraph \\
subparagraph
\end{quote} % End of indented text
The *-form (e.g., ‘‘section*") suppresses the section number and

does not make a TOC entry.
\end{document} % The required last line

2.8 Example: Letter Class

\documentclass[12pt]{letter} % letter class, 12 points
\address{555 Main St.\\Sometown, NY 12345} % Return address

\signature{My Name\\My Title} % Name for signature
\begin{document} % End of preamble
\begin{letter}{Mr.~Smith\\ President, % Begin letter by giving

Big Name Co.\\Bigburg, MI 45678} % recipient’s address
\opening{Dear Mr.~Smith:} % Name for salutation
This is the letter class. It provides a format for standard parts

of a business letter. As you can see, it uses many commands that
do not exist in the article, report, and book classes.
This is a new paragraph.
\closing{Sincerely,} % Format for the closing.

% The name is taken from
% \signature command above.
\cc{My Boss} % Name(s) of those
% receiving copies
\end{letter} % End of letter
\end{document} % The required last line

Chapter 3. Document Layout
Defaults for all aspects of the document layout are set by the document classes. However,
if you want to change the defaults, there are commands that enable you to do so.
Commands controlling features that apply to the whole document should be placed in
the preamble1 .
3.1 Line Spacing

The default is single spacing. If you want larger interline spacing for your document, you
can use the \linespread command in the preamble. The following command produces
a document with double spacing:
\linespread{1.6}
For “line and a half” spacing, use the value 1.3. The default spread is 1.
An alternative and more flexible way to control the linespacing is to use the package
setspace. With this package, footnotes, figures, and tables remain single-spaced. The
package also defines a new environment called singlespace, which you can use to include
single-spaced sections within your document. To use the setspace package to produce
a double-spaced document, include after the \documentclass command:
\usepackage{setspace}
and, in addition, put the command
\doublespacing
somewhere in the preamble.
You could use \onehalfspacing instead of \doublespacing, or you could use the com-
mand \setstretch{n} (specifying your own value for n—usually between 1 and 2) to
set the spacing to whatever you want.
3.2 Paragraphs
To start a new paragraph, either leave a blank line or use the control sequence \par.
By default, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em, which means 1.5 times the point size
of the current font. (1 em is about the width of an “M”.) No extra blank space
is inserted between paragraphs. The commands \parindent and \parskip control
paragraph indentation and paragraph separation. To get block paragraphs, for example,
include in the preamble the commands:
\parindent=0in
\parskip=8pt % this is variable, choose the number you want
1
the section between the \documentclass command and the \begin{document} command
13
14 ♦ Chapter 3. Document Layout
3.3 Text Justification

By default, LATEX justifies your text horizontally so that both left and right margins are
smooth. If you prefer “ragged right” text, you can use the declaration:
\raggedright
Note that this has the side-effect of wiping out the paragraph indentation. (It assumes
you want everything flush left.) If you want indented paragraphs, you must specifically
request it (i.e., \parindent=1.5em) after the \raggedright declaration.
Vertical justification is controlled by using either \flushbottom or \raggedbottom.
\flushbottom makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space if nec-
essary. \raggedbottom allows the height to vary a bit from page to page. \flushbottom
is the default for the book class and for the twoside option in the article and report
classes; otherwise \raggedbottom is the default.
3.4 Margins
Changing default margins, which depend on the class and the font size, is not as easy
as you might think. The best way to control margins is to use the geometry package.
This package has many options and extensive documentation in manual.pdf found in
your directory ...\doc\latex\geometry\. The following examples should be obvious:
\usepackage[margin=1in]{geometry} % 1 inch margins all around
\usepackage[left=1.2in,right=1in,top=1in,bottom=.8in]{geometry}
If you really want to do it manually, you need to know that internally top and left margins
are set in reference to a value of one inch (which means that setting these margins equal
to 0 produces one-inch margins). Therefore, setting topmargin to -.5in produces a top
margin of .5 inches. The opposite margins (bottom and right) are determined indirectly
by setting the height (textheight) and width (textwidth) of the text area.
to set margin change the command
top margin \topmargin
bottom margin \textheight
left margin (for odd pages or single sided) \oddsidemargin
left margin (for even pages, if using twoside) \evensidemargin
right margin \textwidth
LATEX also leaves .5 inch at the top of the page for a header and about .6 inch at the
bottom of the page for a footer. You must take this into account when choosing values
for topmargin and textheight. The values below leave one inch between the paper
edge and the text on all four sides.
\setlength{\topmargin}{-.5in} % top margin is .5 in
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{0in} % left margin is 1 in on right pages
\setlength{\evensidemargin}{0in} % same for left pages, 2-sided document
\setlength{\textwidth}{6.5in} % leaves 1 in for right margin
\setlength{\textheight}{9in} % 9 inches reserved for the text
3.5 Headers, Footers, and Page Numbering ♦ 15
3.5 Headers, Footers, and Page Numbering

The output page consists of the head, the body and the foot. Header and footer material,
such as page numbers and/or section titles, appear in the head or the foot. All the
classes (except letter) print at least the page number by default.
If you don’t like the default action of the document class, you can determine what goes
into the head and foot by using the pagestyle command. This command is often placed
just after a \chapter or a similar command. There are four standard page styles:
\pagestyle{plain}: The page number is in the foot and the head is empty. This is
the default page style for the article and report document classes.
\pagestyle{empty}: The head and foot are both empty.
\pagestyle{headings}: The page number and current section heading (the level of
the heading is determined by the document class) is put in the head; the foot is
empty. This is the default for the book class.
\pagestyle{myheadings}: Similar to the headings page style, except you specify the
information (other than the page number) that goes in the head by using the
markboth and markright commands. markboth is used for two-sided docu-
ments, and markright is used for one-sided:
\markboth{leftheader }{rightheader }
\markright{rightheader }
\thispagestyle{style}: Changes the page style for the current page only. For example,
to have nothing in the head and foot for the current page without affecting the
style for the rest of the pages, use \thispagestyle{empty}.
You can also specify arabic (the default) or roman page numbering either in the preamble
or in the text. It is common to put \pagenumbering{roman} before the text begins and
\pagenumbering{arabic} after the first \chapter command. These commands also
set the page number to 1. You can change the page number counter yourself with a
command such as \setcounter{page}{2}.
If the above pagestyle commands don’t do what you want, there is a package called
fancyhdr that allows you to customize your headers and footers in an easy way. With
this package you can define three-part headers and footers (left, right, and center), multi-
line headers and footers, separate headers and footers for even and odd pages, and more.
To use it, include the following commands in the preamble:
\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\pagestyle{fancy}
For simple use, you need only to include the following 6 commands in your preamble, sup-
plying your text inside the {} in each case: \lhead{}, \chead{}, \rhead{}, \lfoot{},
cfoot{}, \rfoot{}. To suppress the horizontal line drawn by default under the header,
use \renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}. For more information, see fancyhdr.pdf
in your directory ...\doc\latex\fancyhdr\.
Chapter 4. Within the Text
Within the text, there will always be certain sections that require special treatment—
such as a different size of type, indentation, or special placement on the page. Some
specialized areas of text (particularly those that require indentation) are formatted with
the help of LATEX environments.
4.1 Section Headings

Since documents of any length are usually divided into sections, the classes article,
report, and book have a set of commands which take the name of the section as an
argument. The author uses these commands in the proper order, providing the section
name, and LATEX takes care of formatting the headings (boldface, larger typesize, etc.)
and numbering them appropriately. The sectioning commands are:
\part \section \paragraph
\chapter \subsection \subparagraph
\subsubsection
Note that the \chapter command is not available in article class. The \part heading
is rarely used. It divides a very large document into parts, and does not affect the
numbering used for the other headings. In most document classes, headings made with
the lowest level headings, \paragraph and \subparagraph, are not numbered by default.
If you include the command \tableofcontents at the beginning of your document,
LATEX takes the section headings and page numbers from the previous run of the docu-
ment and inserts a table of contents at the place the command was issued. (Note that
you need to process the document through LATEX twice to ensure an up-to-date table of
contents.)
Normally section headings appear in the table of contents exactly as they do in the text.
However, if a heading is too long to fit nicely into the table of contents, you can provide
a shorter version as an optional argument:
\section[A short heading for the TOC]{This is a much longer
heading that will appear in the text of the document}
You can make less formal headings by using the sectioning commands with a star (*)
appended to the command names listed above. In this case, the section headings will
not show up in the table of contents and will not be numbered. For example, to make a
section heading called “Introduction” that is not numbered and does not appear in the
table of contents, use the command:
\section*{Introduction}
16
4.2 Changing Type Style and Size ♦ 17
4.2 Changing Type Style and Size

