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Introduction
PVsyst is a comprehensive software tool designed for the simulation and analysis of photovoltaic
systems. It allows users to design and optimize solar energy projects by providing detailed
assessments of system performance, energy yields, and financial viability.

With PVsyst, users can model various types of PV installations with location-specific climate data
and component specifications, while considering factors such as shading effects on the system,
battery storage, grid unavailability and panel degradation.
This document can be seen as a user's manual, aiming to describe the different windows and
features of the software. The complete reference manual for PVsyst is the online help that is
accessible from the program through the “Help” entry in the menu, by pressing the F1 key or by
clicking on the help icons inside the windows and dialogs.

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Contents
1 PVsyst Main page ................................................ ................................................5

1.1 Project design and Simulation................................................ .......................5

1.2 Utilities................................................. .................................................. ...6

1.3 Documentation................................................ ............................................7

1.4 Toolbar and Workspace................................................ ................................7

2 My first simulation.............................................. ..................................................8

2.1 Project definition................................................ .......................................8

3 Orientations ................................................ .................................................. .11

3.1 Fixed orientations................................................ .................................... 12

3.1.1 Fixed plane systems................................................. ........................... 12

3.1.2 Seasonal tilt adjustment................................................ ....................... 12

3.1.3 Domes................................................ .................................................. 13

3.1.4 Unlimited sheds................................................ ................................ 13

3.1.5 Unlimited sun-shields.............................................. ......................... 14

3.2 Tracking plane definitions ................................................ ........................... 14

3.2.1 Unlimited trackers, horizontal axis ................................................... ........ 14

3.2.2 Tracking, horizontal and tilted axis.............................................. .......... 15

3.2.3 Tracking, vertical axis ................................................ ........................... 15

3.2.4 Tracking sun-shields................................................ ............................ 16

3.2.5 Tracking, horizontal axis East/West ........................................... ......... 16

3.3 Two axis trackers................................................ ....................................... 16

3.3.1 Tracking two axis................................................. ................................ 16

3.3.2 Tracking 2-axis, frame North/South and East/West................................ 17

4 System................................................ .................................................. ......... 17

4.1 Sub-arrays................................................. ................................................ 17

4.2 Design the array ................................................ ............................................ 19

4.3 Multi MPPT and Power sharing feature ........................................... ........... 20

5 Detailed losses ................................................. ................................................ 22

5.1 Thermal parameters................................................ .................................... 22

5.2 Ohmic Losses................................................ ............................................ 23

5.2.1 DC circuit: ohmic losses for the subfield...................................... ......23

5.2.2 AC losses after the inverter ........................................... .................... 24

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5.3 Module quality – LID - Mismatch................................................... ..................... 26

5.3.1 Module quality loss................................................. ............................ 26
5.3.2 LID – Light Induced Degradation ........................................... ............ 26
5.3.3 Module mismatch losses................................................ ....................... 27
5.3.4 Strings voltage mismatch................................................. .................... 27
5.4 Soil loss................................................ .................................................. 28
5.5 IAM Losses ................................................ .................................................. 28
5.6 Auxiliaries................................................. .................................................. 30

5.7 Aging ................................................ .................................................. ..... 30

5.8 Unavailability of the System................................................ ........................ 31
5.9 Spectral correction ................................................ ................................... 32
5.10 Loss graph ................................................ ............................................ 33
6 Self-consumption ................................................ ............................................ 33
7 Storage ................................................. .................................................. ........ 34
7.1 Self-consumption with storage ........................................... ..................... 36
7.2 Peak shaving................................................. ............................................ 37
7.3 Weak grid islanding ................................................ .................................... 38
8 Horizon................................................ .................................................. ........ 40

9 Near shading ................................................. .................................................. .42

9.1 Compatibility between the 3D Scene and System-Orientation................... 43

9.2 Simulation Parameters................................................ ................................ 44
9.3 Orientations, table, graph buttons.............................................. ................. 46
9.4 Construction/Perspective, 3D scene ........................................... .............. 48
9.5 Create Menu................................................. ............................................ 51
9.6 Edit Menu ................................................. ................................................... 54
9.7 Transform Menu................................................. ........................................ 54
9.8 Tools Menu................................................. .................................................. 55
9.9 Main Menu................................................. ................................................ 63
10 Energy management................................................ .................................... 77
10.1 Inverter Temperature................................................... .................................. 77
10.2 Power Factor ................................................. ............................................ 78
10.3 Grid Power limitation................................................ .................................... 81
10.4 P50 - P90 Estimation ................................................... ................................... 82

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1 PVsyst Main page

At the first main page you have an overview of the different main components in the software, such as the Project design
and Simulation, Utilities, Documentation as well as your recent projects and your workspace.

1.1 Project design and Simulation

Project design and simulation is the main part of the software and is used for the complete study of a project. It involves
the choice of meteorological data, system design, shading studies, losses determination, and economic evaluation. The
simulation is performed over a full year in hourly steps and provides a complete report and many detailed results.

Within the project design and simulation section, PVsyst allows you to create and simulate three types of systems.

• Grid-Connected allows you to create a system design that is connected to the grid. You also have the possibility
to define a self-consumption profile and battery storage with various strategies are possible.

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• Standalone is reserved for a system unconnected to the grid, you are forced to have a storage option. Production

that you cannot use, or store will be curtailed.

• Solar pumping systems are common in certain areas where solar panels are used to run a pump from a well or a
lake that can then be stored in an elevated tank and the water can then be used for various things at various

times.

Recent projects will allow you to quickly find and modify your recent projects.

1.2 Utilities
The Utilities section in PVsyst offers a range of tools and functions designed to enhance the understanding and the

precision of your PV system analysis.

• In Databases you can find all the sites and components already stored in PVsyst.

You can also generate new sites, import weather data and create new
components.

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• In Tools you have some advanced parameters for solar geometry and electrical
optimization instruments.
• In Measured data it is possible to add measured data and to compare
simulations with measurements.

1.3 Documentation
In the Documentation section you find a direct access to the PVsyst Help, the complete reference manual for PVsyst, also
accessible from pvsyst.com/help. Throughout the software, context-sensitive online help is available via the F1 key and
small question mark icons inside the windows and dialogs, providing more specific information in certain cases. By using
the F1 key, or clicking at the question mark icon, you arrive at the PVsyst help tool where you can find useful articles with
precise information, explanations and step by step description of how to use different functions the PVsyst software.

You also find access to the PVsyst forum where you can post your questions and PVsyst
collaborators and other Pvsyst users will guide you forward.
In the PVsyst video channels you find educational videos and tutorials. You also find these
printable users manuals and tutorials here.

1.4 Toolbar and Workspace

It is from the Main page that the settings are made for your entire workspace.
When files are saved, they will automatically be saved in the workspace, in a precise
folder structure. In the workspace you also find a set of templates with the correct configuration, to
be used for instance to define a self-consumption profile. PV components will be saved to
ComposPV, project files will be saved to Projects, etc.

• Under File you find the for example the options to import and export projects and
components.
• The Preliminary design is an easy and basic simulation tool for small and
simplified projects.
• You can start a new project through the Project tab. Here you also find a fourth type of
project not visualized in the Project design and simulation window, that is the DC-grid
project, for the use case of certain public transport companies. From the Project tab you
can also load a project in your workspace or a DEMO project defined by Pvsyst, that
showcase various features and examples of utilization.
• In the Settings you have Preferences where you could for instance define user info, units to
be used as default and possible API keys for certain weather file providers. In the
Advanced parameters, almost all the default values and thresholds that generate error
messages can be modified, but should be modified only by experts.

• Language can be changed in this language tab, or by clicking the F9 button. • In the
License tab you find all the information about your Account, activation key
etc

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• The Help will guide you to the various documentation possibilities available.

2 My first simulation
For this first explanatory tutorial, we choose a Grid connected system, but the majority of steps and information will be
relevant also for standalone and pumping systems.

The Workflow in PVsyst is to work in Projects and in Variants. This also illustrates the hierarchy of the software.

Project contains the geographical site of your system, the reference to a file with the meteorological data and some
general parameters like the albedo definition and parameters specific to this project. The project will be the central
object that allows the basic definitions in which you will then construct different variants of your system.

The system variant contains all the detailed definitions of your system, which will result in a simulation calculation. These
definitions include the choice and number of solar
panels and inverters, geometrical layout and possible shadings, electrical connections, different economic scenarios,
etc.

2.1 Project definition

By Clicking Grid connected System on the welcome page, PVsyst will automatically open the most reason project (It's
possible to change the default behavior for opening new projects. Go to “Settings - Preferences - Default Values,” then
modify the “Automatic Project Loading” section).

You can start a new project by clicking New. You can Load existing projects through the Load option. You can Import
or Export projects through the Import and Export. You also have the possibility to define a Client for the project and
later choose if you wish to print the Company details on the report.

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In the Project settings you can define overall parameters and preferences for the project. Note
the difference between the Project settings here, that will affect only this specific project, and the
Advanced parameters on the Main page that will be implemented in all the Projects in your
workspace.
In the Project setting you can define for instance the far Albedo, eg the albedo around your site
(the albedo under the panels will be defined in the system window in case of bifacial panels). In
the Design conditions you can among other values set the lowest possible temperature at your
site to generate a warning message for the Absolute Voltage limit, other relevant temperatures
to generate graphs in the sizing tool (note that the simulation will use temperatures from your
site, these values is to help you define your
system).

It is in the Project settings you set the limit overload loss for your design, which by default is set
at 3%. If you wish to design a system with a high Pnom ratio, you can increase this value to avoid
warning messages. You here also have the possibility to change other design parameters, such
as the transposition model.
In the Project you must first define the Project's name, choose your site and define a weather
data File. The site file contains the coordinates of your project, which is used to calculate the sun
position each hour of the calendar year. The site file created will also include a fallback monthly
weather data which is used for fast and rough calculations in the design part of the program.

There are 2 ways to define a project site. You can either choose a site from the list create or
a new site by typing the name or using the interactive map. You can also import site if you have
data from somewhere, or from another project.

