Vidya Vikas Education Society’s

Vikas college of Arts, Science and Commerce

Department of B. Voc. M.L.T
A.Y. 2024-2025
F. Y. B. Voc MLT
Subject: Medical Laboratory Technology
Semester 1

Professional Training Report

Name of the student : Shaikh Amina Mohammed Azeem

Roll Number : 2412141935
Name of laboratory : Shieldcare Diagnostic and Healthcare
Student’s Signature :
Class teacher’s Signature :
Marks Obtained :

Head of the department (signature)

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 INTRODUCTION
LAB ADDRESS : Shop no.8, Dalvi CHS, Asalpha Village, Pipeline

road, near Hanuman Mandir, Ghatkopar West,

Mumbai- 400084

DEPARTMENTS OF LABORATORY :

 Reception Counter
 Phlebotomy
 Haematology
 Serology
 Clinical Pathology
 Biochemistry

TESTS PERFORMED IN LABORATORY:

HAEMATOLOGY
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT (CBC)
ESR
SMEAR FOR MALARIA PARASITE
MALARIA ANTIGEN (P.VIVAX & P.FALCIPARUM)
BLOOD GROUP ABO & RH FACTOR
G6PD (QUALITATIVE)
G6PD (QUANTITATIVE)
RETIC COUNT
HBA1C
HB VARIANT ANALYSIS BY HPLC (HBA2/F ANALYSIS) HB
ELECTROPHORESIS
BLEEDING TIME CLOTTING TIME (BT CT)
PROTHROMIBIN TIME (PT INR)
ACTIVATED PARTIAL THROMBOPLASTIN TIME (APTT)
BIOCHEMISTRY
BLOOD GLUCOSE FASTING (FBS)
BLOOD GLUCOSE POST PRANDIAL (PPBS)
BLOOD GLUCOSE FASTING & POST PRANDIAL (F & PP)
BLOOD GLUCOSE RANDOM (RBS)
TOTAL CHOLESTEROL
TRIGLYCERIDES
HDL CHOLESTEROL

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 LDL CHOLESTROL
SGPT (ALT)
SGOT (AST)
BILIRUBIN (TOTAL, DIRECT & INDIRECT)
TOTAL PROTEIN
ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE
GAMMA- GLUTAMYL TRANSFERASE (GGT)
CREATININE
CREATININE WITH EGFR
UREA
BUN
URIC ACID
CALCIUM
PHOSPHORUS
ELECTROLYTES (NA+, K+, CL-)
LDH
MAGNESIUM
AMYLASE
LIPASE
CPK-MB
CPK-TOTAL
RA (QUANLITATIVE)
RA (QUANTITATIVE)
CRP (QUANTITATIVE)
Hs-CRP (high-sensitive C-reactive protein)
SEROLOGY
HIV
HBSAG
HCV
VDRL
WIDAL
ASO- TITRE
RAPID CARD TEST
DENGUE NS1 ANTIGEN
DENGUE IgG & IgM
DENGUE COMBO (IgG, IgM & NS1)
CHIKUNGUNYA IGG & IGM
LEPTOSPIRA IGG
LEPTOSPIRA IGM
LEPTOSPIRA IGG & IGM
TYPHI DOT
UPT (URINE PREGNANCY TEST)
PROFILE

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 LIPID PROFILE
LFT- LIVER FUNCTION TEST
RFT/ KFT- RENAL FUNCTION TEST/ KIDNEY FUNCTION TEST WITH URINE
RFT/ KFT- RENAL FUNCTION TEST/ KIDNEY FUNCTION TEST WITHOUT
URINE
IRON STUDIES
ANC (ANTENATAL PROFILE) CBC, BL.GROUP, BSR, HIV, HCV, HBSAG, VDRL,
TSH & URINE
FEVER PACKAGE-1 (CBC, ESR, MP, WIDAL, DENGUE NS1 & URINE )
FEVER PACKAGE-2 (CBC, ESR, MP, WIDAL, DENGUE NS1, SGOT, SGPT, BILI &
URINE )
FEVER ADVANCE (CBC, ESR, MP, TYPHI DOT, DENGUE COMBO & SGPT)
CARDIAC (CPK-MB, SGOT, TROP-T & LDH)
CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
URINE ROUTINE
STOOL ROUTINE
STOOL OCCULT BLOOD TEST
STOOL REDUCING SUBSTANCE
SEMEN ANALYSIS

M D PATH NAME : S N Tripathi

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CONTENTS

List Page no.