Sometimes you may want to change the style or size of text that is not a section heading.
The following LATEX commands change the style of the text you supply as an argument:
\textit{...} italic Italic shape, used mostly for emphasis
\textsl{...} slanted Slanted shape, a bit different from italic
\textsc{...} Small Caps Small caps shape, use sparingly
\textup{...} upright Upright shape, usually the default
\textbf{...} boldface Boldface series, often used for headings
\textmd{...} medium Medium series, usually the default
\textrm{...} roman Roman family, usually the default
\textsf{...} sans serif Sans Serif family, used for posters, etc.
\texttt{...} typewriter Typewriter family, fixed-pitch characters
\emph{...} emphasized Use for emphasis, usually changes to italic
These commands can be combined, provided the font thus requested actually exists. For
example, the command \textbf{\textit{This is bold italic}} produces: This is
bold italic.
The following commands cause subsequent output to be printed in a different type size.
The actual size produced by each command depends on the initial point size selected for
the document. The default document size is 10 points. Therefore \normalsize means
10 points for a document in which no size option has been included. This document
is printed in 12 points, so in this case, \normalsize is 12 points. (Note that when
normalsize is 12 points, there is no difference between huge and Huge. They are both
the largest size—25 points.)
\normalsize normal size \large large
\small small \Large larger
\footnotesize smaller than small \LARGE larger still
\scriptsize smaller still \huge huge
\tiny tiny \Huge hugest
The size-changing commands are declarations, and therefore they are usually used within
a group (i.e., braces) to delimit the range of their action. For example:
{\small This type will be small} produces This type will be small.
To change both type size and style at the same time, commands can be used together.
For example, the command \textbf{\large This will be big and bold} produces:
This will be big and bold.
18 ♦ Chapter 4. Within the Text
4.3 Starting New Lines and New Pages

Normally LATEX decides where to start a new line and a new page, always trying to pick
the most aesthetically pleasing break points. But sometimes you want to force the start
of a new line or page. The command \\ will force a new line. For example,
This will be on one line\\ this will be on the next line
If you want extra space between two lines, do not use two \\ commands in a row.
Instead use an optional parameter (given inside square brackets) to specify the amount
of blank space. For example, the following command will leave an extra space of 10
points between the lines:
This will be on one line\\[10pt] this will be on the next line
To force a new page, the simplest command is \newpage, which starts a new page
immediately. There is also the command \clearpage, which acts like \newpage except
that it also forces any leftover figures or tables to print before starting the new page.
With the twoside documentclass option, the command \cleardoublepage produces a
blank page, if necessary, to ensure that the new page starts on a new sheet of paper.
4.4 Leaving Horizontal and Vertical Space

The commands \hspace and \vspace leave horizontal and vertical space in your text.
Both commands take a mandatory parameter—the amount of blank space you want to
leave. For example, \vspace{3in} will leave 3 inches of blank space in your text. If
vertical space is requested in the middle of a paragraph, the space will appear after the
current line has ended.
Space requested by the \hspace and \vspace commands disappears if it falls at the
beginning or end of a line or page. To create space that remains no matter where it
falls, use the variations \hspace* and \vspace*. For example, the following lines:
This text starts at the left margin\\
\hspace*{1in}This text starts a new line after a one-inch space
produces:
This text starts at the left margin
This text starts a new line after a one-inch space
4.5 Drawing Rules

To draw a line (horizontal or vertical) on the page, use the \rule command:
\rule[lift]{width}{height}
width is the horizontal dimension, height is the vertical dimension, and the optional
parameter lift is the amount raised above the baseline. For example, the line below was
drawn with the command \rule{\textwidth}{1pt}.
4.6 Footnotes ♦ 19
4.6 Footnotes
Footnotes are numbered automatically by LATEX. The command \footnote{footnote
text} should be placed exactly where you want the footnote number to appear, with no
extra space between the \footnote command and the text before it. For example:
This is text with a note.\footnote{This is the note text.
Here it is at the bottom of the page.}
produces:
This is text with a note.2
4.7 Centering
If you have only one line to center, it’s easiest to use the plain TEX command
\centerline; for example,
\centerline{This line will be centered}.
If you have several lines to be centered horizontally, the center environment is conve-
nient. The example below produces three lines, each horizontally centered.
\begin{center}
This is line one. \\
This is line two. \\
This is line three.
\end{center}
There is also the declaration \centering, which is always used within a group—either a
pair of braces or an environment. This is useful when you don’t want the extra vertical
space surrounding the center environment.
4.8 Quotations
The quote environment begins a new line and indents text from both sides. It
is delimited with \begin{quote} and \end{quote}. Any special effects (such
as changes to the type size or style) started within the quote environment
are terminated by \end{quote}.
New paragraphs are block style: that is, no indent and a blank line as sepa-
ration. This section is inside a quote environment.
There is also a very similar environment called quotation. The only difference is that
paragraphs in the quotation environment are indented with no blank line between.
2
This is the note text. Here it is at the bottom of the page.
4.9 Reproducing Text As-Is

To reproduce new lines and spaces exactly as they are in your input file, you have a
choice of several methods.
The verbatim environment prints its text in typewriter-style type and sets it off from
the rest of the document with blank lines before and after. (It does not indent.) To use
it, surround the text with the commands \begin{verbatim} and \end{verbatim}. The
only LATEX command obeyed inside this environment is \end{verbatim}. For example,
the following input
\begin{verbatim}
All spacing is displayed in verbatim as entered.
So are special characters ! @ # & * ( ) _ } ] \ | > <
verbatim is used to display LaTeX commands in this document.
\end{verbatim}
produces:
All spacing is displayed in verbatim as entered.

So are special characters ! @ # & * ( ) _ } ] \ | > <
verbatim is used to display LaTeX commands in this document.
A variation on the verbatim environment, called the alltt environment, is provided

by a package. It is used in the same way as the verbatim environment and works
the same, in that spaces and lines are retained from the input file. The difference is
that LATEX commands are recognized inside this environment. It cannot be used to
reproduce LATEX commands, but it is very useful if you want to print in roman or italic
type instead of typewriter. Before you can use this environment, you must include the
command \usepackage{alltt} following the \documentclass command.
If the text is short enough to be contained on one input line and should not be set off,
you can use the \verb command. For example,
\verb+This is inside the \verb command+
produces:
This is inside the \verb command
Note that the “+” is used here to delimit the verbatim text. Any character except the
“*” can be used as the delimiter.
4.10 Lists ♦ 21
4.10 Lists
The three LATEX list environments all use the \item command to start new items in the
list. The enumerate environment numbers items sequentially, the itemize environment
puts a bullet in front of each item, and the description environment puts a boldface
word or phrase in front of each item.
The following examples show both the output and the input used to create them.
Example of Enumerate
\begin{enumerate}
\item Sugar 1. Sugar
\item Cream
\item Chocolate 2. Cream
\end{enumerate} 3. Chocolate
Example of Itemize
\begin{itemize} • Mix all ingredients together.
\item Mix all ingredients together.
\item Boil until the thermometer • Boil until the thermometer
reaches 112 $^\circ$C. reaches 112 ◦ C.
\item Stir and cool.
\end{itemize} • Stir and cool.
Example of Description
\begin{description} dog A loving animal that likes to
\item[dog] A loving animal that sleep on the furniture.
likes to sleep on the furniture.
\item[cat] Aloof creature that can cat Aloof creature that can warm
warm your feet on a winter’s night your feet on a winter’s night
\item[horse] Large animal, gives horse Large animal, gives great rides.
great rides. Eats a lot, luckily Eats a lot, luckily doesn’t sleep
doesn’t sleep on the furniture. on the furniture.
\end{description}
Below is an example of nesting list environments:
Here are some useful environments: Here are some useful environments:
\begin{itemize}
\item center environment • center environment
\item quote environment • quote environment
\item the three list environments:
\begin{enumerate} • the three list environments:
\item enumerate (uses numbers)
\item itemize (uses bullets) 1. enumerate (uses numbers)
\item description (uses words) 2. itemize (uses bullets)
\end{enumerate}
3. description (uses words)
\end{itemize}
4.11 Cross References

In longer documents, there are often cross references to sections, figures, tables, or
equations. LATEX provides the following commands for cross referencing:
\label{marker } set a marker for future reference
\ref{marker } include the number of the section, figure, etc. of the cor-
responding \label command
\pageref{marker } include the page number of the corresponding \label com-
mand
marker is an identifier that you choose—it may contain letters, numbers, or other
characters (except for LATEX’s special list of characters). It can be helpful, but not
necessary, to start the marker name with a tag that identifies what is being marked:
for example, sec: for sections, eqn: for equations, fig: for figures, etc. (See the
example below.) The \label command should be placed immediately after a sectioning
command, within an equation environment, or inside a figure or table environment
immediately following the caption command.
\label{sec:xrefs}
For information on cross references, see
For information on cross references,
section 4.11 on page 22.
see section~\ref{sec:xrefs} on
page~\pageref{sec:xrefs}.
Note that LATEX uses the numbers from the .aux file produced by the previous run, so
it will take two runs (sometimes more) to get the cross references correct.
Chapter 5. Tabular Material
There are two environments in LATEX for formatting tabular material: the tabbing
environment, which uses \begin{tabbing}. . . \end{tabbing}, and the tabular envi-
ronment, which uses \begin{tabular}. . . \end{tabular}.
The tabbing environment works in a manner similar to a typewriter—you set the tabs
and then move from one to another. Tab stops may be reset on any line. Page breaks
within the tabbed material are allowed since each line is processed individually.
The tabular environment allows you to construct a much fancier looking table: for
example, you can specify the alignment of each column and use horizontal and vertical
lines. However, these tables cannot be broken across pages because LATEX reads in the
entire table at once to establish correct column widths. Often material inside a tabular
environment is placed inside the table environment, which ensures that if it can’t fit at
the current location it will be “floated” to an appropriate location. For information on
using the table environment, see Chapter 8..
5.1 Tabbing
Tabbing uses the following commands:
\= Set a tab stop
\> Move right to the next tab stop
\\ Terminate a line
Tabs are usually set in the first line but may also be added in later lines. A special line
ending with the command \kill may be used to set tabs but not print the line. Below
are two examples of tabbing. Note that the last entry does not require a \\ to end the
line.
Example 1: A Very Simple Case

\begin{tabbing}
Column 1 \= Column 2 \= Column 3 \= Column4 \\
Col 1 \> Col 2 \> Col 3 \> Col 4 \\
one \> two \> three \> four
\end{tabbing}
Produces:
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4
one two three four
23
24 ♦ Chapter 5. Tabular Material
Example 2: A Little More Complex