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In the Geographical Coordinates dialog, you can verify the coordinates for the chosen site and
the sun paths corresponding to this site. The sun paths illustrate the position of the sun at each
hour throughout the year.

When creating a geographical site, you can directly import Weather data from a list of weather
data providers, such as Meteonorm, PVGIS, Solcast, Solar Anywhere and Salargis. For the import
to work, you need to have a working internet access. The imports are automatic based on the
coordinates of your site.
It is up to you as a user to evaluate which weather source provider that is most accurate for your
project. For certain providers you need an additional license to have access.
Meteonorm data is included with the PVsyst license, using ground and satellite data and utilizes
monthly averages to create synthetic hourly values using stochastic models. TMY (Typical
Metrological Year) data on the other hand are meteorological hourly data files constructed on the
basis of real measured data series chosen among at least 10 years of real measurements,
according to several statistical criteria.
The imported data are in hourly values, the values are then averaged and displayed as monthly
values. Depending on weather source, you are also provided with Global horizontal irradiation
year-to-year variability, thus the natural fluctuations in the amount of solar energy received on a
horizontal surface from one year to another, that can be used to calculate statistical analysis such
as P50 and P90 of the energy yield predictions of solar PV systems.

By clicking OK, you will be prompted to save the geographical site, and the synthetic hourly
weather data that have been generated (if your weather source is based on

synthetic data). By clicking open A summary of your weather data is available. note
that PVsyst is labeling a generic year as 1990.

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3 Orientations
To define the orientation, you must choose the field type. There are 3 categories of field types, Fixed
orientation Planes, One Axis tracking plane as well as a Two Axis tracking planes.

You may define multiple field types by clicking Add Orientation at the top of the dialog.
To define an Orientation, choose the Field type in the drop down list. The header will show the name
of this orientation. If the box on the right is checked, this will define a name according to the main
parameters of the orientation; but you may give any customized
yam.

The field types have in common that you must define the plane tilt and azimuth. In general, the plane
tilt is defined as the angle between the collector plane and the horizontal. The plane azimuth is the
angle between the collector plane and the direction toward the equator. In the northern hemisphere,
this means the azimuth is measured from due south (toward the equator), with positive values toward
the west (counterclockwise): south = 0°, west = 90°, north = 180°, and east = -90 °. In the southern
hemisphere, the azimuth is measured from due north (toward the equator), with negative values
toward the east (clockwise): north = 0°, west = 90°, south = 180°, and east = -90°.

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3.1 Fixed orientations

3.1.1 Fixed plane systems

This is the simplest kind of orientation, it defines the plane tilt and the plane azimuth.
If tables (rectangular fields) are defined in the 3D scene, the base of these tables may be inclined
with respect to horizontal: this is the Base tilt angle, which is usually named base slope in the 3D
scene. In this case the real plane orientation is altered.

In the fixed planes definition, PVsyst displays a quick optimization tool, indicating the energy
yield as a function of the tilt and the azimuth. This is a rough estimate meant for judging how your
orientation choice (violet point) will affect the yield with respect to the optimum. This may show
the annual, summer or winter yield.

3.1.2 Seasonal tilt adjustment

In the seasonal tilt adjustment, you have the possibility to optimize the PV production, by
modifying the tilt tables depending on the season. This option allows to define two seasons
with a corresponding plane tilt and you must specify the months for the winter and the summer position.

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3.1.3 Domes

Domes corresponds to a system with two opposite arrays of tables. In this case, PVsyst
automatically creates a second orientation for the opposite part of the array.
The spacing between the 2 rows of domes is usually very small and no significant irradiance will
be allowed to fall on the ground underneath the dome. Therefore, such a configuration is not
suitable for bi-facial systems.

3.1.4 Unlimited sheds

The unlimited sheds are an extension of the fixed tilted plane orientation that adds geometrical
parameters defining the tables arrangement (in regularly arranged rows).
This allows the application of a simplified 2D model of mutual shadings based on these
parameters. This approach is generally faster than defining a 3D shading scene and can therefore
be used for example in more preliminary studies. “Unlimited sheds” refers to the 2D representation,
where the extremities of the rows are ignored in the calculations.
Besides the orientation, this mode specifies parameters describing the PV system, such as the
number of rows (sheds) and parameters such as the width of the (active) collector band,
mechanical top and bottom inactive bands, and the pitch. The number of rows is necessary for
the calculation to take into account that the first row is not shaded. The collector band width is
the width of your sensitive area. For instance, if you have one row of modules where the panel
measures 1x1.5m, if the panels are placed in landscape this will be 1m, and in portrait this will be
1.5m. The inactive band refers to a physical structure extending out past the modules, which will
cast shadows. The pitch is the
distance between rows.

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The ground covering ratio (GCR) and the limit angle (the profile angle for which you begin to have mutual shadings) is
calculated based on the parameters you choose and shown at the top of the window. As there are shadings, this tool also
allows for some advanced options to define number of partitions for the calculation of the electrical shading effects.

3.1.5 Unlimited sun-shields

It is possible to define unlimited sun-shields on a façade. The sun-shield rows parameters are
defined in a similar way as the unlimited sheds.

3.2 Tracking plane definitions

3.2.1 Unlimited trackers, horizontal axis

In a similar way as for unlimited sheds, you may define "unlimited trackers" for parametric study of a PV trackers system,
without using the 3D scene construction.

The axis azimuth refers to the orientation of the axis, where an azimuth of 0 corresponds to an axis running in the north to
south direction. The rotation angle around the axis is called Phi. Mechanical limits on the Phi stroke are required. Phi 0
corresponds to a horizontal axis; the minimum phi is the lowest angle authorized (counter clockwise from the horizontal
axis) and the maximum phi contrary is the highest angle authorized (clockwise from the horizontal axis).

The backtracking option will prevent shading between rows of panels by adjusting their tilt angle based on the sun's
position. The irradiance optimization option will evaluate the optimal tracking angle on the basis of the transposition model:
the angle is adjusted in order to obtain the best transposition result of GlobInc, considering the Beam and Diffuse
components.

The other parameters are the same as for “Unlimited sheds”. Note that the electrical shading parameters are only visible
when the backtracking is not activated, as by definition there are no mutual shadings in backtracking mode.

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By dragging the sun, you have the opportunity to visualize the tracker's behavior according to the sun position. This tool
will show, specifically, the behavior of the backtracking mode.

3.2.2 Tracking, horizontal and tilted axis

As in “Unlimited Trackers”, you must define the axis orientation and tracking limit angles.
You also have the possibility to add an Axis tilt. You must define the Phi limits (mechanical stroke), the backtracking
strategy, and the tracking calculation mode (astronomic calculation or irradiance optimization) to be used during the
simulation. An additional parameter, Wind stow defines a security rest position, to be set during the simulation when the
wind speed is too high.

When defining an array of trackers, the construction in the 3D scene is mandatory, as this is the only way of calculating
the mutual shading losses.

3.2.3 Tracking, vertical axis

With trackers with a vertical axis, the collector is kept at a fixed tilt but rotating according to the sun azimuth. This
configuration may be used with "dish" arrangements, when a large rotating support holds several rows of modules; this
particular case is made possible as the rotating axis of one row may be displaced with respect to the collector. The plane
tilt and the azimuth mechanical limits of the tracker must be defined.

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3.2.4 Tracking sun-shields

It's possible to define a tracking sun-shield. You need to specify the facade orientation, as well as the minimum and
maximum tilt. Optimizing the balance between sun protection and PV production is challenging. The backtracking strategy
is likely the only
reasonable approach for operating sun-shield trackers.

3.2.5 Tracking, horizontal axis East/West

The horizontal tracking East/West refers to a system where the rotation axis normally is running east/west. With an Axis
orientation of 0° in the northern hemisphere, the panels will be oriented south and the minimum and maximum tilt will
define the mechanical
strokes to follow the height of the sun in the southern direction, ie mainly the seasonal variations. This is available in
PVsyst, although it is only used in very special situations.

3.3 Two axis trackers

3.3.1 Two-axis tracking

Two-axis solar trackers adjust both the tilt and orientation of solar panels to stay perpendicular to the sun's rays throughout
the day. You must define the stroke limits for both the tilt and the azimuth.

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3.3.2 Tracking 2-axis, frame North/South and East/West

There are specific scenarios of 2-axis tracking system. The plane is always perpendicular to the
sun's rays, the tracker orientation within this plane is different. This may lead to different mutual
shadings. You have to define here the parameters related to the orientation. The mechanical
frame characteristics (size, width, etc) will be defined when creating the 3D field representation.
The backtracking may be done between trackers within the frame, not between adjacent frames.

4 System

In a grid-connected projects, the system is defined as the set of components constituting the PV-
array, ie the PV modules, inverters and the design of the array, here separated in the different
background colors.

4.1 Sub-arrays

The system is organized as a set of sub-arrays: one sub-array is constituted of

• A PV module model, chosen in the database,

• An inverter model, chosen in the database,

• The number of inverter inputs,

or either full inverters or

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or number of MPPT inputs,

• The number of modules in series, and the number of module strings.
o The number of strings should ideally be a multiple of the number of MPPT inputs.
However, PVsyst will accept an even number of strings, and will distribute them in
the most balanced way across the MPPT inputs. A warning will be issued when
the imbalance is too high and you should consider specifying the distribution for a
balanced system.
• In some cases, additional devices may be added to the sub-array: for example
Module or String Optimizers.

You can manage (add, copy, rename, move and delete) in the list on the left of the dialog.
There is a Pre-sizing help available, in the upper right corner in the system window. This tool will
suggest an automatic sizing of each sub-array, where you can specify either the desired nominal
power, or the available area for your modules.

As a consequence of this organization in sub-arrays, all the strings of modules connected to the
input of an inverter (or a MPPT input) are homogeneous, identical modules and inverters, same
number of modules in series, same orientation. These homogeneity requirements in PVsyst are
a general rule for any real installation, for instance not to put a different number of modules in
series on a same inverter input since this could have negative consequences on the operating
conditions of your system (namely for the MPP investigation ). Nor is mixing different module
models on a MPPT input advised. Studying arrays with different module kinds (for example a mix
of power classes) is not possible in PVsyst at the present time.