Abbreviation 4

Declaration 5

Summary of Training Report 6

Safety majors 7

Phlebotomy 10

a) Venipuncture process 11

b) Coagulation tubes 13

c) Specimen storage container 14

d) Bio Medical waste segregation 15

Haematology 16

a) CBC 17

b) ESR 18

c) Blood group 19

Serology 21

a) VDRL Test 22

b) WIDAL Test 23

c) HbSAG 24

d) HIV 24

e) Rheumatoid Arthritis 25

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6|Page
ABBREVIATION
Sr.No Word Full Meaning
1 ESR Erthrocyte sedimentation rate
2 Hb Haemoglobin
3 WBC White Blood Cell
4 RBC Red Blood Cell
5 Het Hematocrit
6 BUN Blood Urea Nitrogen
7 HIV Human Immune Deficiency Virus
8 RFT Renal Function Test
9 LFT Liver Function Test
10 ASO Anti Streptosylin- O
11 KFT Kidney Function Test
12 VDRL Veneral Disease Research Laboratory
13 WIDAL Widely Investigated Disease Assay Laboratory
14 SGOT Serum Glutamate Oxalaoacetate Transaminase
15 SGPT Serum Glutamate Pyurvate Transaminase
16 ALP Alkaline Phosphatase
17 G6PD Glucose 6 Peroxidase
18 CBC Complete Blood Count
19 Mm Milimeter
20 IU International Unit
21 L Low Value
22 H High

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 DECLARATION
I Shaikh Amina hereby declare that the Training Report, submitted for partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of internship of Shieldcare
Diagnostics and Healthcare, Dalvi CHS, Asalpha Village, Pipeline road,
Ghatkopar is a bonafide work done by me under supervision of Manisha
Gaikwad and Durga Pratap Shetty. This submission represents my ideas in my
own words and where ideas or words of others have been included, I have
adequately and accurately cited and referenced the original sources. I also
declare that I have adhered to ethics of academic honesty and integrity and have
not misrepresented or fabricated any data or idea or fact or source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for
disciplinary action by the institute and/or the University and can also evoke
penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from
whom proper permission has not been obtained. This report has not been
previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or similar title
of any other University.

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 SUMMARY OF TRAINING REPORT

This report describe a brief of the work that has been carried out by me in the
laboratory during training at Shieldcare Diagnostics. I have been working in the
laboratory during my training period from . There were 5 departments where I
have worked and these department were Phlebotomy, Clinical Pathology,
Biochemistry, Haematology, Serology.

 In PHLEBOTOMY I have learned how to collect blood specimen. The

different tubes are used for different tests and separation of serum and
plasma is done for testing.
 In HAEMATOLOGY I have learned how to operate CBC machine i.e
(Benesphera H33s). The test which is conduct in the machine are RBC,
WBC, PLATELET count and clotting factors.
 In SERLOGY There was most of work was done manually but most of I
have used readymade kit provided by Manufacturer Company. These
tests were WIDAL, VDRL and RA.
 In CLINICAL PATHOLOGY I have learned how to perform Urine
routine which gives number of tests Glucose, Bilirubin, Ketone, Protien,
Urobilinigen, Nitrite, Erythrocytes, colour of urine and Ph etc. I have also
examined stool slides where I observed some human parasites.
 In BIOCHEMISTRY section was too fully automated machine
(UROLAB 240) which give result of Glucose, Uric acid, Cholestrol and
Triglycerides, etc.

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 SAFETY MAJORS FOR CLINICAL
LABORATORY

 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

1. Lab coats: Wear lab coats to prevent skin contact with chemicals and
biological agents.

2. Gloves: Wear gloves to prevent skin contact with chemicals and biological
agents.

3. Masks: Wear masks to prevent inhalation of airborne pathogens.

4. Eye protection: Wear goggles or safety glasses to prevent eye exposure to

chemicals and biological agents.

 Laboratory Safety Equipment

1. Biosafety cabinets: Use biosafety cabinets to contain airborne pathogens.

2. Fume hoods: Use fume hoods to contain chemical fumes.

3. Centrifuges: Use centrifuges with safety lids to prevent accidents.

4. Autoclaves: Use autoclaves to sterilize equipment and supplies.

 Chemical Safety
1. Labeling: Label chemicals with their names, hazards, and precautions.

