Automation

Element or /Building Block of Automation Technology

An automated system consists of three basic elements:
(1) Power to accomplish the process and operate the system.
(2) A program of instructions to direct the process, and
(3) A control system to actuate the instructions.

The relationship amongst these elements is given below. All systems that qualify as being
automated include these three basic elements in one form or another.

Power to accomplish the automated process

An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the process
as well as the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is electricity.
Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as non-automated processes.

 Electrical power is widely available at moderate cost.

 Electrical power can be readily converted to alternative energy forms: mechanical,
thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
 Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal,
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
 Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in
Power is required in automation for the followings:

 Processing operations
 Loading and unloading the work unit
 Material transport between operations
 Controller unit
 Power to actuate the control signals
 Data acquisition and information processing

Program of Instructions
The actions performed in an automated process are defined by a program of instructions.
The programming or Machine programming is the set of instructions which determine the action
is to be done by the system. The program determines what has to be done by automated system,
and what is to be done by various components or element of the automated system in order to
complete a task

In small automated system, the number of programmed instruction is less, and these
commands are repeated again and again continuously. But in large system the number become
very large. In any automated system, the feedback system is important, and therefore the
programming language must be capable for handling feedback control.

Each part or product made in the operation requires one or more processing steps that are
unique; these processing steps are performed during a work cycle. A new part is completed
during each work cycle (in some manufacturing operations, more than one part is produced
during the work cycle; e.g., a plastic injection molding operation may produce multiple parts
each cycle using a multiple cavity mold). The particular processing steps for the work cycle are
specified in a work cycle program.

Work Cycle Programs. In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists of
essentially one step, which is to maintain a single process parameter at a defined level. However,
the system becomes complicated when the process involves a work cycle consisting of multiple
steps with more number of process parameters are required to be controlled. Most discrete part
manufacturing operations are in this category.
Process parameters are inputs to the process such as temperature setting of a furnace,
coordinate axis value in a positioning system; valve opened or closed in a fluid flow system, and
motor on or off. Process parameters are distinguished from process variables, which are outputs
from the process; for example, the actual temperature of the furnace, the actual position of the
axis, the actual flow rate of the fluid in the pipe, and the rotational speed of the motor. As our list
of examples suggests, the changes in process parameter values may be continuous (gradual
changes during the processing step; for example, gradually increasing temperature during a heat
treatment cycle) or discrete (stepwise changes; for example, on/off).
The work cycle may include manual steps, where the operator performs certain activities
during the work cycle and the automated system performs the rest. A common example is the
loading and unloading of parts by the operator to and from a numerical control machine between
machining cycles where the machine performs the cutting operation under part program control.
Initiation of the cutting operation of each cycle is triggered by the operator activating a "start"
button after the part has been loaded.
Decision-Making in the Programmed Work Cycle In automated work cycles the only two
features are
(1) The number and sequence of processing steps and
(2) The process parameter changes in each step.

Each work cycle consists of the same steps and associated process parameter changes with no
variation from one cycle to the next. The program of instructions is repealed each work cycle
without deviation. In fact, many automated manufacturing operations require decisions to be
made during the programmed work cycle to cope with variations in the cycle. In many cases, the
variations are routine elements of the cycle, and the corresponding instructions for dealing with
them are incorporated into the regular part program. These cases include
 Operator interaction. Although the program of instructions is intended to be carried out
without human interaction, the controller unit may require input data from a human
operator in order to function.
 Different part or product styles processed by the System. In this instance, the automated
system is programmed to perform different work cycles on different part or product
styles.
 Variations in the starting work units. In many manufacturing operations the starting
work units are not consistent. A good example is a sand casting as the starting work unit
in a machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings sometimes
necessitate an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified
value. The part program must be coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary.
Control System or Feedback controls
Feedback controls are backbone of any automation system. Basically any feedback consists of
following basic components:

 Sensors
 Analyzers
 Controller
 Actuators
 Drivers

Sensors: Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical property and converts this change
in to signal which can be measure. A sensor requires a transducer for converting the signal from
one form to another.

Physical Output
Sensor
Parameter

Sensors are first element which very important for any automated system. These continuously
pass the information of the manufacturing process to the control system. The control system take
corrective action depends upon the feedback from the sensing device.

The physical medium refers to the object where a physical phenomenon is taking place and we are
interested in the measurement of some physical variable associated with the phenomenon. Thus, for
example, the physical medium may, hot stand in a furnace in the case of temperature measurement or
the fluid in a pipe section in the case of measurement of liquid flow rate.

The sensing element is affected by the phenomenon in the physical medium either through direct or
physical contact or through indirect interaction of the phenomenon in the medium with some
component of the sensing element. Again, considering the case of temperature measurement, one
may use a thermocouple probe as the sensing element that often comes in physical contact with the
hot object such as the flue gas out of a boiler-furnace or an optical pyrometer. In the more common
case where the sensing element comes in contact with the medium, often some physical or chemical
property of the sensor changes in response to the measurement variable. This change then becomes a
measure of the physical variable of interest.