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Each sub-array will be associated to an orientation. Normally all modules of a sub-array should
be in the same orientation. Mixing PV modules of different orientations within a given string is not
acceptable, as you may have large mismatch current losses due to different irradiances (the
current of a string is governed by the worst cell). However, you can mix strings in different
orientations, because the mismatch in voltage (strings in parallel) is usually very low. PVsyst
allows the creation of sub-arrays with 2 orientations on a same inverter input.

4.2 Design the array

PV panels have a temperature coefficient, which indicates how their output voltage and current
change with variations in temperature. Typically, as the temperature increases, the output voltage
of the panels decreases.
Voltage at Maximum Power Point (VMPP) changes with temperature due to the temperature
coefficient, so it's crucial to consider the temperature while sizing the voltage for the PV system.

Inverter Performance: The inverter converts the DC power generated by the PV panels into AC
power for use in the electrical system. Inverters also have temperature limits and efficiency
considerations. If the voltage is not appropriately sized for the temperature conditions, the inverter
may not operate optimally, leading to reduced energy production or even potential damage to the
inverter.

When designing the array, the number of modules in series has to stay within the requirements of

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• Staying above the minimum inverter's operating voltage Vmin of MPPT range (ie
at max. module operating temperature, 60°C by default)
• Staying below the maximum inverter's operating voltage (ie at min. module
operating temperature, 20°C by default)
• To stay below the absolute maximum inverter's input voltage (ie Voc at min.
temperature, -10°C by default)
• Do not exceed the maximum system voltage specified for the PV module.

By clicking Sizing, you find a specific tool that gathers all the constraints relating to the sizing of a
specific system.

• For the number of modules in series and strings: the upper diagram shows the I/V curve
of the PV array, together with the MPPT range, voltage, power, and current limits
of the inverter. The little black dot should be within the safety limits. In Project
setting, these numbers can be modified if needed, this will not affect the simulation, but
the sizing and the IV curve.

• For the inverter sizing: the second graph, known as the system output power
distribution graph, illustrates the annual distribution of power generated by the
photovoltaic system. The horizontal axis displays power intervals, while the vertical
axis shows the total energy produced within each interval. This graph highlights the
most common power ranges, offering insights for optimizing inverter sizing and
assessing possible overload losses.

The optimal sizing of the inverter is based on the acceptable overload loss throughout the year. It
usually leads to over-size the power ratio (PV array nominal power with respect to the inverter
nom. AC power), by a factor of 1.25. Note that this is a first rough estimate and that you later can
define different losses such as near and far shadings.
Specialized tools are also provided to evaluate different losses due to wiring, module quality,
mismatch between modules, soiling, thermal behavior, mechanical mounting, system unavailability,
etc.

4.3 Multi MPPT and Power sharing feature

The MPPT technology, short for Maximum Power Point Tracking, enables a solar inverter to
independently track the maximum power point for each string or group of panels. Thus, in the
case of different length of strings or panels oriented differently on your site, in the case of partial
shading due to nearby objects or in the case of soiling; The multi-MPPT allows the system to
mitigate the impact by adjusting the operation of the affected strings without affecting the others.

Choosing the option Pnom sharing within the inverter, PVsyst will equally distribute the Power
over the MPPT inputs automatically. If you have different configurations at the input of Multi-
MPPT inverters, you should define a sub-array for each kind of configuration.

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By selecting Independent MPPT inputs it is possible to consider the single MPPT inputs.
Below the inverter model selection, one thus selects a given number of inputs instead of a number
of inverters. If the inverter has the capability to shift part of the nominal power between the MPPT
inputs, this can be configured in the Power Sharing window. The Power sharing ensures that the
power generated by each MPPT controller is efficiently distributed across the different strings or
groups of panels by assigning each sub-array to a power sharing group.

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To the left in Power sharing window, you have the inverter configuration. By dragging a sub-array from the list to from the
right the Inverter configuration window we can associate sub-arrays for the same inverter. A summary of the characteristics
of the sub arrays will appear, that is the number of MPPTs, the nominal power at the specific MPPT, the % of the total
nominal power of the inverter, the installed PV power in the subarray as well as the nominal power ratio in the sub-array.
The power sharing will be balanced automatically if “Auto-equal. Pnom” is checked. You also have the option to manually
balance and/or adjust the power allocated to each sub-array if you untick this option. By clicking the weight icon, the Pnom
ratio is balanced and by clicking the rubber it re-sets the pnom ratio.

5 Detailed losses
There are several parameters that are initialized by PVsyst with reasonable default values for the first simulation, but that
you should modify according to the specificities of your system to add more accuracy to the simulation. These parameters
are accessible with the "Detailed losses" button in the project dashboard.

5.1 Thermal parameters

The thermal behavior of the array is computed in each simulation step by a thermal balance. This establishes the
instantaneous operating temperature used for the modeling of the PV modules.

The thermal balance involves the Heat loss factor:

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U = Uc + Uv · WindSpeed [W/m² ·K]

In practice, we advise not to use the wind dependency, as the wind speed is usually not well
defined in the weather data, and the parameter Uv is not well known. Therefore, we put Uv = 0
and include an average wind effect in the constant term.
According to our own measurements on several systems, PVsyst proposes:

• Uc = 29 W/m²K for completely free air circulation around the collectors (free-
standing collectors).
• Uc = 27 W/m²K for domes, a manufacturer has measured the U-value on several
installations (height about 40 to 70 cm above the ground)

• Uc = 20 W/m²K for semi-integrated modules with an air duct on the back.

• Uc = 15 W/m²K for integrated modules (back insulated), as only one surface

participates to the convection/radiation cooling.

The thermal loss effect is shown on the array loss diagram in the final report.
The 'Standard NOCT factor' (Nominal Operating Cell Temperature) is the temperature that the module reaches in
equilibrium for very specific surrounding and operating conditions. It can often be found together with the module
specifications supplied by the manufacturers. It has no real relevance for the simulation because the conditions for

which it is specified are far from a realistic module operation. PVsyst only mentions it for
completeness and for comparison with the manufacturer's specifications.

5.2 Ohmic Losses

The wiring ohmic resistance induces losses (R · I²) between the power available from the modules
and that at the terminals of the array. These losses can be characterized by just one parameter
R defined for the global array.

5.2.1 DC circuit: ohmic losses for the subfield

The program proposes a default global wiring loss fraction of 1.5% with respect to the STC
running conditions. But you have a specific tool to establish and optimize the ohmic losses
through the Detailed computation button. This tool asks for the average length of wires for the
string loops and between the intermediate junction boxes and the inverter and helps the
determination of the wire sections.

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NB: remember that the wiring loss behaves as the square of the current. Therefore, operating at half power will lead to
only a quarter of the relative loss. The effective loss during a given period will be given as a simulation result and shown
on the loss diagram.
It is usually of the order of 50-60% of the above specified relative loss when operation at MPP.

In older PV installations, it was common practice to include a blocking diode in series with each string to prevent reverse
current from neighboring strings in the event of a mismatch. However, this approach is now considered unnecessary. Even
when a string is heavily shaded, its voltage typically remains near its open-circuit voltage (Voc), rendering the diode
ineffective. Additionally, these diodes were prone to failures, which often went undetected. As far as we know, the use of
blocking diodes in modern systems has been largely abandoned and the Voltage drop across series diode can be left at 0.

5.2.2 AC losses after the inverter

It is also possible to include losses between the output of the inverter and the injection point (energy counter). You just
have to define the distance, and the loss will also appear in the loss diagram.

In many large PV installations (in the MWp range), the transformer is not part of the inverter, but an external device directly
connected to the MV or even the HV grid.

• One or several Medium Voltage transformers for the whole system. PVsyst will equally distribute the power output
of all inverters to all transformers.

• One Medium Voltage transformer in each sub-array. The transformer properties may be different in different sub-
arrays, but each sub-array has to have one transformer.

• There is the possibility to add a High Voltage transformer that steps up the voltage
before the injection point.

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Note that, when including transformers, the distance from the inverter to injection
instead correspond to the distance from inverter to Transformer.

The main losses associated with a transformer are:

• The iron losses, which are mostly due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the transformer
core, are proportional to the square of the core flux, ie to the square of the voltage. Since
the grid voltage is constant, this will also be a constant loss.
As default value, PVsyst will use 0.1% of the reference nominal power.
• Night disconnect: The iron loss remains active and constant as long as the
transformer is connected to the grid, and this may represent a significant energy
loss. In the simulation results, this will show up as negative a E_Grid system yield
during the night. It may be economically profitable to foresee a switch that
disconnects the transformer from the grid during the night.
To activate this behavior in the simulation, please check the option "Night
disconnect" next to the number of transformers. This option is global for all
transformers in the system.
• The ohmic losses, also named copper losses, are originated by the resistance of the primary
and the secondary windings of the transformer coils. These may be represented by a
single equivalent resistance R, and in the simulation this loss will be computed as R * I².
Like for the cable losses, this means that the relative loss is proportional to the current (or
power).
You can also specify the actual parameters of the selected transformer (recommended).
The essential information needed includes:

• the Nominal power,

• the Iron loss (often referred to as "no-load loss"),
• and the Copper loss.
Datasheets may provide either the overall loss at PNom or the total efficiency, from which PVsyst
can calculate the copper loss. Setting these real parameters based on the transformer's datasheet
will override the generic values.

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Note: The generic Iron and Copper losses used in the simulation differ from the transformer datasheet values, as they
relate to PVsyst's Reference PNom rather than the transformer's Nominal power.

5.2.2.1 AC ohmic losses: reference power

PVsyst proposes a generic Ohmic loss initial relative value, for the early stage of the project's development. You can
choose the reference power as either:

• PNomPV(ac): The nominal power of the PV array at STC (PNomPV [kWp]),

adjusted by the inverter's efficiency. This was the default option in PVsyst before version 7.2.

• PNom(Inv): The nominal output power of the inverter(s), without applying a

temperature correction.

This choice is done for each project, in the project's settings dialog.