2. Storage: Store chemicals in designated areas, away from incompatible

substances.

3. Handling: Handle chemicals with care, using PPE and following safety
protocols.

4. Disposal: Dispose of chemicals according to regulations and guidelines.

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 Biological Safety
1. Handling: Handle biological agents with care, using PPE and following
safety protocols.

2. Storage: Store biological agents in designated areas, away from incompatible

substances.

3. Disposal: Dispose of biological agents according to regulations and

guidelines.

4. Decontamination: Decontaminate equipment and surfaces after use.

 Fire Safety
1. Fire extinguishers: Install fire extinguishers in the laboratory.

2. Fire alarms: Install fire alarms in the laboratory.

3. Emergency exit: Designate an emergency exit.

4. Fire safety training: Provide fire safety training to laboratory personnel.

 Electrical Safety
1. Electrical equipment: Regularly inspect electrical equipment.

2. Cord management: Keep cords organized and secure.

3. Grounding: Ensure equipment is properly grounded.

4. Electrical safety training: Provide electrical safety training to laboratory

personnel.

 Emergency Preparedness
1. Emergency plan: Develop an emergency plan.

2. First aid kit: Maintain a first aid kit.

3. Spill response: Establish a spill response plan.

4. Drills and training: Conduct regular drills and training exercises.

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 Regulatory Compliance
1. OSHA regulations: Comply with OSHA regulations.

2. CLIA regulations: Comply with CLIA regulations.

3. State and local regulations: Comply with state and local regulations.

4. Accreditation standards: Comply with accreditation standards.

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 PHLEBOTOMY

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 PHLEBOTOMY
INTRODUCTION :
Phlebotomy is the medical practice of drawing blood from patients for
diagnostic testing, transfusions, or research purpose.
Types of Phlebotomy :
 Venipuncture: Collecting blood from a vein using a needle and syringe.
 Capillary puncture: Collecting from a capillary using a lancet or needle.
 Arterial puncture: Collecting blood from an artery using a needle and
syringe.
Most often use method for collection of blood is venipuncture. Method of blood
collection by venipunture includes following processes:
Preparation
1. Patient identification: Verify the patient's identity to ensure the correct person
is being tested.
2. Medical history review: Review the patient's medical history to identify any
potential risks or allergies.
3. Explain the procedure: Inform the patient about the venipuncture procedure,
including the risks and benefits.
4. Obtain informed consent: Obtain the patient's consent to perform the
procedure.
Equipment Preparation
1. Gather equipment: Collect the necessary equipment, including:
1. Needles (21-23 gauge)
2. Syringes or vacuum tubes
3. Tourniquet
4. Antiseptic wipes
5. Gloves

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Patient Preparation
1. Positioning: Position the patient's arm in a comfortable and accessible
position.
2. Expose the vein: Expose the vein by rolling up the sleeve or removing any
obstructions.
3. Clean and disinfect: Clean and disinfect the skin with antiseptic wipes.
Venipuncture Procedure
1. Apply the tourniquet: Apply the tourniquet 2-3 inches above the selected
vein.
2. Identify the vein: Identify the vein using visual inspection and palpation.
3. Insert the needle: Insert the needle into the vein at a 15-20 degree angle.
4. Verify blood flow: Verify blood flow by observing the blood flowing into the
syringe or vacuum tube.
5. Collect the sample: Collect the required amount of blood.
6. Remove the needle: Remove the needle from the vein.
7. Apply pressure: Apply pressure to the puncture site using gauze pads.
Post-Venipuncture Procedure
1. Label the sample: Label the blood sample with the patient's identification and
other relevant information.
2. Store the sample: Store the blood sample in a secure and designated area.
3. Dispose of equipment: Dispose of the used equipment according to
institutional policies.
4. Monitor the patient: Monitor the patient for any adverse reactions or
complications.
5. Document the procedure: Document the venipuncture procedure, including
any notable events or complications.