\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{2in} \= \hspace{2in} \= \kill
First column \> Second column \> Third column \\
\> Second \> Third \\
\hspace{1in} \\ % make a blank line
This Text extends past tab 1 \>\> Third column \\
\> Text spans columns two and three \\
xxxxxxxx \= xxxxxxxx \= xxxxxxxx \= \kill % set up new tab stops
Col 1 \> Col 2 \> Col 3 \> Col 4
\end{tabbing}
Produces:
First column Second column Third column
Second Third
This Text extends past tab 1 Third column

Text spans columns two and three
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4
5.2 Tabular
The tabular environment requires an additional argument that specifies the alignment
of each column (centered, left justified, etc.):
\begin{tabular}{align}
You may substitute any combination of the following symbols for the align argument:
l Left-justified column entry

c Centered column entry
r Right-justified column entry
p Paragraph column entry
| Vertical rule column
|| Double vertical rule column
The width necessary for each column is determined automatically from the widest entry.
Inside the tabular environment, use the tab character (&) to move to the next column,
\\ to end each line (except the last one), and \hline to insert a horizontal line.
The following examples illustrate the tabular environment. Note that you can center
a table by enclosing the tabular environment inside a center environment.
5.2 Tabular ♦ 25
5.2.1 A Simple Ruled Table
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|r|} % 3 cols (left, ctr, right); vert. lines
\hline % draw horizontal line
Name & Oblateness & Diameter \\
\hline
Mercury & 0 & 3,100 \\
Venus & 0 & 7,700 \\
Earth & 1/297 & 7,927 \\
Mars & 1/192 & 4,200 \\
Jupiter & 1/15 & 88,700 \\
Saturn & 1/9.5 & 75,100 \\
Uranus & 1/14 & 32,100 \\
Neptune & 1/40 & 27,700 \\
Pluto & ? & 3,600\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Produces:
Name Oblateness Diameter

Mercury 0 3,100
Venus 0 7,700
Earth 1/297 7,927
Mars 1/192 4,200
Jupiter 1/15 88,700
Saturn 1/9.5 75,100
Uranus 1/14 32,100
Neptune 1/40 27,700
Pluto ? 3,600
26 ♦ Chapter 5. Tabular Material
5.2.2 Using Paragraph Columns, Spanning Columns

The following example illustrates making paragraphs within a table and placing text
across multiple columns using the \multicolumn command. This command has the
form:
\multicolumn{n}{pos}{item}
where n is the number of columns to be spanned, pos specifies the alignment of the item,
and item is the text.
This example is inside the table environment, which ensures that the table will be
“floated” rather than broken across a page (see chapter 8. on page 37) and also provides
the opportunity to supply a caption. In this example, the optional parameter [hb]
specifies that the table should appear “here” or at the bottom of the page.
To center tabular material inside the table environment, you can use the declaration
\centering, which has the same effect as the center environment. (The centering
action will be confined to inside the table environment.)
\begin{table}[hb] % place table ‘‘here’’ or at bottom of page

\centering
\caption{More Things You can Do With Tabular}
\bigskip
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|p{2.5in}|}
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Text in columns 1 and 2}
& A paragraph 2.5 inches wide \\
\hline
Column 1 & Column 2 & This text is a paragraph. It will wrap
around to the next line if necessary. \\
Column 1 & Column 2 & The paragraph column \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: More Things You can Do With Tabular
Text in columns 1 and 2 A paragraph 2.5 inches wide

Column 1 Column 2 This text is a paragraph. It will
wrap around to the next line if nec-
essary.
Column 1 Column 2 The paragraph column
5.2 Tabular ♦ 27
5.2.3 Aligning on the Decimal Point

Although LATEX does not provide a way to align numeric columns on a decimal point,
it is possible to accomplish this by using two columns (the first right-aligned and the
second left-aligned) and changing the column separator to be a decimal point.3
LATEX allows you to change the column separator with the command @{...}, which
replaces the usual intercolumn space with whatever you put inside the curly braces.
Therefore, if you use @{.} in the \begin{tabular} line, a “.” will be placed between
columns. When you enter the data, you must replace the decimal point in your numbers
with a column separator (&). The example below illustrates how to do this.
\begin{tabular}{c r @{.} l}
Pi expression &
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Value} \\ Pi expression Value
\hline π 3.1416
π
$\pi$ & 3&1416 \\ π 36.46
π π
$\pi^{\pi}$ & 36&46 \\ (π ) 80662.7
$(\pi^{\pi})^{\pi}$ & 80662&7 \\
\end{tabular}
5.2.4 Suppressing Leading or Trailing Space

Another creative use of the @{...} command is to suppress leading or trailing space in
a table. In this case the command would be @{}, indicating no space should be inserted:
\begin{tabular}{@{} l @{}}
\hline
no leading or trailing space\\ no leading or trailing space
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{l}
\hline
leading space left and right\\ leading space left and right
\hline
\end{tabular}
3
For an another method, see the dcolumn package, provided as part of the LATEX “tools” bundle.
Chapter 6. Mathematics
One of the greatest strengths of LATEX is its ability to typeset formulas and equations. To
make it easier to enter mathematical text, LATEX has defined several hundred Greek sym-
bols, mathematical symbols, delimiters, and operators. These are listed in Appendix A
of this memo.
LATEX has several modes for setting math text, which are described below. When in
math mode, LATEX sets type differently than when in text mode. For example, all letters
are set in the math italic typeface, and spaces in the input are ignored because LATEX
uses its own “mathematically correct” spacing. Therefore, if you want to use normal
text or retain spaces while in math mode, you must enclose this text with an “mbox”:
\mbox{this is normal text}. Also, new paragraphs are not allowed within math
mode, so be sure not to leave any blank lines.
If your mathematical expressions are particularly complex or sophisticated, you may
want to look at AMS-LATEX, a collection of packages that provides extensions to
LATEX’s mathematical capabilities. The amssymb package provides additional math-
ematical symbols; the amsmath package provides additional environments for build-
ing mathematical expressions. For help with using AMSLATEX, see The Short Math
Guide for LATEX, at: ftp://ftp.ams.org/pub/tex/doc/amsmath/short-math-guide.pdf.
The official documentation is amsldoc.pdf, which you can find on your system in
...\doc\latex\amslatex\.
6.1 In-line Math

LATEX’s in-line math environment allows you to place mathematical formulas in the midst
of ordinary text. Typically such mathematical formulas are roughly the same size as the
text they’re embedded in. This environment can be invoked in one of three ways:
$ ... $ (Used in plain TEX)
$ . . . $
\begin{math} . . . \end{math}
The following paragraph is typical of the use of in-line math:
The quadratic equation $ax^2+bx+c = 0$ has two roots whose nature
depends on the sign of the discriminant $d = \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}$.
If $d>0$, then there are two distinct real roots; if $d=0$,
then there are two real and equal roots; and if $d<0$,
then the two roots are conjugate complex numbers.
produces:
The quadratic equation ax2 + √ bx + c = 0 has two roots whose nature depends on the
sign of the discriminant d = b2 − 4ac. If d > 0, then there are two distinct real roots;
if d = 0, then there are two real and equal roots; and if d < 0, then the two roots are
conjugate complex numbers.
28
6.2 Display Math (for unnumbered equations) ♦ 29
6.2 Display Math (for unnumbered equations)

The displaymath environment puts space before and after equations and centers
them by default. For left-justified equations, include fleqn as an option in the
documentclass command: for example, \documentclass[fleqn]{article}. Like in-
line math, displaymath can be invoked in one of three ways:
$$ . . . $$ (Used in plain TEX)
\[ . . . \]
\begin{displaymath} . . . \end{displaymath}
The next paragraph illustrates the solution to the quadratic equation:
The quadratic equation $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$ has two roots
\[ x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a} \]
where the nature of the roots is determined by the sign
of the discriminent $b^2 - 4ac$.
produces:
The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two roots
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
where the nature of the roots is determined by the sign of the discriminent b2 − 4ac.
6.3 Equation Environment (for numbered equations)