In the main menu Settings > Preferences > Physical models > AC Loss references, you may define the default initial
value when creating a new project.

5.3 Module quality – LID – Mismatch

5.3.1 Module quality loss

The aim of this parameter is to reflect the confidence that you put in the matching of your real module set performance
with respect to the manufacturer's specification. By default, PVsyst initializes the "Module Quality Loss" according to the
PV module manufacturer's tolerance specification. PVsyst will choose a quarter of the difference between these values.
For example, with -3...+3%, it will be 1.5%, and with positive sorting 0..+3%, it will be -0.75% (ie a negative loss value,
representing a gain). Note that, this value of a quarter between low and high tolerance is the PVsyst choice. We usually
consider a conservative option (ie the modules will never be better than announced). It doesn't have any other
background reasons.

5.3.2 LID – Light Induced Degradation

LID (Light Induced Degradation) is a loss of performances arising in the very first hours of exposure to the sun, with
Crystalline modules. It may specifically affect the real
performance with respect to the final factory flash tests data delivered by some PV module providers.

It is unclear how it affects the performance with respect to the specified STC values. If the modules are sorted according
to their final factory flash test for determining their Nominal Power class, the LID will indeed represent a loss with respect
to STC.

The LID loss is related to the quality of the wafer manufacturing and may be of the order of 1% to 3% (or even more).

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It is very difficult to obtain data about the LID effect on a given module sample. This is never referenced by the
manufacturers of course. It depends on the origin of the Silicon wafers, and may vary from product to product, but also
may depend on batches of a given production. As it is not sufficiently established, the LID loss is not proposed as default
by PVsyst. If you specify it explicitly, the proposed default value is 2%.

The LID effect occurs only with conventional p-type boron-doped wafers. Alternative technologies using n-type doped
wafers are not affected.

5.3.3 Module mismatch losses

Now when installing real modules in the field, the characteristics of each module are never rigorously identical. The
Module mismatch loss is mainly due to the fact that in a string of modules (or cells), the lowest current drives the current
of the whole string. This parameter acts as a constant loss during the simulation. It is lower for thin film modules.

It can become almost zero if the modules are well sorted according to their real performance (flash-test results provided
by the manufacturer).

PVsyst includes a tool for understanding, and statistically estimating the corresponding power loss (Detailed calculation).
This tool first creates a statistical sample of modules, setting Voc and Isc values according to a gaussian or square
distribution. Then it adds the I/V characteristics of each module in each string (add voltages) and then gathers the strings
in the array (add currents). Finally, it draws the resulting I/V curve of the array, and identifies the MPP value, which is then
compared to the MPP value of an array with identical modules.

NB: There is probably a correlation between the Module mismatch losses and the Module quality loss and LID. The
Module quality loss is rather related to the average of the module's distribution, while the mismatch refers to its width.

5.3.4 Strings voltage mismatch

The mismatch between strings is related to the voltage differences and involves a displacement on the I/V curves. This
results in general in very low power losses. Reasons for voltage mismatch can be:

• That the string wire length is different from string to string, especially with big
systems (centralized inverters).

• That the temperature may be different from part to part of a big system (colder at
the edges).

• With big systems, the irradiance may be varying from part to part of a system in
case of clouds etc passages.

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This is a transient effect, affecting usually some few seconds or minutes within the hour.
PVsyst neglects this in the present time.

5.4 Soiling loss

Accumulation of dirt and its effect on the system performance is an uncertainty which strongly
depends on the environment of the system, raining conditions, etc. Soiling loss may become
significant in some industrial environments or in desert climates. The soiling loss can be defined
individually for each month to consider periodic cleaning or rainy periods. This parameter may
also be used to describe the effect of snow covering the panels.

5.5 IAM Losses

The incidence effect (the designated term is IAM, for Incidence Angle Modifier) corresponds to
the decrease of the irradiance really reaching the PV cells' surface, with respect to irradiance
under normal incidence. This decrease is mainly due to reflections
on the glass cover, which increases with the incidence angle.
The transmission loss (passage of light through materials) is a general phenomenon, due to the
reflection and transmission of the sun's ray at each material interface (air-glass, glass-EVA, EVA-
cell), as well as some absorption in the glass. The IAM only concerns the angular dependency of
this effect, ie it is normalized to the transmission at perpendicular incidence (0° incidence angle).

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PVsyst uses an IAM function, which describes the deficit of transmission as a function of the incidence angle. This
function is applied to the beam component, and to the diffuse and albedo, using an integral over all seen directions,
assuming an isotropic distribution of the diffuse irradiance.

In principle, this phenomenon obeys the Fresnel's Laws describing transmission and reflections at the interface of two
transparent materials of different refraction indexes.
This is a very general behavior, derived from the general Maxwell's equations describing all electric phenomena. These
laws allow you to calculate the light effectively reaching the cell's surface below the protective layer (usually glass), as a
function of the incidence angle. Now you can add an anti-reflective coating on the top air-glass interface. This thin layer
has a lower refraction index than the glass, which limits the first reflection.

The IAM model is defined with the PV module parameters, page Additional data, Customized IAM. If the IAM curve is
highly over evaluated with respect to the Fresnel's laws, you will have a warning message while opening the .PAN file.
An over evaluated IAM curve could lead to an overestimation of your system's production.

In the Additional Data, Customized IAM you can modify an over evaluated IAM curve by choosing the Default Fresnel.
This manipulation can also be done through the detailed losses window, IAM Losses tab.

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5.6 Auxiliaries
Auxiliary consumption refers to the energy required to operate the system, including components
such as fans, air conditioning, electronic devices, lighting, or any other energy usage. This
consumption must be subtracted from the PV energy produced before it is injected into the grid.

It is defined globally for the entire system and is only taken into account in the simulation if the
"Auxiliaries consumption defined" option is activated.

5.7 Aging
The PV module degradation gives rise to a progressive loss of efficiency, which we will
characterize by a Degradation Loss factor.
The simulation may be run for a specified year of the PV system life and will apply the degradation
for this year. The degradation means a decrease of the PV array yield. It may sometimes have
some "positive" effect on the full system behavior, which may lessen a little bit the degradation
effects. This may be specifically a diminution of the overpower losses when the inverter is strongly
undersized.
The Manufacturer's warranty should be understood as a lower limit for any individual PV module.
In this tool we define an average degradation rate (for a set of modules). This loss value may be
much lower than this guaranteed limit. Some experimental studies mention degradation rates of
the order of -0.3%/year measured as an average on several modules (and measured with very
old modules manufactured in the years 80-90, with old technologies). Long-term degradation rate
measurements are relatively scarce.
NB: Nothing prevents to limit the lifetime of the PV modules to 25 years. A well-maintained PV
system may probably stay operational over much longer periods.

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Furthermore, all the modules will not degrade with the same rate. If you have a distribution of loss
rates around this average, this will produce an additional loss due to mismatch, increasing with
time.
In PVsyst, you can specify the RMS of this distribution (assumed gaussian), and the program will
evaluate the mismatch as a function of the age of the system. This calculation is performed using
a Monte-Carlo method (choice of a large number of random distributions), with the following
hypothesis:
• the degradation rate of each module is constant over the years,
• the distribution choice is limited to 2 sigmas (95% of the hits); because high
discrepancies result in very high mismatch losses.
You can choose to tick the box Keep calculated Mismatch values, to ensure that you run the
same Monte Carlo generated values in every simulation. You can also save them as a model and
apply the same random distribution to other projects.

5.8 Unavailability of the System

It is sometimes useful to consider system failures or maintenance stops in the production
expectations. You can define system unavailability as a fraction of time, or number of days. As
this is usually unpredictable, you have the possibility to define specific periods of unavailability of
the system and generate these periods in a random way. The effective energy loss depends on
the season and the weather during the unavailability periods. Therefore, the unavailability loss
has only a statistical meaning.

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5.9 Spectral correction

Spectral correction accounts for changes in the solar spectrum caused by scattering and absorption in the
atmosphere. These changes depend on factors such as atmospheric water content, aerosols, and the
distance light travels through the atmosphere—expressed as Air Mass (AM).

PVsyst implements several models to describe spectral correction:

1. The CREST model: Used for amorphous silicon modules, this correction is applied
automatically when spectral correction is activated.

2. Spectral correction for PV modules in the Sandia database: This correction is also
applied automatically when spectral correction is activated.

3. The FirstSolar spectral correction model: Disabled by default, but it can be enabled by
the user.

When spectral correction is enabled, the simulation by default uses the set of coefficients
associated with the PV module technology. However, it is possible to modify this setting by
unchecking the corresponding box and selecting another set of coefficients from the available
options. In this case, the coefficient set will no longer adapt to any changes in the PV module in
the system definitions, and it is the user's responsibility to ensure a relevant set is chosen for the
simulation.
The FirstSolar spectral correction model uses the Air Mass and Precipitable Water Column as
input variables. The air mass is computed from altitude and sun position, while the precipitable
water has either to be present in the weather data file, or to be estimated from relative humidity.
Therefore, this correction can only be applied in the simulation, if either the precipitable water or
the relative humidity are present in the weather data variables. For synthetic hourly weather data
files created with PVsyst 6.7.4 or later, the relative humidity is always present.

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If the spectral correction is used in the simulation, this will be mentioned on the final report. The
system summary will list the set of coefficients that was used, and the loss diagram will feature a
contribution called 'spectral losses'.

5.10 Loss graph

To visualize the impact of losses on the I/V behavior of the PV system, click on "Loss Graph"
located at the bottom of the detailed losses settings window. This will open a new window titled
"PV Field Behavior for Each Loss effect." In the new window, at the top right, you can define the
external conditions of the array. In the field below, select the type of loss you wish to display. The
red curve indicates the nominal conditions, representing the upper limit of the system's
performance. For each selected loss, a curve in a different color will appear.

6 Self-consumption
The self-consumption in PVsyst allows users to assess how much of the solar energy generated
by the PV system is consumed locally within a specific building or facility. This analysis helps to
understand the proportion of their electricity needs that can be met by solar energy. This type of
system is connected to the grid, and any excess energy can be fed back into the grid when it is
not being consumed by the user.
There are various options to define the load profile:

• Fixed constant consumption is the most straight forward method to define the user's
needs. You simply specify a constant power or yearly energy.