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In Phlebotomy Department different types of tubes and containers are used
for storage and collection of specimen. For blood collection, tube with
different types of anticoagulants is used to follow by their properties to
prevent clotting.
 Blood Collection Tubes
1. Vacutainer Tubes: These are the most commonly used tubes for blood
collection. They have a vacuum seal that helps to draw blood into the tube.
2. SST (Serum Separator Tube): These tubes contain a gel separator that
helps to separate serum from blood cells.
3. EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid) Tube: These tubes contain
EDTA, an anticoagulant that helps to prevent blood clotting.
4. Citrate Tube: These tubes contain citrate, an anticoagulant that helps to
prevent blood clotting.
5. Heparin Tube: These tubes contain heparin, an anticoagulant that helpto
prevent blood clotting.

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  Urine Collection Containers
1. Sterile Urine Containers: These containers are used to collect urine samples
for microbiological analysis.
2. Non-Sterile Urine Containers: These containers are used to collect urine
samples for chemical analysis.
 Stool Collection Containers
1. Sterile Stool Containers: These containers are used to collect stool samples
for microbiological analysis.
2. Non-Sterile Stool Containers: These containers are used to collect stool
samples for chemical analysis.
 Sputum Collection Containers
1. Sterile Sputum Containers: These containers are used to collect sputum
samples for microbiological analysis.
 Swab Collection Tubes
1. Viral Transport Media (VTM) Tubes: These tubes contain a medium that
helps to preserve viruses for transport and analysis.
2. Bacterial Transport Media (BTM) Tubes: These tubes contain a medium that
helps to preserve bacteria for transport and analysis.
 Other Types of Tubes
1. Microhematocrit Tubes: These tubes are used to collect capillary blood
samples for hematocrit analysis.
2. Lancet Tubes: These tubes are used to collect fingerstick blood samples for
glucose analysis.

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 Segregation of Bio-medical waste produced in
Laboratory
Categories of Waste for Segregation
1. Yellow Bag: Human anatomical waste, animal waste, microbiology waste,
and expired or contaminated medicines.
2. Red Bag: Contaminated recyclable or non-recyclable plastic waste, including
plastic bags, gloves, etc.
3. Blue/White Bag: Non-infected and non-recyclable plastic waste, including
packaging materials, etc.
4. Green Bag: Organic waste, including food waste, garden waste, etc.
5. Black Bag: Non-recyclable and non-hazardous waste, including paper,
cardboard, etc.
6. Hazardous Waste Containers: For hazardous waste, including batteries,
electronics, etc.

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 HAEMATOLOGY

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 HAEMATOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Haematology is the study of blood, blood components, and blood disorders it
involves Studying the Anatomy and Physiology of blood cells and other cells
that compressed Blood like Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, Platelets and
Hemoglobin.
1. Analysis of blood concentration, structure and function of the cells and
their precursors In the bone marrow.
2. Analysis of chemical constituents of plasma or serum intimately,
linked blood cells Structure and function.
3. Study of function of the platelets and proteins involved in blood
coagulation,
NAME OF THE INSTRUMENT:
1. Benesphera H33s
NAME OF THE TEST:
1. Complete blood Count (CHC)
2. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
3. Blood grouping
4. Differential leukocyte count (DLC)
5. Coagulation profile
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT (CBC)
PRINCIPLE OF CBC ANALYSIS
The Coulter method accurately counts and sizes cells by detecting and
measuring changes In electrical resistance When a particle (sach as a cell)
in a conductive liquid passes Through a small apertare. Each cell
suspended in a conductive liquid (diluent) acts as an Insulator. As cuch
cell goes through the aperture, it momentarily increases the resistance of
the electrical path between the submerged electrodes on either side of the
aperture. This cause is measurable electronic pulse.

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 Benesphera H33s CBC Analyzer
PARTS OF INSTRUMENT:
1) Signal generator.
2) Amplifier Screener
3) Threshold Regulator
4) Detection counting system
5) Automatic compensation device

ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE (ESR)

PRINCIPLE:
An erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a blood test that can show if you
have inflammation in your body. Inflammation is your immune system's
response to injury, infection, and many other conditions, including immune
system disorders, certain cancers, and blood disorders.