The equation environment is exactly like the displaymath environment except that an
equation number in parentheses is placed to the right of the displayed formula. (For
left-side numbering, include leqno as an option to the \documentclass command.)
The environment is invoked with \begin{equation}. . . \end{equation} as illustrated
below:
The derivative of the function $f(x)$ at the point $x_0$ is
\begin{equation}
f’(x_0) =
\lim_{x \rightarrow x_0}
\frac{f(x) - f(x_0)}{x - x_0}
\end{equation}
produces:
The derivative of the function f (x) at the point x0 is
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = x→x
lim (1)
0 x − x0
30 ♦ Chapter 6. Mathematics
6.4 Eqnarray Environment (for multiline equations)

The eqnarray environment builds a three-column array of numbered equations, with
the first column right-justified, the second centered, and the third left-justified. It is
used mainly for displaying multi-line formulas. It numbers each line by default, but you
can include the command \nonumber on any line to suppress the equation number. (Or
you can use the alternative environment eqnarray*, which does not number any lines.)
The following example illustrates this environment. Note that you can use the \label
and \ref commands to refer to equation numbers in the text.
These three products can be expanded and simplified to
produce these equations:
\begin{eqnarray}
(a + b)(a + b) & = & a^2 + ab + ba + b^2 \nonumber \\
& = & a^2 + 2ab + b^2 \label{eq:simp1} \\
(a + b)(a - b) & = & a^2 - ab + ba - b^2 \nonumber \\
& = & a^2 - b^2 \label{eq:simp2} \\
(a + b)^3 & = & a^3 + 3a^2b + 3ab^2 + b^3 \label{eq:simp3}
\end{eqnarray}
The results after simplification are shown in equations
\ref{eq:simp1}, \ref{eq:simp2}, and \ref{eq:simp3}.
produces:
These three products can be expanded and simplified to produce these equations:
(a + b)(a + b) = a2 + ab + ba + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2 (1)
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − ab + ba − b2
= a2 − b 2 (2)
3
(a + b) = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 (3)
The results after simplification are shown in equations 1, 2, and 3.

The amsmath package provides additional environments for formatting multiline equa-
tions (e.g., split, align, gather, etc) and is highly recommended.
6.5 Array Environment (for matrices, etc.) ♦ 31
6.5 Array Environment (for matrices, etc.)

The array environment is not itself a math environment; it must be enclosed within a
math environment of your choosing. It is used for building rectangular arrays of numbers,
matrices, etc. array is the math equivalent of tabular and uses the same syntax.
Here is an example of the array environment used to build a 5 × 5 magic square:
\[
\begin{array}{ccccc}
17& 24& 1& 8& 15\\
23& 5& 7& 14& 16\\
4& 6& 13& 20& 22\\
10& 12& 19& 21& 3\\
11& 18& 25& 2& 9
\end{array}
\]
produces:
17 24 1 8 15
23 5 7 14 16
4 6 13 20 22
10 12 19 21 3
11 18 25 2 9
Here is an example for a general matrix:

\begin{equation}
A = \left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \ldots & a_{1,n} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \ldots & a_{2,n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{m,1} & a_{m,2} & \ldots & a_{m,n}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{equation}
produces:  
a1,1 a1,2 . . . a1,n
 a2,1 a2,2 . . . a2,n 
A= . . .. . (4)
 . . . . 
am,1 am,2 . . . am,n
Section 6.6.6 (Large Delimiters) on page 34 has more examples of arrays.
6.6 Building Mathematical Expressions

6.6.1 Superscripts and Subscripts
In math mode, the symbols ‘ˆ’ and ‘ ’ are used to make superscripts and subscripts. If
more than one character is to be used as a superscript or subscript, enclose the characters
in braces. For example:
\[ 2^{2^2} = 2^4 = 4^2 \]
\[ a^2_{i_1} = b^2_{i,j} \]
\[ _2F^1_3 \]
\[ {}_2^1P{}^3_4 \]
produces:
2
22 = 24 = 42
a2i1 = b2i,j
1
2 F3
1 3
2P 4
6.6.2 Spaces in Math Mode

In math mode, LATEX ignores blanks typed in the input. However, the following symbols
allow you to add (or subtract) small amounts of space in your equations:
\; thick space \: medium space \, thin space \! negative space
In addition, you can make a larger space (about the width of an “M”) with the command
\quad. The command \qquad provides twice as much space.
6.6.3 Dots, Braces, and Bars

The commands \ldots, \cdots, \vdots, and \ddots are used to produce a string
of three dots on the base line, on the math centerline, vertically, or on the diagonal,
respectively. The commands \overline, \underline, \overbrace, and \underbrace
are used to build horizontal groups. For example:
\begin{eqnarray*}
2^n & = &\overbrace{2\times2\times\cdots\times 2}^{\mbox{n terms}}\\
k\cdot x & = &\underbrace{x + x + \cdots + x}_{\mbox{k terms}}
\end{eqnarray*}
produces:
n terms
z}| {
n
2 = 2 × 2 × ··· × 2
k·x = x
|
+ x +{z· · · + x}
k terms
6.6 Building Mathematical Expressions ♦ 33
6.6.4 Fractions
The ‘/’ can be used to make simple fractions, but the \frac commmand is used for most
fractions; its two arguments are the numerator and denominator. Two variations of a
fraction are provided by the plain TEX commands \atop and \choose.
$$ \frac{a}{b} \qquad \frac{a/b}{c/d}
\qquad {a\atop b} \qquad {a\choose b} $$
$$ 1 + 2 + 3 + \cdots + n = \frac{n(n+1)}{2} $$
$$ \lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\frac{1}{n}=0
\qquad y’’=\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} $$
produces: !
a a/b a a
b c/d b b
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n =
2
2
1 dy
lim =0 y 00 = 2
n→∞ n dx
6.6.5 Radicals, Integrals, and Summations

The \sqrt command creates a square root sign for its mandatory argument. An optional
argument for the radicand allows you to construct cube roots, nth roots, etc. The sign
automatically grows to fit the argument, as these examples show:
$$ \sqrt{2}=1.4142 \qquad c=\sqrt{a^2+b^2}
\qquad \sqrt[3]{8}=2 \qquad \sqrt{\frac{n(n+1)}{2}} $$
produces: s
√ √ √
3 n(n + 1)
2 = 1.4142 c= a2 + b 2 8=2
2
Integral signs are produced with the \int command, and summation signs are produced
with the \sum command. These symbols are often used with superscripts and subscripts:
$$\sum^{\infty}_{n=1} \qquad \int^b_a e^{x^2}\,dx $$
$$\sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}i} \qquad \sum_{\stackrel{i=1}{j=2}}^{\infty}$$
$$\sum \Delta V=\int\!\!\!\int\!\!\!\int_V dv $$
produces:
∞ Z b 2
ex dx
X
n=1 a
v
u n
X ∞
X
t i
i=1 i=1
j=2
X ZZZ
∆V = dv
V
6.6.6 Large Delimiters

The commands \left and \right are used to put large delimiters (such as ( ) [ ]) in
displayed formulas. (For braces, use \{ and \}). See Appendix A for a complete list
of delimiters. There must be a \right for every \left and vice versa for each output
line, although the left and right delimiters need not be the same type. You can even
use a period to create an invisible delimiter—very useful if you need an odd number of
delimiters. Large delimiters are often used with the array environment. Below are two
examples of large delimiters. (For another example, see Section 6.5 on page 31.)
\[
\mbox{det} = \left|
\begin{array}{lllll}
c_0 & c_1 & c_2 & \ldots & c_n \\
c_1 & c_2 & c_3 & \ldots & c_{n+1} \\
c_2 & c_3 & c_4 & \ldots & c_{n+2} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots && \vdots \\
c_n & c_{n+1} & c_{n+2} & \ldots & c_{2n}
\end{array}
\right| > 0.
\]
produces:
c0 c1 c2 . . . cn
c1 c2 c3 . . . cn+1
det = c2 c3 c4 . . . cn+2 > 0.
. . . .
. . . .
cn cn+1 cn+2 . . . c2n
\[
\mbox{signum}(x)=\left\{
\begin{array}{rl}
1 & \mbox{if $x>0$} \\
0 & \mbox{if $x=0$} \\
-1 & \mbox{otherwise}
\end{array} \right.
\]
produces: 

 1 if x > 0
signum(x) = 0 if x = 0
−1 otherwise


Chapter 7. Including Graphics
7.1 Creating the Graphics File
The easiest way to put graphics into your LATEX document is to first create the graphic
using a software package, such as Maple, Matlab, CorelDRAW, Xfig, Gnuplot, etc.
If you are using LATEX plus dvips to produce your final output, you should save the
graphic as encapsulated PostScript (eps), the only acceptable format. If you are using
pdfLATEX (which produces a pdf file directly), acceptable formats are pdf, jpeg, or png,
but not eps. A general rule of thumb for graphics formats is to use pdf or eps for vector
graphics (line art, graphs, etc), jpeg for photographs, and png for screen shots.
If you are using pdfLATEX and your graphics files are in eps format, you can convert them to
pdf using the epstopdf utility, which is most likely on your system. Run this program from the
command line (in Windows, open a command window and cd to the appropriate folder):
epstopdf myfigure.eps generates myfigure.pdf
After doing this, you will have two files for your graphic, one eps and one pdf.
If you are using LATEX plus dvips, the jpeg2ps utility is handy. It converts JPEG images
to eps files without uncompressing the images. The JPEG data is simply “wrapped”
with PostScript, yielding considerably smaller PostScript files. Use it from the command
line:
jpeg2ps -h image.jpg > image.eps
You may already have jpeg2ps on your system; if not, you can download it from:
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/support/jpeg2ps/.
7.2 Importing the Graphic into your LATEX Document