• Monthly values allow you to define monthly averages, which the simulation will treat as
constants throughout each month. There is no daily modulation.
- Values are defined using the graphic tool in the "monthly values" tab.

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• Daily profiles allow users define hourly values that can be modulated according
to 4 different profiles:
o Constant over the year: The same profile is used throughout the year
o Seasonal modulation: Different daily profiles for each season
o Monthly normalization: where a daily profile can be defined for each
month

o Weekly modulation: Separate daily profiles for "working days" and

"weekends."

• Probability profiles allow you to establish the probability that you will consume a certain
level of power

• Household consumers provide a list of common domestic appliances, including

unit power and daily usage duration.

• Load values from a CSV hourly/daily file to define custom load profiles. You can
select a template from a predefined list, which can be rescaled to match your specific
consumption needs or upload your own profile, following the required format.

o The first column should contain the date. For sub-hourly data, PVsyst will
automatically convert it into hourly values for the simulation.
o The date format must include the day, month, year, hour, and minute.
o The second column should contain the load values, with the unit
specified in the second row of this column.
o The file must be a CSV format with semi-colon delimiters.

By running the simulation, we will get results concerning the non consumed energy that is injected
to the grid, the energy consumed by the user and the energy consumption from the grid,
representing the energy needed when there is not sufficient production, for instance at night .

7 Storage
The battery storage implementation in PVsyst includes to 3 storage strategies:

• Increased Self-consumption

• Peak shaving, when the grid-injection power is limited

• Weak grid recovery, for ensuring an electricity supply when the grid is failing.
Each of these strategies have different constraints. For instance, the self-consumption and Weak
grid recovery require the definition of a user's needs hourly profile, where Peak shaving doesn't
involve a user's needs profile. The battery energy will not be used for feeding the grid, except with
peak shaving. The time of release of the battery energy (discharge) may be different according to
the strategies, cost optimizations, etc.
The sizing of the different parts of the system (PV array, battery pack, as function of the load
profile and the electricity price), is a complex problem, specific to each of these

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strategies. PVsyst provides rough sizing rules until some experience has been accumulated.

After selecting a strategy, you will have one window for the Storage Pack and others for the specific strategy. The
Storage pack window is consistent across all strategies. To specify the battery set, begin by choosing the battery
technology, and selecting a specific battery from the database. Next, define the number of batteries in series and parallel
to configure a battery pack with the required characteristics. The configuration suggested by PVsyst will be based on
the size of your system, the strategy, the consumption profile etc and should not be seen as the optimal configuration,
but a suggestion.

On the right side of the battery configuration, you can see several figures that summarize the properties of the battery
pack.

• The Battery pack voltage will be rounded to an integer value.

• The global capacity (C10) of a battery refers to the battery's total energy storage capacity when discharged
over a 10-hour period. In this context, "C10" indicates the amount of energy in ampere-hours (Ah), the battery
can supply continuously for 10 hours before its voltage drops below a specified threshold. This value helps
characterize the battery's performance under a moderate discharge rate, commonly used for evaluating
storage systems.

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• Stored energy at 80% depth of discharge (DOD) refers to the amount of energy that can
be drawn from a battery when it is discharged to 80% of its total capacity. In this
context, the term highlights the battery's usable energy when 80% of its capacity is
utilized, leaving 20% as reserve. The state of Charge (SOC) can be defined in the next
window. If you change the Minimum discharge (OFF) from the default value of 20%,
the DOD in the storage pack window will adapt accordingly. For Lithium-Ion batteries
the charging cycle should never be 100% DOD, since a deep discharge or an overcharge
reduces the battery lifetime or can even cause irreversible damage.

• The total weight is also displayed for information, to give a rough idea of the
physical size of the battery.

• The next line shows the number of cycles that can be performed at 50% Depth of
Discharge, before the battery reaches the end of its life.

• Finally you can read off the total energy that can be stored over the battery
lifetime.

In the bottom left box, you can choose the battery operating temperature that will be used in the
simulation. The battery temperature is used in the aging model of the battery.
An increase of 10°C in the operating temperature reduces the "static" battery life by a factor of
two. In the System information box, you find additional information about your defined system as
well as some estimation about the behavior of the battery pack.

7.1 Self-consumption with storage

The self-consumption strategy with storage has the objective to increase self-consumption by
storing excess energy, which can be consumed when the production is not enough to fulfill the
users need. Excess energy from PV generators can also be injected into the grid when the
batteries are fully charged, but in this strategy, the energy in the batteries will only be for self-
consumption and will never be injected into the grid.
The load profile must be defined beforehand, and the battery charging will start as soon as there
is an excess PV generation.
By default, PVsyst set up the battery state of charge thresholds for maximum charging and
minimum charging such that when the battery attains 95 percent of its capacity, we will stop
charging and we will discharge, after 20 percent of its capacity, we will stop discharging .

In Operating conditions, we can read an explanation on how batteries will be charged and
discharged. Also, you have the option to allow or not to inject solar energy to the grid.
In Battery input charger, PVsyst suggests a default value of the maximum charging power
based on the possible charging power at maximum irradiance value and charging time during full
sun conditions. Increasing the Maximum charging power will reduce the time of full charge
duration. The battery should not charge too fast: for Lithium-Ion batteries, a full charge in 1 hour
is the minimum reasonable to not compromise the lifetime of the battery. The possible excess
power will be injected into the grid. By default, PVsyst sets the maximum discharge power based
on the load profile predefined in self-consumption. In order to optimize the lifetime of the battery,
please refer to the datasheet to know the adequate discharge time without damaging the battery.
If you for

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instance reduce your discharging power and increase the discharge duration of the batteries,
when you need more power, your system will take it from the grid.

7.2 Peak shaving

If the grid operator limits the power that can be injected into the grid, a battery pack can store
energy during periods of overproduction and inject it at a time when the PV generation drops
below the injection limit. The Peak shaving strategy cannot be used in combination with a self-
consumption profile.
In the Operating condition you must define a Grid power limit and a discharging strategy, you can
choose between 4 options:

• The first option, which is also the default, is “As soon as power is needed”. With this option
selected, the battery will start injecting energy to the grid as soon as the generated AC
power is less than the grid power limit

• The second option is “after sunset”. Here, the grid injection only starts when the
PV generation has dropped to zero at the end of the day.

• The third option is “from a specified hour”. If you select this option, a field will
appear, allowing you to input an hour of the day. Injection from the battery to the grid will
only happen from that hour onwards

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• The fourth and last option is “during a specified hourly period”. With this option
two fields will appear, allowing you to input specific hours of the day. The battery
discharging will only be possible between these two values.

7.3 Weak grid islanding

This option concerns regions where the grid is not reliable (numerous cuts due to load shedding).
This strategy requires the definition of a consumption profile and of a schedule of grid
unavailability.
The PV energy is stored in a battery and returned to the user when the grid is unavailable.
Technologically, this is far from being simple, as the usual solar inverters for feeding the grid
require the presence of the grid for working. There may be several ways to avoid this problem.

For the energy fluxes

• When the sun power is sufficient to feed the user's needs, the rest is used to charge the
battery. If the battery is full the excess will be injected into the grid if this is allowed,
otherwise this energy will be lost (ie the inverter will operate at reduced energy level).

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• When the sun is not sufficient (or during night) the user may be powered by the battery.
However we should keep a storage reserve for the case of grid unavailability.
Therefore we have to define a DOD limit for using the energy in any case, and another
one for supplementing the grid when it is down.
• In case of grid failure, the switch should immediately open, and the user will be
fed by the sun's energy + battery through the SA inverter.
• The control device should be able to limit the solar inverter's power if the injection
into the grid is not allowed.
You have first to define the grid unavailability. This may be done:
• either by specifying the unavailability fraction of time, the number of periods and the
minimum / maximum duration of each period. Then the program can propose a random
distribution of unavailability periods throughout the year.
• or define an hourly sequence of unavailability for the whole year in a CSV
(msExcel) l file.

The battery pack capacity is closely related to the user's needs. Ideally, the remaining energy
below the SOC higher level should allow to cover the maximum needs for the longer unavailability
period. You can obviously diminish this capacity, at the risk of feeding failure.

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You can choose to define the unavailability as random periods or by reading a file. By clicking on "Show graph," you can
visualize the unavailability periods throughout the year.

8 Horizon
The horizon profile is suited for shading objects that are sufficiently located far away from your PV
system, so that the shadings may be considered global on your array. This is the case when the
distance of the shading object is more than about 10 times the PV system size. The Horizon
Profile is a curve that is defined by a set of (Height, Azimuth) points.
The Far Shadings operate in an ON/OFF mode: ie, at a given time, the sun is or is not present on
the field. When the sun is behind the horizon, the beam component becomes null. The effect on
the diffuse component will be explained below.
Clicking the "Horizon" button will open a graph of the sun paths for the project site.

The horizon profile may be defined manually by a set of (Azimuth/Height) points in degrees. These
may be from on-site measurements (using land-surveyors instruments like compass and
inclinometer). They can be imported from several sources, either as a

file or from web sources by clicking:

A PVsyst internal file is a horizon line already saved in your workspace. A standard CSV can be
any text file containing properly structured data. PVsyst will recognize files as valid horizon profiles
if they meet following characteristics:
• File with text or CSV format, containing columns separated with comma,
semicolon, tabulation or space.
• Header/comments:

- All lines containing text are considered comment lines

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- Comment line containing text such as "Latitude 25.3°, Longitude 44.1°" will be used as a comment for the
generated horizon. This comment can later be manually edited.

• Data:

- One line per defined point. Each point defined as an Azimuth and a Height value, expressed in degrees.

• Before import, you can define the angular reference for your file with the Direction of rotation of azimuth as Clockwise
or Counterclockwise and the North azimuth

angle.

• The Meteonorm software produces Horizon profiles, which you can also import into PVsyst. The file name of these
profiles holds the exact coordinates of the site evaluated.