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 BLOOD GROUPING
PRINCIPLE:
The serum of the specimen submitted is reacted with known A cells B cells.
Agglutination indicate the presence of corresponding antisera in seru.
1. Place 1 drop of anti-A and anti-B reagent separately on a labeled slide
or title.
2. Add 1 drop of 20% test red cell suspension to each drop of the typing
antiserum (the suspension may be prepared by adding two parts of red
cells to 80 parts of normal saline).
3. Mix the cell reagent using a clean stick. Spread each mixture evenly
on the slide over an area of 10-15mm diameter.
4. Tilt the slide and leave the rest for 2 minutes at room temprature. Then
rock again and look for agglutination.
5. Record the result.
OBSERVATION:

Reaction Antibodies A Antibodies B Antibodies O Result

Agglutination + - + A Positive

Agglutination + - - A Negative

Agglutination - + + B Positive

Agglutination - + - B Negative

Agglutination + + + AB Positive

Agglutination + + - AB Negative

Agglutination - - + O Positive

Agglutination - - - O Negative

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 SEROLOGY

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 SEROLOGY
INTRODUCTION:
Serology is the study of immune bodies in human blood. These immune bodies
are the product of defense mechanisms against disease-causing organisms in the
body. The principle involved with serology in the antibody-antigen response.
The antigen actually comes first, in that the antigen is the substance which
provokes the body produce antibodies.
The tests performed in serology lab:
1) VDRL Test
2) WIDAL Test
3) HBSAG
4) HCV
5) HIV
VDRL TEST
PRINCIPLE: Patients suffering from Syphilis produce antibodies that react
with Cardiolipin antigen in a slide flocculation test, which are read using a
microscope.
PROCEDURE:
Add 50µl serum at RT- add 20µl antigen and shake it- mix with sticks- rotate
for 4min at 150rpm. And see the agglutination.
RESULT INTERPRETATION

POSITIVE POSITIVE NEGATIVE

REACTION REACTION REACTION

The mixture remains in

Marked and intense Slight but definite small
a smooth suspension
visible aggregates are aggregates are seen in
with no visible
seen in serum sample. serum sample. Sample
aggregates. Serum is
Sample is reactive. is weakly reactive.
non-reactive.

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 WIDAL TEST
WIDAL slide test provides a simple way of qualitatively and semi-qualitatively
estimating the antibodies to S.typhi (O&H) and S.paratyphi (AH&BH). It is
based on the principle of direct agglutination when the patient’s serum contain
S.typhi or S.paratyphi.
KIT CONTENT:
Antigen of S.typhi and S.paratyphi
 WIDAL Antigen S.typhi H
 WIDAL Antigen S.typhi O
 WIDAL Antigen S.typhi AH
 WIDAL Antigen S.typhi BH
 Positive count
 Glass slide
PROCEDURE:
Take a clean slide add serum 1 drop in each four circle. Add a drop of all
antigens in each circle 1,2,3 and 4. Mixwell rotate clockwise and anticlockwise
for 2minutes.

RESULT:
A positive result indicates the presence of salmonella typhi in the blood, while a
negative result indicates no active infection:
 Negative: O antigen titers less than 1:80 and H antigen titers less than 1:160
 Positive: O and H antigen titers greater than 1:60 to 1:320

HBsAG

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 INTRODUCTION:
The HBsAG test is used to diagnose hepatitis B, determine if you’re carrier of
the virus. And monitor the effectiveness of treatment.
PROCEDURE:
The HBsAg test is usually performed on a blood sample, but it can also be done
on other body fluids, such as saliva, semen, or vaginal fluid.
The rapid HBsAg test involves applying the blood sample to a device coated
with antibodies that react with the HBsAg. If the antigen is present, the device
will change color. A positive HBsAg test result means that you are infected with
the hepatitis B virus and can spread the virus to others.
RESULT:
A positive hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) test result means that you are
infected with hepatitis B and can spread the virus to others.
HIV
INTRODUCTION:
An HIV antibody test checks for HIV antibodies in a sample of blood, urine, or
saliva to determine if someone has HIV:
The test looks for HIV antibodies, which are proteins produced by the immune
system to fight the virus.
PROCEDURE:
An anti-HIV rapid test is a blood or saliva test that can detect HIV antibodies or
antigens in less than 30 minutes:
 Blood test: A healthcare provider uses a needle to draw a drop of blood from a
finger or vein. The results are usually ready in about 20 minutes.
 Saliva test: A healthcare provider rubs a special swab against your gums.

RESULT:
A positive rapid HIV antibody test must be confirmed by a second test to
definitively diagnose HIV. It's possible to get a false positive or false negative
result from an HIV test.

RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS

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INTRODUCTION:
IgG antibody is produced during some infections of joints, subsequently
antibody alters against that antibody (IgG) second antibody is produced, this is
called as ‘Rheumatoid factor’ which is present in serum and reacts with IgG
coated latex particles.

PROCEDURE:
1. Bring reagents and specimens to room temperature before use. Shake the RF-
latex reagent gently to obtain uniform suspension.
2. Place one drop (40 µl) of the RF Positive Control on field #1of the reaction
slide. Place one drop (40 µ of the RF Negative Control on field #2. The
remaining fields are used for test specimens. Using a serological pipette, place
40 µl of the undiluted specimens on successive fields. Use different tip for each
sample.
3. Add one drop of RF latex reagent to each test field. Using the stirring sticks,
mix and spread reaction mixture over entire test field.
4. Rotate the slide for 2 minutes either by hand or with a rotator (80-100rpm)
and read immediately under indirect oblique light.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
Rheumatoid factors are found in the sera of most patients with rheumatoid
arthritis as well as a variety of other diseases. They are group of antibodies
mostly belongings to the IgM class directed against determinants on the Fc
fragments of the patient’s IgG immunoglobulin. Rheumatoid factor testing has a
high diagnostic value for a tentative diagnosis based on the case history and
clinical findings.

RESULT
A negative result means that your RF level is normal, while a positive result
means that your RF level is high.

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 CLINICAL PATHOLOGY

CLINICAL PATHOLOGY

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INTRODUCTION:
It is a medical speciality that it concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on
the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids, such as Urine, Semen and Stool.
URINE ROUTINE
NAME OF INSTRUMENT:
 Sieman’s multistix 10 SG test strips
PRINCIPLE:
Sieman’s Multistix 10 SG test strips depends on color development as an
indicator of the concentration of the following test reactios.
PROCEDURE:
Routine examination of urine is divide into 3 parts:
A. Physical Examination
B. Chemical Examination
C. Microscopic Examination
A. Physical Examination of Urine Determination

Determination Normal finding Abnormal Pathologic

Diabetes, inspidus,
1.Volume of 50 to 200 ml >500ml
Urine polyuria
<20ml Oliguria, Anuria
Hepatic and post
2.Colour of Urine Pale Yellow Dark Yellow
Hepatic condition
Chyluria,
White Reddish
Hematuria
Black Alkaptonuria
Dark Yellow Biliverdin present
3.Appearance of Presence of
Usually Clear Turbid
Urine Abnormal WBC
Usually acidic pH pH less than 4.8
4.Reaction Fever, Keosis
4.8 to 7.5 more acidic urine
pH more than 7.5
Severe Vomitting
is Alkaline Urine
5.Odour of Urine Aromatic Fruity Acidosis, Ketosis
Ammonical Cystitis

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 Urinary tract
Foul Smelling
Infection

B. Chemical Examination of Urine Determination

Test Abbreviation Units Normal Range

Glucose GLU mg/dl NEGATIVE

Bilirubin BIL - NEGATIVE

Ketone KET mg/dl NEGATIVE

Specific Gravity SG _ 1.016-1.022

pH pH - 5.0-8.0

Protien PRO mg/dl NEGATIVE

Urobilinogen URO E.U/dl 0.2-1.0

Nitrite NIT - NEGATIVE

Blood BLO - NEGATIVE

Leucocytes LEU - NEGATIVE

1. SUGAR (GLUCOSE) TEST (“BENEDICTS

QUALITATIVE TEST”)
PRINCIPLE:

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Urine glucose reduces cupric ions present in the reagent to cuprous ion,
Alkaline medium is provided to reaction by sodium carbonate present in the
reagent the original color change blue to green, yellow, orange, and red
according to concentration of glucose.
PROCEDURE:
1) take 5 ml of Benedict’s reagent in the test tube.
2) Add 8 drops of urine.
3) Boil for 2 minutes and allow cooling under tap water.
OBSERVATION & RESULT
Blue clear - Negative
Green , no ppt - Trace
Green with ppt - +
Brown with cloudy - ++
Orange with cloudy - +++
Red with cloudy - ++++
2. PROTIEN ALBUMIN
PRINCIPLE:
Sulphosalicylic acid solution (3%) precipitates any protein in the urine
specimen irrespective of the type albumin or bence Jones. It is an onion
precipitant that works by the neutralization of the protein cation.
C. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF URINE
In microscopic, I examined the various cells like Pus cells, RBC’s, Epithelial
cells, Phosphate and Calcium crystals, Yeast cells, Casts. Amorphous materials,
Etc.