LaTeX’s standard graphics bundle includes two packages for importing graphics:
graphics and graphicx. The extended package, graphicx, provides a more conve-
nient method of supplying parameters and is recommended. Therefore first step is to
put in your preamble the command:
\usepackage{graphicx}
This package defines a new command called \includegraphics, which allows you to
specify the name of the graphic file as well as supply optional arguments for scaling or ro-
tating. So, at the spot you want to insert the graphic (named for example, myfigure.eps
or myfigure.pdf) use the \includegraphics command, for example:
35
36 ♦ Chapter 7. Including Graphics
\includegraphics[width=4in]{myfigure} note filename extension is omitted

If you want to be able to process your file using either latex or pdflatex, you’ll need
to have your graphics files in both eps format and one of the others, such as pdf. Then
omit the filename extension on the \includegraphics command: latex will look for
an eps file, and pdflatex will look for a pdf, jpg, or png file.
The \includegraphics command also provides optional arguments for scaling or ro-
tating the figure. Inside the [...], you can specify a number of optional arguments,
separated by commas. In the example above, width=4in will scale the width of graphic
to four inches. Since no height is specified, the height will be scaled so that the figure
remains in proportion. The most commonly used arguments are:
width scale graphic to the specified width (aspect ratio preserved)
height scale graphic to the specified height (aspect ratio preserved)
scale scale graphic by scale factor. (scale=2 makes the graphic twice as large
as its natural size; scale=.5 makes it half as large.)
angle rotate graphic by specified number of degrees. A positive number in-
dicates the counter-clockwise direction. (angle=90 rotates 90 degrees
counter-clockwise.)
Note that in the following example, the graphic is first rotated counter-clockwise by 90
degrees and then scaled to a width that will just fit within the margins:
\includegraphics[angle=90,width=\textwidth]{myfigure}
Usually the includegraphics command is put inside the figure environment, which
allows the image to move or “float” to another location so that it is never split between
pages. The figure environment is described in chapter 8..
7.3 Viewing the Output

If your graphics files are in pdf, jpeg or png formats, you can run pdfLATEX and view
the result with Acrobat or GSView. If your files are eps, it is important to note that after
running LATEX, the resulting .dvi file does not actually contain the eps graphics;
it only contains commands that the printer driver, dvips, subsequently uses to include
the graphics when making the PostScript file. Most dvi previewers try to display eps files
(ususually by calling on ghostscript), but rotated material may not display properly in
the dvi preview. To see a correct display, run dvips to make a PostScript file and then
use GSView/ghostview to view it.
Complete documentation for the graphics bundle is in the file grfguide.pdf; look for it
on your system. Information on the graphicx package is in section 4.4. For an extensive
treatment of including graphics, see Using Imported Graphics in LATEX and pdfLATEX by
Keith Reckdahl of Stanford University. It includes all you would ever want to know with
many examples: http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/epslatex.pdf.
Chapter 8. Placing Figures & Tables (Floats)
If you have figures or tables in your document, you’ll want to make sure that they are
not broken across pages. To accomplish this, LATEX provides two environments, figure
and table, which move or “float” the material inside the environment to a location
where it all fits. Meanwhile, LATEX fills the current page with text to avoid half empty
pages. The commands to use these two environments look like:
\begin{figure} \begin{table}
... figure material ... ... tabular material ...
\end{figure} \end{table}
There are also “starred” versions of these environments (table* and figure*), which,
in 2-column text, place floats across both columns.
Note that these environments have nothing to do with actually preparing your figures
or tabular material (discussed in chapters 5. and 7.); they only ensure that whatever
material is inside the environment gets “floated” and is not broken between pages.
To place the floated material, LATEX first tries to put the figure or table at the top of
the current page. If it doesn’t fit there, it next tries the bottom of the current page,
then the top of the next page. Failing that, it will try to place the figure or table on
a page containing only floated material (no text). Usually, the default behavior places
the floats satisfactorily. However, if you wish, you can supply an optional parameter to
specify a list of preferred locations; for example, if you begin a table:
\begin{table}[htp]
LATEX will first try to place the table “here”—that is, at the spot you gave the
\begin{table} command, then the top of the next page, and finally on a page con-
taining only floats (which often means on a page by itself). The possible positioning
parameters are:
h here: at the place in the text where the environment occurs.
t top: at the top of a text page.
b bottom: at the bottom of a text page.
p page: on a special page containing only floats.
8.1 Making a Caption

The floated material usually includes a numbered caption. Within the figure or table
environment, you can supply a caption with the command \caption{caption text}.
Usually the caption for a table is typed above the table and the caption for a figure
below the figure. The table environment prefixes the caption text with “Table n:”
(where n is the number of the table supplied by LATEX); the figure environment prefixes
the text with “Figure n:”. In fact, the caption prefix is the only difference between the
figure and table environments. The \caption command also supplies information for
a List of Figures and/or a List of Tables. To print out such a list at the beginning of
37
38 ♦ Chapter 8. Placing Figures & Tables (Floats)
your document, simply place the command \listoftables or \listoffigures after

the \tableofcontents command.
If your caption is very long and you do not want the whole thing repeated in the list
of figures or tables, you can use an optional parameter (specified in square brackets) to
supply a shorter version for the List. For example, a table caption might look like:
\caption[A short caption for the list of tables]{This is a very
long caption for this table, requiring lots of explanation.
It could go on for several lines.}
You can also use the \label command (see section 4.11 on cross referencing) so that
you can refer to your figure or table elsewhere in the document. Note that the \label
command must immediately follow the caption command. If it precedes the caption,
the number used in the reference will be incorrect.
8.2 Examples
Note that you can put anything inside the figure environment: it can be text, a diagram,
an image (see chapter 7.) or any other kind of illustration. Likewise, a table environment
can contain any LATEX commands or text, but usually contains tabular material inside
the tabular environment (see section 5.2).
The example below encloses tabular material in the table environment, which allows it
to to float to an appropriate spot in the text. This table is floated to the top of the next
page because there is not enough room for it to be placed “here”. Note the placement
of the \caption and \label commands in this example and the example figure on the
next page.
\begin{table}[htp]
\caption{Contract Expenses to Date}
\label{tab:exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lr}
Item & Amount\\
\hline
Salaries (research assistants, secretary) & \$24,000 \\
Travel expenses & \$8,000 \\
Software & \$2,000 \\
\cline{2-2} \\[-8pt]
Total & \$34,000
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
8.2 Examples ♦ 39
Table 2: Contract Expenses to Date

Item Amount
Salaries (research assistants, secretary) $24,000
Travel expenses $8,000
Software $2,000
Total $34,000
The following example produces a figure that uses a line drawing of a cat, which LATEX
places “here” because there happens to be room for it. There are two versions of the
image, cat.eps and cat.pdf, so that either LATEX or pdfLATEX can be used. Note that
the \includegraphics command below does not specify an extension on the file name,
leaving it up to LATEX or pdfLATEX to find the appropriate file.
\begin{figure}[htp]
\centering
\includegraphics[angle=30,width=.6\textwidth]{cat}
\caption{A Tipsy Cat}
\label{fig:cat}
\end{figure}
Figure 1: A Tipsy Cat

40 ♦ Chapter 8. Placing Figures & Tables (Floats)
8.3 Overcoming Problems with Float Placement

When placing floated material, LATEX follows certain rules, explained in detail in Lam-
port’s LATEX User’s Guide and Reference Manual, section C.9. If you find that your
table or figure is not appearing where you think it should, it could be that LATEX’s con-
straints on how much of a text page can be taken up by floats are getting in the way.
You can override these constraints by including a ! in the optional argument containing
the positioning parameters. For example, if you use \begin{table}[!htp], LATEX will
try extra hard to place the float where you want it.
Do NOT give only one possible placement parameter (e.g., h), because if the float cannot
be placed where you specified, it could be pushed to the end of the section or document
with all subsequent figures or tables behind it.
LATEX has room in its memory to hold only a certain number of floats. If you want
to include many figures or tables together, without intervening text, you can avoid
problems by including the command \clearpage after every approximately 10 floats.
This command prints all queued floats and starts a new page.
8.4 Landscape Figures and Tables

To print an entire figure or table, including the caption, in landscape orientation, use
the rotating package (in addition to graphicx for images). Load it in the preamble as
usual with the \usepackage command:
\usepackage{rotating}
This package defines two new environments, sidewaysfigure and sidewaystable,
which you then use in place of the standard LATEX environments figure and table.
The sideways environments always put the landscape table or figure on a page by itself.
For example, to make a landscape page containing a rotated graphic and caption, use
commands such as:
\begin{sidewaysfigure}
\includegraphics{myfigure}
\caption{Turn the page sideways to look at this figure.}
\end{sidewaysfigure}
Chapter 9. Preparing a Bibliography
LATEX provides built-in support for citing references, which is straightforward and rel-
atively easy to use. However, it’s not very flexible. If your bibliography is large or if
you use the same references in several documents, you may prefer to use BibTEX, a
companion program to LATEX that allows you to store all your references in an external
database file. You can then refer to this database in your LATEX document, and cite any
reference within it. Both methods are described below.
9.1 Using LATEX’s built-in Method