The horizon line can also be imported from web sources directly (with an active internet connection):

• The free service PVGIS provides worldwide horizons. This service is completely integrated in PVsyst, manually
downloading the profile from the web page is not necessary. Simply choose "PVGIS Horizon From WEB" and
press the Import from web button.

• The included Meteonorm web service for horizon profiles provides worldwide
horizons.

For horizon profiles established using a geo-reference grid (like PVGIS and Meteonorm), the exact location should be
carefully defined. You can edit the latitude and longitude in

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this window to be as precise as possible: keep in mind that a degree in latitude is 111 km, the second decimal is 1.1km
and the 4th decimal is 11m. The 4th decimal can still have a big impact in places with high slope.

9 Near shading
The "Near Shading" window is the main dialog providing access to the 3D editor for constructing scenes representing
nearby shading. This functionality is essential for simulating the shading impact on photovoltaic (PV) modules, thereby
calculating the resulting energy losses.

The "Construction/Perspective" button is the key element for accessing the 3D scene editor. This allows defining
surrounding objects that may create shading, such as buildings, trees, or other obstacles, to accurately model the PV
modules' environment.

It is important to note that the primary objective of near shading is to precisely represent irradiance losses due to nearby
objects and to help optimize the solar panel installation to minimize these losses. When objects that may create
shading, as well as the topography, it is advised not to get too detailed and avoid spending time drawing every object
precisely defining. The more detailed the 3D scene, the longer the software will take to calculate shading on the PV
scene. Therefore, it is preferable to keep the drawing simple and representative of the project to ensure efficient
calculations.

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9.1 Compatibility between the 3D Scene and System-Orientation

Once the 3D scene is constructed, the program will check this construction's compatibility with the previously defined PV
system parameters, such as the orientation and layout of the modules. This ensures a consistent and reliable simulation
of losses due to near shading.

In this section, several important pieces of information allow control over compatibility between the 3D scene and the
system definition, as well as orientation.

First, there is a dropdown list for the different existing orientations. Next, information about the number of sub-fields, the
surface area of existing PV modules, and, finally, the total number of PV modules is displayed.

Matching orientation between the 3D scene and the orientation definition is mandatory.
If an incompatibility is detected, the program will ask if you want to update the orientation definition to match the 3D
scene.

Regarding the PV modules' surface area, the software accepts a tolerance for differences between the system definition
and the 3D scene. This tolerance accounts for slight variations that may occur during scene construction while ensuring
consistent surface
areas.

Finally, the total number of PV modules should be close between the system definition and the 3D scene, with a small
tolerance accepted.

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9.2 Simulation Parameter

Three parameters calculate shading-related losses:

Linear Shading
This mode only considers the irradiance deficit on the PV field without electrical effect.
It represents a lower limit of total shading losses. You can run this simulation quickly (by
interpolating values from the shading factors table at each step) or more accurately but slowly,
calculating the complete shading factor at each simulation step.
By Module String
While creating the 3D scene, you can group the modules into distinct strings. With this option, a
shading factor is calculated for each string, and the electrical losses related to shading on each
string are estimated individually. This provides a more detailed estimate of the electrical effects
than a simple linear shading calculation.

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For a more precise result, you can specify the electrical effect fraction from "pure linear" calculation (fraction for electrical
effect of 0%) to full electrical effect (fraction for electrical effect of 100%).

The partition model estimates electrical loss but does not account for module bypass diodes.

Detailed Electrical Calculation (acc. To module layout)

Finally, after specifying a detailed configuration of the "module arrangement" in the 3D scene, you can perform shadow
calculations based on detailed electrical losses. The “module layout” tool is designed for precise mismatch shadow loss
calculations.

This simulation type requires a precise description of each PV module's position in the 3D scene and the interconnection
of modules into strings according to the inverters defined in the "System" section. This allows highly accurate modeling
of shading effects on each module, including losses due to current mismatches between strings.

The advantage of this model is that it calculates shading on inverter-connected strings and considers bypass diodes,
which circumvent shaded zones and thus reduces power losses. This model allows for a more precise shading-related
electrical loss calculation than the partition model.

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9.3 Orientations, table, graph buttons

Orientations

The "Orientation" button opens the orientation management window without having to leave this
window, enabling additional orientation management operations.

Table

The Table button enables you to build the shading factor table, which calculates the shading
factor for different directions from which sunlight comes.
This process calculates the diffuse and albedo attenuation factors, which remain the same
throughout the year.
Following this, you can view the Iso-shading diagram and start the simulation.
If you set up a partition in module strings when building your 3D model, two tables will be
generated at the same time: one for the standard "irradiance" or "linear" shading factor, and
another based on the module strings.

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The Shading Factor represents the proportion of the PV field that is shaded relative to its total sensitive area, for a specific
sun orientation (where 0 means no shading and 1 means completely shaded).

Calculating this at every step of the simulation could be time-consuming. To address this, the program creates tables with
pre-calculated Shading Factor values at intervals of 10° for sun height and 20° for azimuth. These tables allow quick
interpolation to determine the Shading Factor for any direction of sunlight, a method known as "Fast calculation" mode.

It's possible to calculate the Shading Factor at every step of the simulation to avoid errors from interpolation, referred to
as "Slow calculation" mode. In this scenario, the pre-calculated tables are not used for determining the shading on the
beam and circumsolar components.

Graph

The iso-shading diagram visually represents the shading factor table. It displays contour lines for specific shading factors,
overlaid on the paths that the sun takes through the sky.

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Blue lines on the diagram mark the points where the sun's rays are parallel to the surface.

This diagram provides a concise overview of how shading varies with the seasons and times of day throughout the year.

The irregular look of the lines is due to the interpolations across discrete calculation points.

Remember that this loss factor applies to the beam component reaching the PV plane.
When the incident angle is high, even high loss factors will act on very low irradiance component, giving rise to reasonable
effects on the overall efficiency.

9.4 Construction/Perspective, 3D scene

Clicking on the "Construction/Perspective" button opens a new window where the 3D scene is located.

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To begin, there are several strategies for creating a 3D scene in PV.

First Strategy: You can create your PV tables as well as objects that will cast shadows on the PV tables.

Second Strategy: You can import a 3D scene created with another software. The following formats are supported for
import:

3DS, DAE, PVC, H2P.

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More information can be found in the tutorial "Exporting 3D Scene to PVsyst."

Third Strategy: This involves combining the first and second strategies. You can import a PV scene and then modify it in
PVsyst by adding additional objects that may create shading.

It is also possible to import a topography with a satellite image of your site specified in the "Project" section.

File menu

Several actions are available:

New Scene: Allows you to create a new scene by

clearing the previous one.

Read Scene: Loads a previously exported scene using

the "Export Scene" function.

Read Building: Loads a building exported with the

"Export Selected Element" function.

Read Object: Loads an object exported with the "Export

Selected Element" function.

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Export Scene: Allows exporting the entire scene to

save it for future projects.

Export Selected Objects: Exports the selected object

for later re-import.

Save Scene View: Saves the scene view to record it

as an image.

Print: Prints the 3D scene.

9.5 Create Menu

The "Create" menu is divided into two main sections:

Object Creation

The first section is dedicated to creating different scene objects. PVsyst allows creating a variety of 2D and 3D objects to
represent elements like buildings, trees, roofs, and other architectural obstacles. You can choose from a library of basic
objects (2D and 3D shapes, construction elements) and assemble them to build more complex objects. It's also possible
to customize the terrain topography by creating specific ground objects.

Created objects can be adjusted in terms of dimensions and position to fit your PV installation layout.

In the shape type, several models are available:

First, there are surface models, which are simple, elementary 2D shapes, and surface models, which are elementary 3D
models.

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In this list, the construction objects are basic, with trees being a useful model example.
Lastly, there are special shapes like a wind turbine

and an electric pylon.

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PV Element Creation

The second part of the "Create" menu concerns creating photovoltaic elements. This includes creating different types
of PV fields, such as:

Single PV Table: A rectangular area intended to host PV modules.

Tracker Row: One or more tables that follow the sun to maximize irradiance reception.

Table Row: Multiple tables placed one behind the other, commonly used in ground installations.

Dome Row: Groups of tables in an East-West opposing configuration.

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Sunshade Row: Vertically aligned tables, suitable for facades.

Rectangular PV Plane (single or multiple): Frame-less sensitive rectangles that can be created in multiple instances
within the same plane.

Polygonal PV Plane: A field of any shape drawn with the mouse, allowing maximum flexibility.

For each PV field type, you can define specific parameters like orientation, the number of tables, layout, spacing
between tables, etc. These parameters can be adjusted to meet your installation's needs and optimize energy production.

The created objects and PV fields can then be integrated into the 3D scene to simulate shading effects and other
environmental factors on your installation accurately.

9.6 Edit Menu

In the "Edit" menu, several tools allow you to manipulate a scene object.

Undo: Reverse actions, can be done with "CTRL+Z".

Redo: Reapplies an action that was undone, can be done with

"CTRL+Y".

Copy: Copies an element, can be done with the "CTRL+C" shortcut.

Paste: Pastes a copied element, can be done with the "CTRL+V"

shortcut.

Edit an Object: Allows modifying a scene object by double-clicking

on it.

Delete the Selected Object: Delete the selected object, can be

done with the "DEL"
shortcut.

Move Selection: Moves the selected item, also accessible from the main menu.

Rotate Selection: Rotates the selected item, also accessible from the main menu.

Rotate whole scene: Applies azimuth rotation to all scene objects.

Modify selected objects: Opens the "List and Object Management" window for grouped modifications, accessible with
"CTRL+G."

Set Auto Altitude: Sets an object's automatic altitude based on another object, useful for automatically setting a PV
object's altitude on a surface.

9.7 Transform Menu

The transform menu allows changing an object's surface into a PV surface.

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Transform to PV Faces: Selected faces can be transformed into a PV surface.

Transform to Objects: Converts PV surfaces to non-PV objects.

Convert Fixed Tables to Trackers: Converts the selected PV table into a tracker.

Transform Selected PV Tables to arrays of tables: Converts a single PV table into a PV table field.