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 Urine Analysis with Reagent Str

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 STOOL ROUTINE
Collection of stool specimen:
Morning sample is collected in clean dry container
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
1) Gross and physical examination by visual observation:
 Consistency
 Color
 Mucus
 Blood
 Parasites
2) Chemical Examination:
• Reaction/pH
 Occult blood
3) Microscopic examination
 Pus cell (WBC)
 RBC
 Macrophages
 Starch undigested.
 Vegetable fibril
 Entamoeba histolytica (EH)
 Giardia
 Trichonomas
 Larvae
 Ova

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF STOOL

BENZIDINE TEST
 Microscopic slides
 Applicator stick
 Glacial acetic acid
 30% H202 solution
 Benzedrine powder
Specimen: Stool
PROCEDURE:
 Take pinch of Benzidine powder in a small test tube.
 Acidify it with 2 to 3drops of glacial acetic acid and mix well.
 Add about 1.0 ml of H-0, and mix well.
 Place a small quantity of stool specimen on a clean and dry slide.
 P lace one or two drops of the Benzidine, glacial acetic acid, hydrogen
peroxide mixture on the stool specimen on the glass slide.

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  Observe change in color.
RESULT:
 No change in color occult blood absent
 Color changes green to blue-occult blood present
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF STOOL
REQUIREMENTS:
• Glass slides Cover slips (22 mm) Normal saline Lugol's iodine solution
Saturated saline solution.
• Penicillin bulb
PROCEDURE:
Saline preparation:
Place a drop of normal saline on a glass slide Take a little fecal material hy
ucing a stick and mix with a drop of normal Saline. Place a cover slip.
RESULT:
1) Cells : Pus cells, Epithelial cells, Erythrocytes
2) Parasites
3) Crystals
4) Vegetables Matter
5) Undigested ingrediants
6) Other findings bacteria and yeast

Patient Name:
Ref.By Doctor: Age / Gender :35 Years MALE
Collected at: Shield Diagnostics Reg.Date/Time: 16-Jan-25/ 7:28
Consult.By Dr:NA Rpt Date/Time :21-Jan-25 / 6:54
STOOL REPORT
Test Description Observed Value
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Colour : Brown
Consistency : Semi Solid
Odour :Faecal
Mucus : Absent
Frank Blood :Absent :
Parasites : Not Detected
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
Reaction : Alkaline
Occult Blood : Absent
Occult Blood can be false positive after eating food containing meat products. Drugs like aspirin,
indomethacin, phenylbutazone, respirin, corticosteroids, anti-inflamatory drugs and Vitamin C can produce
positive results. Food items like Raw brocolli, cauliflower, radishes and turnips can also cause false positive
results.
Reducing Substance : Absent

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

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Pus Cell :s 6 - 8 / hpf
RBC :Nil
Epithelial Cells : 1 - 2 /HPF
Entamoeba histolytica : Absent
Giardia lamblia :Absent
Ova :Absent
Fat Globules :Absent
Candida :Absent
Yeast :Absent
High :-H Low :- L

*** END OF REPORT ***

Stool Routine

Microscopy

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 BIOCHEMISTRY

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 BIOCHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION:
Clinical Biochemistry deals with the biochemistry laboratory applications. To
find out Cause of disease. The chemical constituent of various body fluid such
as Blood, Urine, CSF and other body fluid like are analyzed in clinical
biochemistry laboratory. The Biochemistry tests are very useful to determine
the severity of disease of many organ.
The Clinical biochemistry tests in relation to the various clinical conditions.
1. The cause of disease
2. Screen assay diagnosis.
3. Suggested effective treatment.
4. Monitoring process of a pathological condition
5. Help in assessing response to therapy
PRINCIPLE:
The Principle of this instrument is based on Lamberts and Beers law. The
optical density (O.D) is directly proportional to the concentration of solution
and the thickness of the Cuvette.