The signal-conditioning element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated by
the sensing element. Since the method of converting the nature of the signal generated in the sensor
to another suitable signal form (usually electrical) depends essentially on the sensor, individual signal
conditioning modules are characteristic of a group of sensing elements. As an example considers a
resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) whose output response is a change in its resistance due to
change in temperature of its environment. This change in resistance can easily be converted to a
voltage signal by incorporating the RTD in one arm of a Wheatstone's bridge. The bridge therefore
serves as a signal-conditioning module. These typically involve analog electronic circuits that finally
produce electrical signals in the form of voltage or current in specific ranges.

The signal processing element is used to process the signal generated by the first stage for a variety
of purposes such as, filtering (to remove noise), diagnostics (to assess the health of the sensor),
linearisation (to obtain an output which is linearly related with the physical measure and etc. Signal
processing systems are therefore usually more general purpose in nature.

The target signal-handling element may perform a variety of functions depending on the target
application. It may therefore contain data/signal display modules, recording or/storage modules, or
simply a feedback to a process control system. Examples include a temperature chart recorder, an
instrumentation tape recorder, a digital display or an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) followed by
an interface to a process control computer

Modern sensors often have the additional capability of digital communication using serial, parallel or
network communication protocols. Such sensors are called “smart” and contain embedded digital
electronic processing systems.

Some sensors are:

 Proximity sensor
 Photoelectric sensor
 Infrared sensor
 Optical senor
 Laser based sensor.
Analyzers: The analyzers are the devices which are used to analyze the information provided by
sensors, so that a decision must be taken for performing some action. This is one of the complex
systems and is very critical part of any automated system. The analyzers are electronic device
and include the following

 Computer
 Counters
 Timers
 Bar code Reader
 Optical Encoder

Controller : Controllers are essentially (predominantly electronic, at times pneumatic/hydraulic)

elements that accept command signals from human operators or Supervisory Systems, as well as
feedback from the process sensors and produce or compute signals that are fed to the actuators.
The controller compares the output with the input and makes the required adjustment in the
process to reduce the difference between them. Control Systems can be classified into two kinds
either closed loop or open loop.
Closed loop control system: A closed loop control system, also known as continuous control,
automatic Control, Process Control, Feedback Control etc. Feedback control system is one in
which the output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between the
two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input.
As shown below the closed loop control system consists of six basic elements:
(1) Input parameter,
(2) Process,
(3) Output variable,
(4) Feedback sensor.
(5) Controller and
(6) Actuator.
The input parameter often referred to as the set point, represents the desired value of the output.

The process is the operation or function being controlled. In particular, it is the output variable
that is being controlled in the loop.

A sensor is used to measure the output variable and close the loop between input and output.
Sensors perform the feedback function in a closed loop control system.

The controller compares the output with the input and makes the required adjustment in the
process to reduce the difference between them. The adjustment is accomplished using one or
more

Actuators, which are the hardware devices that physically carry out the control actions, such as
an electric motor or a flow valve.

In contrast to the closed loop control system, an open loop control system operates
without the feedback loop, as in below figure. In this case, the controls operate without
measuring the output variable so no comparison is made between the actual value of the output
and the desired input parameter. The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its
actuator on the process variable. With an open loop system, there is always the risk that the
actuator will not have the intended effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open
loop system. Its advantage is that it is generally simpler and less expensive than a closed loop
system. Open loop systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply:
(1) The actions performed by the control system are simple,
(2) The actuating function is very reliable, and
(3) Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small enough to have no effect on the
actuation. If these characteristics are not applicable, then a closed loop control system may be
more appropriate.
Actuators: Actuation systems convert the input signals computed by the control systems into
forms that can be applied to the actual process and would produce the desired variations in the
process physical variables. In the same way as in sensors but in a reverse sense, these systems
convert the controller output, which is essentially information without the power and in the form
of electrical voltages (or at times pneumatic pressure) in two ways. Firstly it converts the form of
the variable into the appropriate physical variable, such as torque, heat or flow. Secondly it
amplifies the energy level of the signal manifold to be able to causes changes in the process
variables. Thus, while both sensors and actuators cause variable conversions, actuators are high
power devices while sensors are not. It turns out that in most cases, actuators are devices that
first produce motion from electrical signal, which is then further converted to other forms. Based
on the above requirement of energy and variable conversion most actuation systems are
structured as

A. The electronic signal-processing element accepts the command from the control system in
electrical form. The command is processed in various ways. For example it may be filtered to avoid
applying input signals of certain frequencies that may cause resonance. Many actuators are
themselves closed feedback controlled units for precision of the actuation operation. Therefore the
electronic signal-processing unit often contains the control system for the actuator itself.

B. The electronic power amplification element sometimes contains linear power amplification stages
called servo-amplifiers. In other cases, it may comprise power electronic drive circuits such as for
motor driven actuators.