To prepare a bibliography the “standard” way, the first step is to cite various works
within your text using the \cite{key} command. key is a reference keyword of your
choosing that identifies the work. For example your document might include, at the
appropriate places, the commands: \cite{lamport} \cite{kopka} \cite{goossens}.
These commands place numbers (enclosed in square brackets) in the text that match the
numbers automatically generated in the bibliography. (Remember to run LATEX twice
to get correct numbers in the text!)
To include an item in the bibliography without citing it in the text, use the \nocite
command; for example: \nocite{smith,jones}.
Then, at the end of the document, you format the bibliography, sorting the entries as
you wish them to appear, using the a special environment called thebibliography.
Below is an example of a thebibliography environment, followed by the output it
produces. On the \begin{thebibliography} line, the width of the item in the second
pair of braces determines the indent of the entries. This item is usually a dummy number
with as many digits as the highest-numbered entry. In this case, the “9” indicates there
are fewer than 10 entries. If there are 10 or more but less than 100, use the number 99.
Within this environment, each entry starts with the \bibitem command. The argument
for this command is the same keyword used in the corresponding \cite command in
the text. The \bibitem commands automatically generate a number in square brackets
before each entry. The first entry in the list will be numbered 1.
Note that in the book and report classes, Bibliography is used as the chapter title;
in the article class, References is used as the section heading.
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{lamport} Leslie Lamport. \textit{\LaTeX\ -- A Document
Preparation System}. Addison-Wesley, second edition, Reading, MA, 1994.
\bibitem{kopka} Helmut Kopka and Patrick W.~Daly. \textit{A Guide
to \LaTeX}. Addison-Wesley, fourth edition, Boston, MA, 2004.
\bibitem{goossens} Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, et al. \textit{The
\LaTeX\ Companion}. Addison-Wesley, second edition, Boston, MA, 2004.
\end{thebibliography}
41
42 ♦ Chapter 9. Preparing a Bibliography
References
[1] Leslie Lamport. LATEX – A Document Preparation System. Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA, second edition, 1994.
[2] Helmut Kopka and Patrick W. Daly. A Guide to LATEX. Addison-Wesley, fourth
edition, Boston, MA, 2004.
[3] Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach et al. The LATEX Companion. Addison-
Wesley, second edition, Boston, MA, 2004.
If you want to change the heading for the reference listing, just change the value of
\refname (for article class) or \bibname (book or report class) by adding a line like this
in your preamble: \renewcommand{\bibname}{Literature Cited}.
If you like, you can choose a label to identify the work in both the text and in the
bibliography, instead of the number assigned by LATEX. You do this by including an
optional label on the \bibitem command. (The \cite command doesn’t change.) For
example, to refer to the third book as “companion,” its entry in the thebibliography
environment would be:
\bibitem[companion]{goossens} Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, et al.

\textit{The \LaTeX\ Companion}. Addison-Wesley, second edition,
Boston, MA, 2004.
9.2 Using BibTEX

9.2.1 Overview
BibTEX automatically generates a list of references from information contained in a
bibliographic database—a file you create whose name ends with the extension .bib.
The entries in your .bib file are called in your LATEX file with various \cite
commands, just as in the built-in method described above. In your LATEX file, you
provide just two more pieces of information: A bibliographystyle command to specify
the formatting style of the citations and the bibliography (this can appear anywhere in
your LATEX file), and at the point you want the bibliography printed, a bibliography
command to provide the name of the .bib file.
After processing your document through LATEX (or pdfLATEX) you run BibTEX, which
will format the citations according to the style you’ve specified. You then need to run
LATEX (or pdfLATEX) again to process the output created by BibTEX, and finally once more
to resolve the references. Your resulting output will then contain your citations and formatted
bibliography.
9.2 Using BibTEX ♦ 43
9.2.2 Creating the .bib File

The .bib file is a plain text file that you create and edit with any text editor. The
following example of a Bibtex entry illustrates the structure. Each entry begins with
the document type preceded by the “@” sign. This is followed by a unique label that
you make up and that you will use to cite the entry in your text. Then each field (in
any order) uses the format keyword = {data}. Note that the data can be enclosed in
either quotation marks or braces, and each line except the last must end with a comma.
@article{Hefferon04,
author = "Jim Hefferon",
title = "{CTAN} for {S}tarters",
year = "2004",
journal = "{TUGB}oat",
volume = "25",
number = "2",
pages = "126--127"
}
The above example refers to an article within a journal. There are many different
document types: book, article (in a journal), article (in a collection), chapter (in a
book), thesis, report, paper (in a Proceedings), etc. There is a prescribed set of fields
for each type of document. A book entry might look like:
@book{Kopka04,
author = {Helmut Kopka and Patrick W.~Daly},
title = {Guide to {\LaTeX}},
edition = {fourth},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Boston, MA},
year = {2004}
}
If a work has more than one author, separate them with the keyword “and” so BibTEX
can distinguish the different names. If the BibTEX style does not preserve all your
capitalization (for example within titles), you can tell BibTEX to keep them by using
braces around the letters in question.
9.2.3 Running BibTEX

After processing your file with LATEX (or pdfLATEX), you run the BibTEX program by
clicking on the BibTEX toolbar icon (if your editor has one), or by typing the com-
mand bibtex followed by the name of your document without the .tex extension. The
information for every document you have cited will be extracted from your database,
formatted according to the style you specify, and stored in a bibliographic (.bbl) file
ready for LATEX to use. When you run LATEX again it will build the bibliography from
the .bbl file and generate warnings about unresolved references. Subsequent runs will
resolve the references, and the warnings will disappear.
44 ♦ Chapter 9. Preparing a Bibliography
Suppose you have a file called myrefs.bib that contains the two bibliographics entries
above, and the file testbib.tex contains the following:
\begin{document}
We are testing the use of Bib\TeX\ using two entries.
One is a book \cite{kopka04}, and the other is an
article in a journal. \cite{hefferon04}
\bibliographystyle{plain} % use style plain.bst
\bibliography{myrefs} % find references in myrefs.bib
\end{document}
The result of running LATEX, then BibTEX then LATEX twice more would be:
We are testing the use of BibTEX using two entries. One is a book [2],
and the other is an article in a journal. [1]
References
[1] Jim Hefferon. CTAN for Starters. TUGBoat, 25(2):126–127, 2004.
[2] Helmut Kopka and Patrick W. Daly. Guide to LATEX. Addison-Wesley,
Boston, MA, fourth edition, 2004.
9.2.4 Bibliography Styles

Bibliography styles are files (with the extension .bst), that tell BibTEX how to format
the information in the .bib file. The standard styles are:
plain entries are sorted alphabetically and are labelled with numbers.
unsrt the same as plain except entries appear in the order in which they were cited.
abbrv the same as plain except names, month names, journal names are abbreviated.
alpha entries are sorted alphabetically, and the labels are made from the author’s or
authors’ (or editor’s) name and the year of publication.
The .../bst subdirectory of your TEX installation contains the styles (.bst files) in-
stalled by default, and the The LATEX Companion, chapter 12, describes others.
There are also various LATEX packages that provide other styles, such as author-date
citations instead of numbers. To use one of these packages, you need to include its name
with the normal \usepackage command in your preamble. One highly recommended and
flexible package is Natbib. In addition to loading the Natbib package in the preamble,
you need to use a bibliography style that supports the author-date style. (Some possible
choices are “plainnat”, “unsrtnat”, “abbrvnat” and “apalike”.) Also, Natbib uses slight
variations of the \cite command: you just append a “t” (for textual) or “p” (for
parenthetical), to the basic \cite command, for example:
9.2 Using BibTEX ♦ 45
Citation command Natbib output

\citet{hefferon04} Hefferon (2004)
\citep{hefferon04} (Hefferon, 2004)
\citet[chapter 4]{kopka04} Kopka and Daly (2004, chapter 4)
\citep[see][chap.~4]{kopka04} (see Kopka and Daly, 2004, chap. 4)
Using the same myrefs.bib file as in the previous example, and changing the
testbib.tex file to read:
\usepackage{natbib}
\begin{document}
We are testing the use of Bib\TeX\ using two entries.
One is a book by \citet{kopka04}, and the second is an
article in a journal \citep{hefferon04}.
\bibliographystyle{apalike} % use style apalike.bst
\bibliography{myrefs} % find references in myrefs.bib
\end{document}
produces, after running LATEX, then BibTEX, then LATEX twice more:
We are testing the use of BibTEX using two entries. One is a book by Kopka
and Daly (2004); the second is an article in a journal (Hefferon, 2004).
References
Hefferon, J. (2004). CTAN for Starters. TUGBoat, 25(2):126–127.
Kopka, H. and Daly, P. W. (2004). Guide to LATEX. Addison-Wesley, Boston,
MA, fourth edition.
Chapter 10. Special Topics
10.1 Managing a Large Document
If you are preparing a book, thesis, or any document with multiple parts, it’s convenient
to work on the different chapters or sections separately. To do this, create a separate .tex
file for each section, and create a “root” .tex file that contains the \documentclass
command, the preamble material, the \begin{document} and \end{document} com-
mands, and multiple \include commands. The \include commands tell LATEX to read
the separate .tex files that contain the text of the document. Each \include command
starts a new page in your output. Note that the individual section files do not include
\begin{document} and \end{document} commands.
The command, \includeonly, which must go in the preamble, can be used to select
from the \include list only certain file(s) to be processed.
As an example, the root file for a book with 6 chapters might be called mybook.tex,
and the files for the chapters might be named chap1.tex, chap2.tex, etc. The root file
mybook.tex, which is the file on which you run LATEX, would look something like:
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{chap1,chap2} % only these files will be processed
\begin{document}
\include{chap1}
\include{chap2}
\include{chap3}
\include{chap4}
\include{chap5}
\include{chap6}
\end{document}
10.2 Generating an Index