Transform Selected PV Tables to a Single array of table: Converts multiple single PV tables into a single table row.

Transform to Ground Object: Converts an object into a ground object.

9.8 Tools Menu

Orientation understanding educational tool: This tool
opens an educational resource to understand the orientation
of PV
tables.

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In the Base slope tab, users can view a PV table with an initial orientation and apply a base inclination, such as ground
slope, to see the resulting tilt and azimuth. Users can experiment by inputting a "Nominal Inclination," "Nominal Azimuth,"
and adjusting the "Base Inclination," potentially representing terrain slope, to observe the final tilt and azimuth after
applying the base inclination.

The Angle Between Planes tab helps users understand the angle value between the normal of two PV table planes by
adjusting their orientations. Users can experiment to see the angle difference between two PV planes, which appears in
the "Angle Between Planes" area.

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Thin objects shading analysis:

This tool demonstrates the effect of fine shading on a PV surface. Users can input variables like
the width of a narrow object, the distance from the object to the PV surface, and the PV cell's
size. This tool calculates and shows the maximum shading percentage on a PV cell based on
these parameters.

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Trackers diffuse shading definition:

Dedicated to PV field trackers, this tool defines the contribution of diffuse light on PV tables.
Users can set up a representative tracker to calculate shading factors for use in simulations,
reducing diffuse shading computation time compared to using all trackers.
Options include:
• select the central tracker in the scene

• select a tracker manually

• select all trackers

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Shading Scene Summary:

Opens an informative window listing all objects in the project scene.

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List and Management of object (Ctrl+G):

Opens a window listing all scene objects for easy modification.

Automatic Altitude: Opens a tool to place PV objects above other objects automatically.

Orientation Management (Ctrl+Shift+O):

The Orientation Management window lets users view a list of scene orientations and check for
consistency between the 3D scene and system definition. Users can review the matching PV
surfaces and module count between the definitions, reassign existing orientations to new ones,
and see orphan orientations to reassign.

Backtracking Management
PVsyst's backtracking management tool optimizes the backtracking strategy to minimize mutual
shading between PV trackers. It identifies two reference trackers to calculate the backtracking
angle for all scene trackers. This tool is accessible in the PVsyst 3D editor,

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helping users select optimal parameters based on distances between trackers, supporting
irregular configurations, and minimizing electrical losses from shading.

When defining a backtracking strategy, PVsyst identifies two reference trackers to establish the
backtracking relationship (tracker width and distance). During simulation, the same backtracking
angle applies to all trackers based on this reference.

In 3D scenes, trackers are often defined independently in external CAD software, but PVsyst
groups them into tables, making it necessary to identify a reference tracker pair for full backtracking
calculations.

This tool lists distances between neighboring trackers in descending order. Selecting a tracker
with the highest ground coverage ratio (GCR) allows for a recommended neighbor tracker
(highlighted in orange) to associate with. Users can set backtracking reference parameters
automatically or select specific tracker fields in the list.

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The selected tracker series appears in green, both in the scene and in the list.

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Check Scene Validity: Verifies the validity of the 3D scene.

Disable Field Interpretation Check: Sometimes, objects touch PV surfaces in the scene,
despite minimal spacing, such as a roof and PV module. PVsyst flags this as a 3D interpenetration
error, which can be ignored by disabling this setting. Use caution as shading calculations may
be impacted.
Use Partial Shading Calculations: Calculates shading on an entire scene over a small selected
PV area. This reduces computation time for large, resource-heavy scenes and is useful for
homogeneous shading scenes.

9.9 Main Menu

This chapter explains the main menu visible on the 3D scene window.

History: Actions like creating, selecting, or modifying objects are logged,

allowing undo/redo.
• Undo : Ctrl+Z

• Redo : Ctrl+Y

Selection:

• Default Selection: Press Esc to deselect an object.

• Click any object to select it; click edges in technical view to select an object.

• Rectangle Selection: Shift+Ctrl+R

o Click and drag to draw a selection rectangle.
o You can specify whether you wish to select all objects touching the
rectangle, or only those inside it.
• Lasso Selection: Ctrl+L

o Click and drag to draw a selection area.

o You can specify whether you wish to select all objects touching the area, or only
those insides.
• Add to Selection: Hold Shift

• Remove from Selection: Hold Ctrl

• Select All: Ctrl+A

Point of view

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Move View: Click and drag to move the viewpoint.

Rotate Camera: Click and drag to rotate around the current target.
Perspective View**: F2
Top View: F3
Front View: F4
Side View: F5

Sun View: F6 - Aligns the view to the current sun position; adjust in the right-side "Tool"

tab.

Zoom Options
Zoom In: F7
Zoom Out: F8

Zoom by Rectangle: Click and drag to define the viewing area.

Fit Zoom: Ctrl+F - Zooms to see all selected objects.
All these tools are also accessible in the View menu.

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Additional Tools

Observer Position: Opens the "tools" tab on

the right, allowing a precise observer viewpoint.

Center on Selected Object: Centers the view on a selected object.

Back to Default View: Resets the observer to the default

position, looking towards the scene origin (X=0; Y=0; Z=0).

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Rendering Options
Technical View/Realistic View:

• Technical View:

o Displays objects in wireframe; selectable by edges only. Colors are

defined by object type and selection state, without real-time lighting or shadows.

• Realistic View:

o Objects appear more realistic; selectable on any visible part. Colors are
customizable for each object, with real-time lighting.

• Perspective / Orthogonal Projection

o Orthogonal Projection: This is the default and is recommended when
building the scene.
o Perspective Projection: Provides a more realistic view of the scene, useful
for creating shadow videos or reports.

Module Chains: Displays the module chains defined in the module layout.

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Other Rendering Options

In the "View / Rendering Options" menu, you can enable/disable the following:

• Enable anti-aliasing: Smooths object edges. Availability may depend on your

hardware and could reduce performance.

• Enable real-time shadows: Enables real-time shadow viewing. Activating this option
may reduce performance.

• Enable camera animation: Animates the transition when switching views.

Activating this option may slightly reduce performance.

• Show backfaces: Shows or hides the back faces of objects, meaning those not oriented
toward the viewpoint. Hiding them increases performance.

Measure

Measure a Distance: Ctrl+L - Click to set the starting point, then click again to set the end point.
Hold Ctrl to snap to an object vertex.
Measure an Angle: Ctrl+K - Click to set the vertex, then points #1 and #2. Hold Ctrl to snap to
an object vertex.

Modify
Edit Objects: Ctrl+M
Move Objects: Ctrl+B

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Rotate Objects: Ctrl+R

Rotate Entire Scene: Ctrl+Alt+R

Additional Tools

Drawing: Draw objects with the mouse

The freehand drawing tool allows you to create objects directly in the scene using the mouse.
This tool currently allows drawing the following objects:
• Triangle
• Parallelepiped
• House
• Tree
• Wire
• Extruded Polygon (by defining the 2D outline
and height)
• Rectangular PV Table
To start, click the button to open the object selection menu and choose the desired object type.
Then follow the instructions in the tooltip for each object.

Field zones: In the shading scene, you can define areas that will be filled with PV tables.
These zones are defined on the XY plane as drawn on the ground, with tables dynamically
placed in the scene. The tables are positioned based on the objects they lie on, so if a zone is
drawn on a roof, tables will be positioned accordingly at the correct altitude. This also applies to
zones on topographies. You can specify if you want the tables to automatically tilt according to
the object they are on.
Creating Zones: To create or edit zones, click the **Zone tool**, then find the "Zone
Editing" section on the right side of the window

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The button to create a rectangular

zone allows you to define the upper-left and lower-
right corners of the rectangle in the scene.

The button to create a polygonal zone

lets you define new points by left clicking in the
scene. To end the zone definition, right-click.

The button to draw a freeform zone lets

you click and drag the mouse. Right-click to finish
defining the zone.

This button
opens the table field editing dialog to define
parameters for the tables generated within the
zone.

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Basic Settings Tab: The initial tab allows the following adjustments:

• Description: Sets a custom label for the zone.

• Global table sizes: Summarizes the table's dimensions.

• Orientation: Choose the orientation for table generation.

Table size tab: The Table size tab includes a dedicated area for photovoltaic modules.
When setting up a field, specify the associated PV module. A table can only hold PV modules of the same size.

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Sizes definition:

• By Modules: This recommended option defines an area exactly suited for the
desired module count with specific spacing.

• By Sensitive Area: Specify the desired PV table size without constraints initially.
Later, retrieve the exact size for your modules by selecting "By Modules."
Both options can be adjusted by dragging red points with the mouse, with modules filling the
available space as sizes are modified.

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Section “by modules” shows information regarding the PV

module chosen in the system definition.

It allows you to select the orientation of the module by

“Landscape” or “Portrait”.

It also lets you define the number of modules the PV table

will contain, as well as their spacing.

After completing this setup, return to the Zone Editing section:

Pitch: Distance between the bases of tables in consecutive

rows.

Table Spacing: Distance between

consecutive tables in the same row.

Align tables: Defines table alignment in each row within the

defined zone.

Distance from ground: Defines the height of the PV planes

relative to the ground.

Automatic Tilt: Enabling this option overrides the tilt parameter,

letting tables adopt the tilt of the surface they're on.

Automatic Length: Enabling this option overrides the length

parameter, extending a single table in each row to fit the zone.

Create Trackers: When enabled, fills the area with trackers.

The "Fill Zone"

button calculates the required space for PV tables based on
the specified parameters.

After positioning the tables, the following buttons allow further

modifications:

Select all tables.

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Add or remove tables.

Move tables along their axis.

Exclusion Zone: Finally, it is possible to define exclusion zones where tables won't be

added. These zones can be drawn as previously

described.

Ground Image: Reopens a section allowing image scaling and opacity

adjustments.

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Geographic/Building Reference:

To ease complex system construction, you can build within a reference framework linked to the building, where
coordinates (X, Y, Z) match the architectural plan. This framework enables scene rotation according to geographic
coordinates, and you can toggle between coordinate systems using dedicated 3D editor toolbar buttons.