C. The variable conversion element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated
by the electronic power amplification element from electrical to non-electrical form, generally in the
form of motion. Examples include electrohydraulic servo valve, stepper/servo motors, Current to
Pneumatic Pressure converters etc.

D. The non-electrical power conversion elements are used to amplify power further, if necessary,
typically using hydraulic or pneumatic mechanisms.
E. The non-electrical variable conversion elements may be used further to transform the actuated
variable in desired forms, often in several stages. Typical examples include motion-to-flow rate
conversion in flow-valves, rotary to linear motion converters using mechanisms, flow-rate to heat
conversion using steam or other hot fluids etc.

F. Other Miscellaneous Elements such as Auxiliaries for Lubrication/Cooling/Filtering, Reservoirs,

Prime Movers etc., sensors for feedback, components for display, remote operations, as well as safety
mechanisms since the power handling level is significantly high

Sequence / Logic Control

Many control applications do not involve analog process variables, that is, the ones which
can assume a continuous range of values, but instead variables that are set valued, that is they only
assume values belonging to a finite set. The simplest examples of such variables are binary variables
that can have either of two possible values, (such as 1 or 0, on or off, open or closed etc.). These
control systems operate by turning on and off switches, motors, valves, and other devices in response
to operating conditions and as a function of time. Such systems are referred to as sequence/logic
control systems. For example, in the operation of transfer lines and automated assembly machines,
sequence control are used to coordinate the various actions of the production system (e.g., transfer of
parts, changing of the tool, feeding of the metal cutting tool, etc.).
There are many industrial actuators which have set of command inputs. The control inputs to
these devices only belong to a specific discrete set. For example in the control of a conveyor system,
analog motor control is not applied. Simple on-off control is adequate. Therefore for this application,
the motor-starter actuation system may be considered as discrete having three modes, namely, start,
stop and run.
Similarly, there are many industrial sensors (such as, Limit Switch / Pressure Switch/ Photo
Switch etc.) which provide discrete outputs which may be interpreted as the presence/absence of an
object in close proximity, passing of parts on a conveyor, or a given pressure value being higher or
lower than a set value. These sensors thus indicate, not the value of a process variable, but the
particular range of values to which the process variable belongs.

A modern controller device used extensively for sequence control today in transfer lines,
robotics, process control, and many other automated systems is the Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). In essence, a PLC is a special purpose industrial microprocessor based real-time
computing system, which performs the following functions in the context of industrial operations
Levels of Industrial Automation Process
There are several ways to describe the levels of an Industrial Automation Process, but the
simplest of all is the following hierarchical triangle of five level representation of a typical
Industrial Automation Application.

Sensors and Actuators Layer: This layer is closest to the processes and machines, used to
translate signals so that signals can be derived from processes for analysis and decisions and
hence control signals can be applied to the processes. This forms the base layer of the pyramid
also called ‘level 0’ layer. The terminal equipment like Sensors and Actuators are categorized
into Field Level in the hierarchy. The sensors like temperature, optical, pressure etc. and
actuators like motors, valves, switches etc. are interfaced to a PLC through a field bus and the
communication between a Field Level device and its corresponding PLC is usually based on a
point-to-point connection. Both wired and wireless networks are used for communication and
using this communication, the PLC can also diagnose and parameterize various components.

Automatic Control Layer: This layer consists of automatic control and monitoring systems,
which drive the actuators using the process information given by sensors. This is called as ‘level
1’ layer. Programmable Logic Controllers or PLCs are used, which provide real-time computing
capability.
PLCs are usually implemented using 16-bit or 32-bit microcontrollers and run on a proprietary
operating system to meet the real-time requirements. PLCs are also capable of being interfaced
with several I/O devices and can communicate through various communication protocols.

Supervisory Control Layer: This layer drives the automatic control system by setting target/goal
to the controller. Supervisory Control looks after the equipment, which may consist of several
control loops. This is called as ‘level 2’ layer. the supervisor level usually consists of an
Industrial PC, which is usually available as a desktop PC or a Panel PC or a Rack-mounted PC.
These PCs run on standard operating systems with special software, usually provided by the
supplier for industrial process control.

The main purpose of the software is process visualization and parameterization. A special
industrial Ethernet is used for communication, which can be Gigabit LAN or any wireless
topology.

Production Control Layer: This solves the decision problems like production targets, resource
allocation, task allocation to machines, maintenance management etc. This is called ‘level 3’
layer

Enterprise control layer: This deals less technical and more commercial activities like supply,
demand, cash flow, product marketing etc. This is called as the ‘level 4’ layer.

Lowest level a sensor works in a single loop, but there exists many sensors in an automation system
which will be visible as the level is increased. The lowest level is faster in the time scale and the
higher levels are slower. The aggregation of information over some time interval is taken at higher
levels.

All the above layers are connected by various types of communication systems. For example the
sensors and actuators may be connected to the automatic controllers using a point-to-point digital
communication, while the automatic controllers themselves may be connected with the supervisory
and production control systems using computer networks