It is relatively easy to generate an index by using LATEX commands combined with the
support program MakeIndex. This memo covers just the basics of MakeIndex; details
are in the documentation accompanying the program, makeindex.dvi, which should be
already on your system under the doc folder. For example, if you are using TeXLive
2005 on Windows, you’ll find the documentation in:
C:\TeXLive2005\texmf-dist\doc\makeindex\base\makeindex.dvi.
Suppose your LATEX input file is called myfile.tex. To make an index, you need to do
the following things in that file:
1. Load the package makeidx with the command: \usepackage{makeidx}

2. In the preamble, place the command: \makeindex
46
10.3 Including hyperlinks ♦ 47
3. At the place you want the index to appear (usually the end of the document), put
the command: \printindex
4. Put index entries throughout the text (as close as possible to the actual word or
phrase being indexed) using the command \index{entry}, where entry is the index
entry. Examples of various index entries are shown in the table at the bottom of
the page.
Now, generate the index by running LATEX, then running makeindex, and finally running
LATEX once more. If you don’t have a “makeindex” button on the toolbar of your
editor/shell, you can run it from the command line or use the editor’s Help feature to
add it to the toolbar. Below is an example of doing the 3-step process from the command
line. Note that you should not include the filename extensions on your commands; the
programs will then do the right thing.
latex (or pdflatex) myfile In addition to producing the .dvi or pdf file, this generates
the file myfile.idx, which contains all the index entries
and page numbers.
makeindex myfile MakeIndex processes myfile.idx and produces the file
myfile.ind, which contains the LATEX commands to for-
mat the index.
latex (or pdflatex) myfile When LATEX or pdfLATEX finds the \printindex com-
mand, it reads in the file myfile.ind. The resulting out-
put includes the formatted index.
If you change your document after producing the .ind file, be sure to run MakeIndex
again to create an up-to-date .ind file before running LATEX for the final time.
The package showidx, which comes with LATEX, prints all index entries in the margin of
the text. This is a useful tool for checking the index in draft copies.
Examples of Index Entries

LATEX Input Index Entry Comments
\index{colors} colors, 14 Main entry
\index{colors!blue} blue, 14 Subentry under “colors”
\index{colors!blue!navy} navy, 15 Subsubentry
\index{gnu@\textsl{gnu}} gnu, 22 Formatted text
\index{gnat|\textbf} gnat, 25 Formatted page number
10.3 Including hyperlinks

Both LATEX and pdfLATEX can use the hyperref package to place live links in the PDF
file. By including \usepackage{hyperref} as the last package in your preamble, you
will automatically get bookmarks corresponding to your sections, and hyperlinks from
your tables of contents and \cite and \ref references. The package has a number of
options; some of the most useful are:
48 ♦ Chapter 10. Special Topics
colorlinks makes the text of the link colored instead of framed with a box. It’s also pos-
sible to choose the color of the links with the linkcolor, urlcolor, and citecolor
options.
plainpages=false distinguishes between frontmatter and mainmatter page numbers.
With this option, hyperref writes different anchors for pages “ii’ and “2”.
pdfpagelabels sets PDF page labels so that Acrobat Reader displays the page number
as (say) “iv (4 of 40)” rather than simply “4 of 40”. plainpages=false and
pdfpagelabels are usually used together.
breaklinks allows a line break in a long link (such as a TOC entry). Works with
pdfLATEX only.
linktocpage makes the page number, not the text, the link in TOC, LOF, and LOT.
It’s especially useful if you use LATEX and dvips to get your PDF file, as this method
cannot use breaklinks. If you also have long URLs in the body of the thesis, the
breakurl package can help. For documentation, look on your system for the file
breakurl.pdf.
The hyperref package also provides the command \url{URL} to link to a URL from the
text, for example: \url{http://www.ctan.org/} or \url{mailto:email@email.com}.
The command \href{URL}{text} provides a more sophisticated method, where
“URL” is the address and “text” is the text displayed in the document. For
example, to avoid having the text “mailto:” appear in the document, use
\href{mailto:myfriend@rpi.edu}{myfriend@rpi.edu}.
Be sure to run LATEX or pdfLATEX twice to ensure correct hyperlinks.
Abbreviated example file:

\documentclass{report}
\usepackage{ifpdf} % to use same .tex file for both latex & pdflatex
% the following specifies different options to hyperref depending on
% whether latex or pdflatex is being run.
\ifpdf
\usepackage[colorlinks,linkcolor=blue,urlcolor=blue,citecolor=blue,
plainpages=false,pdfpagelabels,breaklinks]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage[colorlinks,linkcolor=blue,urlcolor=blue,citecolor=blue,
plainpages=false,pdfpagelabels,linktocpage]{hyperref}
\fi
\begin{document}
... body of your document goes here ...
\end{document}
The official documentation for hyperref is manual.pdf. Look for it on your system in
.../doc/latex/hyperref/.
10.4 Accents and Special Characters ♦ 49
10.4 Accents and Special Characters

LATEX provides commands that allow you to print accents required by many European
languages. The table below shows how to apply a variety of accents to the letter o. Of
course, any other letter can be used in place of o.
If you want to place an accent on top of an i or a j, however, you need to print them
without their dots. You can print a dotless i or j by typing \i and \j. For example, ı̆ is
formed by typing \u{\i}.
ò \‘{o} ó \’{o} ô \^{o} õ \~{o}
ō \={o} ȯ \.{o} ö \"{o} o̊ \r{o}
ŏ \u{o} ǒ \v{o} ő \H{o} o̧ \c{o}
o. \d{o} o \b{o} o o \t{oo}
¯
Note that the accent commands that are control symbols (i.e., they consist of just one
non-letter) can also be used without braces. For example \^o and \^{o} both produce
ô.
The special letters that are part of European languages can be generated with the
following commands:
œ {\oe} Œ {\OE} æ {\ae} Æ {\AE}
å {\aa} Å {\AA} ø {\o} Ø {\O}
ß {\ss} SS {\SS} l {\l} L {\L}
¡ !‘ ¿ ?‘
For example:
na\"{\i}ve, r\’esum\’e, {\AA}ngstr{\o}m, se\~norita, stra{\ss}e
produces:
naı̈ve, résumé, Ångstrøm, señorita, straße
Appendix A
Mathematical Symbols
All the following symbols (except the “non-mathematical symbols” listed on the next
page) must be used in math mode. To use one of the symbols in ordinary text, put it
in math mode by surrounding it with dollar signs: $\alpha$ → α.
Greek Alphabet
α \alpha ι \iota % \varrho

β \beta κ \kappa σ \sigma
γ \gamma λ \lambda ς \varsigma
δ \delta µ \mu τ \tau
\epsilon ν \nu υ \upsilon
ε \varepsilon ξ \xi φ \phi
ζ \zeta o o1 ϕ \varphi
η \eta π \pi χ \chi
θ \theta $ \varpi ψ \psi
ϑ \vartheta ρ \rho ω \omega
\Gamma Ξ \Xi Φ \Phi
∆ \Delta Π \Pi Ψ \Psi
Θ \Theta Σ \Sigma Ω \Omega
Λ \Lambda Υ \Upsilon
Capitals not shown are produced with English capital letters.
1
An ordinary “o” looks Greek when used in a math environment: $o$ → o.
Miscellaneous Symbols
ℵ \aleph 0 \prime ∀ \forall
h̄\hbar ∅ \emptyset ∃ \exists
ı \imath ∇
√ \nabla ¬ \neg
 \jmath \surd [ \flat
` \ell > \top \ \natural
℘ \wp ⊥ \bot ] \sharp
< \Re k \Vert or \| ♣ \clubsuit
= \Im 6 \angle ♦ \diamondsuit
∂ \partial 4 \triangle ♥ \heartsuit
∞ \infty 3 \Diamond ♠ \spadesuit
0 \mho 2 \Box \ \backslash
\sum \prod \coprod
P Q `
\int \oint 1 \Join