The construction reference includes the following section:

This tool modifies the azimuth of the entire

scene.

Global Reference Orientations

The global reference system for the shading scene aligns with cardinal points:

Northern Hemisphere: X-direction is west, Y-direction is south, and Z points upward (zenith). PV field azimuths are
defined relative to the south (OY) and are positively oriented clockwise toward the west.

Southern Hemisphere: X points east, Y north. Azimuths are measured from north (OY) and oriented positively
counterclockwise toward the west.

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In the 3D scene window, the right section contains two tabs:

Scene Objects: View scene objects, existing orientations,

and created groups, allowing zone selection.

Tools: Access various tools previously mentioned.

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Shading animation:
This tool displays the shadow animation in the scene for a given date. By default, it is set to
December 21, the day of the lowest sun height in the Northern Hemisphere. The interval can be
adjusted for a more precise shadow result.

Clicking this icon the shadow animation starts.

For example, the linear shading on PV module surfaces on December 21 is 16.3%.

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The sun icon locks the view to the sun's position, and the horizontal scroll bar lets you
navigate the hours of the day, adjusting the sun's position simultaneously. The save

icon enables video creation of the animation that can be saved.

10Energy management
In PVsyst, energy management encompasses functions related to the inverter temperature, power
factor, grid power limitation, and P50/P90 energy yield analysis.
These features collectively aid users in optimizing and managing the energy performance of
photovoltaic systems in PVsyst.

10.1 Inverter Temperature

Inverters are responsible for converting the direct current (DC) electricity generated by solar
panels into alternating current (AC) electricity for use in the grid. Inverter efficiency decreases as
its temperature rises. Higher temperatures can result in increased losses during the conversion
process, leading to lower AC power output. By precisely choosing the temperature model
approach for the simulation of the inverter temperature, you can
more accurately estimate and evaluate the inverter's efficiency, system performance, safety and
reliability. The inverter's temperature profile and evaluation for limits can be found in the PVsyst
inverter file (.OND file) under Output parameters tab.

In the simulation, by default the inverter temperature is the external ambient temperature (outdoor
installation). This strategy can be modified in Inverter Temperature page in the Energy
management.

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The reference inverter temperature may be specified in the output system parameters by:

• Ambient external temperature, the usual parameter admitted by manufacturers for outdoor installation.

• Ambient external temperature + specified shift

• Fixed temperature + linear increase proportional to the power (represented by the incident irradiance). This could
be used for indoor inverters and not perfect cooling installation.

10.2 Power Factor

Power factor control in PV systems is a critical aspect of modern grid management, as it helps optimize the interaction
between solar energy production and grid stability.

In alternating current (AC) circuits, power can be understood in three distinct forms: active power, reactive power, and
apparent power.

• Active Power ( ): This is the real power that performs useful work, such as producing movement or heat. It is
the power that directly translates into energy consumption, measured in kilowatts (kW). In an AC circuit,
active power is calculated by multiplying the effective values of voltage and current, and then
multiplying by the cosine of the phase angle (ÿ) between them:

= ÿ
ÿ (ÿ)

• Reactive Power ): This is "virtual" power, representing the energy

(temporarily stored and released by inductive (motors, transformers) or capacitive devices.
Reactive power, expressed in kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAr), does not contribute to actual energy
consumption (no heat or movement is produced). It is calculated using the sine of the phase angle (ÿ):

= ÿ
ÿ (ÿ)

• Apparent Power ( ): This is the combined effect of both active and

reactivate power. It represents the total power flowing in the circuit, measured in

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kilovolt-amperes (kVA), and is the product of voltage and current, irrespective of their
phase difference:
=ÿ

The relationship between active and apparent power is quantified by the power factor (PF), which
is simply the cosine of the phase angle (ÿ). Power factor is crucial because it indicates how
efficiently electrical power is being used:

= (ÿ) =

In photovoltaic systems, inverters convert the direct current (DC) from solar panels into alternating
current (AC) for grid integration. With modern inverter technology it is possible to control the
phase angle between voltage and current. This allows the inverter to generate reactive power
without additional energy consumption. By adjusting the phase shift between voltage and current,
PV systems can support grid needs for reactive power without compromising their active energy
production.
Reactive power plays an essential role in compensating for the reactive loads, typically introduced
by motors or transformers in the grid. This compensation is often a requirement set by grid
managers to maintain grid stability. By adjusting the phase angle (ÿ), inverters can either "absorb"
or "generate" reactive power, depending on the needs of the grid:

Lagging reactive power: When the current lags behind the voltage, with a positive phase angle,
ÿ > 0. Defining a lagging PF in your inverter means the inverter will inject reactive power into the
grid to help compensate for reactive power demand of inductive loads
such as motors and transformers.

Leading reactive power: When the current leads the voltage, with a negative phase angle, ÿ <
0. Defining a leading PF in your inverter means the inverter will absorb reactive power from the
grid (or “consume” it), helping to counterbalance the excess reactive power generated by
capacitive loads.
When inverters are required to produce reactive power, it does not affect the active energy output
directly. However, depending on whether the inverter's nominal power (PNom) is defined as
active power (kW) or apparent power (kVA), the inverter's capacity to handle overloads may be
affected. If PNom is based on apparent power, the maximum available active power will be
reduced by a factor of the power factor:
= ÿ cos ( ÿ)
( ) ( )

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Grid operators may impose power limits based on either active or apparent power. If the limit is
set on apparent power, PV systems will need to adjust the power factor to comply, potentially
reducing the amount of active energy delivered to the grid.
When the power factor decreases (ie, more reactive power is produced), the current in the system
must increase to maintain the same level of active power. Since ohmic losses in cables and
transformers are proportional to the square of the current, this leads to higher energy losses in
the system:

= )
( )
( cos (ÿ)

In PVsyst simulations, the power factor is an adjustable parameter, typically fixed for a given period or specified monthly.
The simulation results focus on active energy (in kWh), but when a power factor is defined, the apparent energy (in
kVAh) is also calculated:

=
cos (ÿ)
The apparent energy will always be greater than the active energy due to the inclusion of reactive
power.

The nominal power rating of inverters may be an active power or apparent power:
• In the case of active power rating, reactive energy does not come at the cost of
active power.
• In the case of an apparent power rating, reactive energy may come at the cost of
activate power, when close or at the maximum power threshold.

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Force as apparent/active power" will force all inverters to operate under these conditions. This means
that inverters may not operate like in the datasheet anymore.

This has been kept here for compatibility with old versions < 7.3.3, and for possible tests. It is not recommended.

10.3 Grid Power limitation

To maximize energy production, one strategy is to over-size the PV installation, accepting some energy losses during
peak production hours (peak-shaving). The grid limitation feature in PVsyst allows you to set limits on the power that
your PV system injects into the grid, based on requirements from the grid manager. This is often needed when grid
operators request a maximum limit to prevent overloading.

The power limitation must occur at the inverter level by adjusting the operating point on the PV array's I/V curve to
produce only the necessary power. The inverter will ensure that the power output matches the grid's required limit.

In the Power limitation dialog, you can define one value for the grid limitation that will be applied throughout the year.
The limitation may be defined:

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• either at the inverter level: the inverter power is limited to the rated value, and the power injected into the grid is
further reduced by the losses defined after the inverter (auxiliaries, AC wiring, transformer).

• or at the injection point level: the maximum power delivered to the grid is indeed the rated limit, the inverter will
have to deliver a higher power for compensating the losses after the inverter.

This limitation may be required:

• either as active power (expressed in kW),

• or as apparent power [kVA]: in this case the effective active power [kW] is limited at a lower value than the
apparent power limit [kVA]. The Cos(Phi), specific for the grid limitation, may be specified in yearly or monthly
values.

The excess energy will be accounted as "Inverter loss over nominal power" or when
"Account as separate loss", the results will show separately the loss due to the inverter limitation itself, and the loss
(named EUnused) due to the additional condition of grid limitation. This does not correspond exactly to the physical
behavior of the system, which will always clip at the inverter level, but it is meant to show explicitly the part of the clipping
losses due to the injection limitation.

10.4 P50 - P90 Estimate

The P50 - P90 evaluation is a probabilistic approach for the interpretation of the simulation results over several years. This
approach assumes that over several years of operation, the distribution of the annual yields will follow a statistical law,
which is assumed to be the Gaussian (or "normal") distribution.

The normal/Gaussian distribution describes the tendency for data to cluster around a central value, this value is the mean.
Some data will then fall below the mean and other above the mean. The standard deviation Sigma describes the spread
of the normal distribution. The larger the Sigma, the more spread out the distribution will be. And on the contrary, with a
smaller Sigma, the distribution is less spread out, accumulating more data near the mean.

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The P50-P90 evaluation of the energy yield potential of a site, represents a statistical level of
confidence for which the probability that the production of a particular year is above this value is
50%, resp. 90%.
The annual variability will be dominated by the weather year-to-year variability. Several weather
data providers can now deliver multi-year weather data (sets of 15 to 25 years), that you can
directly import into PVsyst (for example SolarGIS, 3-Tiers Vortex, Soda-Helioclim, or others). If
you avail of such weather data for your site, you can calculate the RMS of the annual GlobInc
distribution. You have a tool for doing this in PVsyst: please use "Databases > Compare Weather
Data", and choose the corresponding .MET files for different years. You have an option "Histo
and Probabilities" which shows the gaussian distribution, average and RMS.

If the data are representative of an average over several years (like monthly averages or TMY),
the result of the simulation can be considered as the average, and corresponds to P50 (mean
value of the Gaussian). If the data are for a specified year, these cannot be considered as
representative of the P50 value. In the absence of further information you cannot determine a
reliable P50-P90 indicator. But if you have some information about the usual average of the site,
you can enter an estimate of the deviation of this particular year with respect to the average.

Additional uncertainties in the simulation process could eventually be taken into account. These
deviations should represent random variability of the uncertainty from year to year, not absolute
uncertainty.
The P50-P90 statistical estimates are based on yearly values. P90 for hourly or daily values (or
even for monthly accumulations) doesn't provide meaningful results due to the high variability of
short-term weather patterns.

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