R H
The symbols whose names are underlined require latexsym, a standard LATEX package.
Load it with the command: \usepackage{latexsym}.
50
♦ 51
Non-Mathematical Symbols
These symbols can be used in either text mode or math mode:
† \dag ‡ \ddag § \S ¶ \P c \copyright £ \pounds
Function Names
When using function names in a math environment, you can prefix them with a \ so
that they will print as normal text rather than in italics:
\arccos \arcsin \arctan \arg \cos \cosh
\cot \coth \csc \deg \det \dim
\exp \gcd \hom \inf \ker \lg
\lim \liminf \limsup \ln \log \max
\min \Pr \sec \sin \sinh \sup
\tan \tanh
Delimiters
The following symbols can expand in size to “fit around” the expressions they delimit. To
make a delimiter the right size, use it with the \left ... \right commands described
in section 6.6.6.
( ( ) ) b \lfloor c \rfloor
[ [ ] ] d \lceil e \rceil
{ \{ } \} h \langle i \rangle
| | k \| ↑ \uparrow ⇑ \Uparrow
/ / \ \backslash ↓ \downarrow ⇓ \Downarrow
l \updownarrow m \Updownarrow
Relational Operators
≤ \le or \leq ≥ \geq ≡ \equiv
≺ \prec \succ ∼ \sim
\preceq \succeq ' \simeq
\ll \gg \asymp
⊂ \subset ⊃ \supset ≈ \approx
⊆ \subseteq ⊇ \supseteq ∼
= \cong
< \sqsubset = \sqsupset ⊥ \perp
v \sqsubseteq w \sqsupseteq ./ \bowtie
∈ \in 3 \ni ∝ \propto
` \vdash a \dashv |= \models
.
^ \smile | \mid = \doteq
_ \frown k \parallel
6 < \not< 6 > \not> 6= \not=
Note that \not before a relation will negate it.
The symbols whose names are underlined require the latexsym package.
52 ♦ Appendix A: Mathematical Symbols
Binary Operators
± \pm ∩ \cap ∨ \vee
∓ \mp ∪ \cup ∧ \wedge
\ \setminus ] \uplus ⊕ \oplus
· \cdot u \sqcap \ominus
× \times t \sqcup ⊗ \otimes
∗ \ast / \triangleleft \oslash
? \star . \triangleright \odot
\diamond o \wr † \dagger
◦ \circ \bigcirc ‡ \ddagger
• \bullet 4 \bigtriangleup q \amalg
÷ \div 5 \bigtriangledown \lhd
\unlhd \unrhd \rhd
Math Accents
â \hat{a} ǎ \check{a} ă \breve{a}
á \acute{a} à \grave{a} ã \tilde{a}
ā \bar{a} ~a \vec{a} ȧ \dot{a}
ä \ddot{a} xd −y \widehat{x-y} xyz
g \widetilde{xyz}
Arrows
\leftarrow ←− \longleftarrow ↑ \uparrow
⇐ \Leftarrow ⇐= \Longleftarrow ⇑ \Uparrow
→ \rightarrow −→ \longrightarrow ↓ \downarrow
⇒ \Rightarrow =⇒ \Longrightarrow ⇓ \Downarrow
↔ \leftrightarrow ←→\longleftrightarrow l \updownarrow
⇔ \Leftrightarrow ⇐⇒\Longleftrightarrow m \Updownarrow
7 → \mapsto 7−→ \longmapsto % \nearrow
- \hookleftarrow ,→ \hookrightarrow & \searrow
( \leftharpoonup * \rightharpoonup . \swarrow
) \leftharpoondown + \rightharpoondown - \nwarrow
*
) \rightleftharpoons ; \leadsto
Appendix B
Error Messages
Most files need some debugging before they print properly. This section describes some
common errors and shows how to correct them.
Responding to Errors
When LATEX finds an error, it generates a message such as:
! Undefined control sequence.
l.9 \secton
{Introduction}
?
This means the \section command was misspelled, and the error occurred on line 9 of
the input file.
You can respond with:
h for help
x for exit
press the Return key to ignore it and hope for the best. LATEX will try to recover
from the error and continue processing. Sometimes you can tell from viewing the
output what went wrong.
If it stops with a * prompt, it often means you have forgotten \end{document}. Enter
it at the prompt (and fix the file later).
If you mistyped the file name or for some other reason LATEX cannot find a file, it will
ask for another filename. If you don’t want to enter a new filename, quit the program
by typing Ctrl-d or Ctrl-c. Another handy “Emergency stop sequence” is Ctrl-z.
Windows users: Do not simply close the Command window without responding!
The window may disappear but LATEX is still running, which will cause confusion when
you run it again.
Some Common Errors

• A command was misspelled and LATEX doesn’t recognize it.
• You have a special character (e.g., &, $, #, %) in the text. Enter these as \&, \$,
\# or \%.
• Whatever you \begin{...}, you must \end{...}. This includes braces: { ... }.
• You inserted too many tabs on the line before the \\.
• A command wasn’t given all its arguments and is trying to use the rest of the file
for an argument.
53
54 ♦ Appendix B: Error Messages
Errors About Boxes

Another common error (actually just a warning) refers to an underfull hbox (or vbox).
These errors are harmless and may be safely ignored. They mean there is more blank
space on a line (or page) than LATEX thinks is aesthetically pleasing. (LATEX is very
fussy.)
Sometimes underfull hbox messages are the result of using the linebreak command (\\)
inappropriately. LATEX will generate this warning if you use \\ just before or after a new
paragraph or before starting an environment that begins on a new line anyway.
Errors that refer to “overfull hboxes” mean that a line is too long. For example, you
might get a message such as this one:
Overfull \textbf{hbox} (19.45158pt too wide) in paragraph at
lines 1206--1215
LATEX is warning you that a line sticks out into the margin. It was forced to do this
because otherwise the line would contain unacceptably wide white spaces. Depending
on how the output actually looks, you may or may not want to correct the problem.
To correct it, you could reword the sentence so that it breaks better, or instruct LATEX
how to hyphenate a certain word. Suppose LATEX doesn’t know how to hyphenate the
word “environment” that occurs in the line. You can make LATEX put the hyphens in
“environment” temporarily or permanently. To do it permanently, put the following
command in the preamble (note: more than one word can be added in the command if
words are separated by spaces):
\hyphenation{en-vi-ron-ment}
For a temporary fix, put discretionary hyphens \- in the offending word where it appears
in the text. This is a one-time fix, and unused discretionary hyphens do not show up in
the text:
en\-vi\-ron\-ment
Errors Relating to Memory

Sometimes LATEX complains that it’s out of memory, but it usually isn’t. The symptoms
listed below can be fixed as described:
It won’t do all your tables or figures
Put \clearpage between them.
It won’t do a three-page table That’s right, it must be broken up.
You just want one big paragraph Sorry, LATEX needs breaks.
You are using tabular Did you leave out a \\
or have too many tabs on a line?
It won’t take the caption Use \caption[short list entry]{Very long caption}
to trim size for listoftables/figures entry
You have nested environments Are they in First-In, Last-Out order?
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Text Formatting with LATEX

4. Within the Text 16

10. Special Topics 46

Appendix A: Mathematical Symbols 50

Chapter 1. LATEX Basics

1.2 What is LATEX?

1.3 How LATEX Works

1.4 The LATEX Input File

1.4.1 Entering LATEX Commands

1.4.2 Entering Text

1.4.3 Special Characters

1.4.4 Structure of the Input File

This is a new paragraph. \textit{Here’s some italic text}

1.5 Some LATEX Vocabulary

Mandatory arguments supply information required for a command to execute. For

Environments are blocks of text that receive special processing. An environment is

2.2 Class Options

The standard class options include:

2.4 Making a Title Page

2.5 Making a Table of Contents

2.6 Behind the Scenes

2.6.2 How a Page is Built

2.7 Example: Report Class

\begin{document} % End of preamble, start of

\chapter{A Main Heading} % Make a "chapter" heading

A blank line starts a new paragraph. \textit{Note this: it will be

\section{A Subheading} % Make a "section" heading

The *-form (e.g., ‘‘section*") suppresses the section number and

\end{document} % The required last line

2.8 Example: Letter Class

\address{555 Main St.\\Sometown, NY 12345} % Return address

\begin{document} % End of preamble

\begin{letter}{Mr.~Smith\\ President, % Begin letter by giving

This is the letter class. It provides a format for standard parts

This is a new paragraph.

\closing{Sincerely,} % Format for the closing.

\end{letter} % End of letter

\end{document} % The required last line

3.1 Line Spacing

3.3 Text Justification

3.5 Headers, Footers, and Page Numbering

4.1 Section Headings

4.2 Changing Type Style and Size

4.3 Starting New Lines and New Pages

4.4 Leaving Horizontal and Vertical Space

4.5 Drawing Rules

4.9 Reproducing Text As-Is

All spacing is displayed in verbatim as entered.

A variation on the verbatim environment, called the alltt environment, is provided

4.11 Cross References

\> Move right to the next tab stop

Example 1: A Very Simple Case

Example 2: A Little More Complex

This Text extends past tab 1 Third column

l Left-justified column entry

5.2.1 A Simple Ruled Table

Name Oblateness Diameter

5.2.2 Using Paragraph Columns, Spanning Columns

\begin{table}[hb] % place table ‘‘here’’ or at bottom of page

The -form (e.g., ‘‘section") suppresses the section number and