NAME OF THE INSTRUMENT:

BIOCHEMISTRY Autoanalyzer
(EURO LAB 240)

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NAME OF THE TEST:
A. GLUCOSE
 Fasting Blood Sugar
 Postprandial Blood Sugar
 Random blood Sugar
PRINCIPLE:
UV test enzymatic reference method with hexokinase. Hexokinase catalyzes the
phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by ATP. Glucose + ATP
Hexokinases G-6-P+ ADP Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase oxidizes
glucose- 6- phosphate in the presence of NADP to gluconate-6-phosphate. The
rate of NADPH formation during the reaction is directly proportional to the
glucose concentration and is measured photo metrically.
PROCEDURE:
Separate the serum or plasma sample from the test tube with the help of micro
pipette. Take the sample in a cuvette. Give the command to the analyzer and
select the tests. Press ok. Then place the cuvette in the analyzer. Analyzer gives
result automatically.
NORMAL RANGE:
Fasting Postprandial Random

70-150mg/dl 70-150mg/dl 100-150mg/dl

Case 01 Study
Name:
Age/Sex: 70/Female
Sample: Fasting/ PP Plasma Sample
Test Description Observed Value Unit Biological Reference
Interval Clinical Decision Value
Fasting Blood Glucose 84.93 mg/dl 70-110mg/dl
Postprandial Blood Glucose 94.66 mg/dl 70-140mg/dl
Case 02 Study
Name:
Age/Sex:
Sample: Random plasma
Result obtained: 60mg/dl
Interpetation: The blood glucose lrvrl in the patient is low which indicates hypoglycaemia.
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
Hyperglycemia
• Diabetes mellitus
• Hyperactivity of thyroid, adrenal, pituitary gland
Hypoglycemia
• Overdose of insulin
• Hypo activity of thyroid, adrenal, or pituitary gland

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 B. RENAL FUNCTION TEST
INTRODUCTION:
Renal function tests, also known as kidney function tests (KFTs), measure the
levels of various substances in your blood and urine. These tests can help your
doctor assess how well your kidneys are working.
 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): Measures the amount of nitrogen in your blood
 Serum creatinine: Measures the amount of creatinine, a waste product from
muscle tissue breakdown
 Electrolytes: Measures the levels of sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate
 Minerals: Measures the levels of phosphorus and calcium
 Protein: Measures the levels of albumin
 Glucose (sugar): Measures the levels of glucose in your blood

 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

PRINCIPLE:
Kinetic test with urease and glutamate dehydrogenase: Urea is hydrolyzed by
urease to form ammonium and carbonate.
Urea + 2HO.REAS E2NH + CO,
In the second reaction 2-oxoglutarate reacts with ammonium in the presence
of glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) and the coenzyme NADH to produce
L-glutamate. In this reaction two moles of NADH are oxidized to NAD for
each mole of urea hydrolyzed.
NH + 2 − oxoglutarate + NADHGLDHL − glutamate + NAD + HO
The rate of decrease in the NADH concentration is directly proportional to the
urea concentration in the specimen and is measured photo metrically.
NORMAL RANGE: 7-10 mg/dl.
Case Study: 01
Name:
Age/sex: 21/Female
Sample: Serum
Result obtained: 6 mg/Dl
Interpretation: The blood urea nitrogen level in the patient is low.
Case Study: 02
Name:
Age/sex: 34/Female
Sample: Serum
Result obtained: 26mg/dl
Interpretation: The blood urea nitrogen level in the patient is high.

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CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
An abnormally high level of urea nitrogen in the blood is an indication of
kidney function impairment or failure. Some other causes of increased values
for urea nitrogen include perianal azotemia (e.g. shock), post renal azotemia, GI
bleeding, and a high protein diet. Some causes of decreased values for urea
nitrogen include pregnancy, severe liver insufficiency, over hydration and
malnutrition.
 SERUM CREATININE
PRINCIPLE:
Serum creatinine estimation is based on the reaction of creatinine with picric
acid in an alkaline solution. The intensity of the red color produced is
proportional to the amount of creatinine in the sample.
NORMAL RANGE: 0.5-1.3mg/dl
Case 01 Study
Name:
Age/sex: 54/Female
Sample: Serum
Result obtained: 0.92mg/dl
Interpretation: Serum Creatinine in patient is within normal range.

 MINERAL

Phosphorus – a mineral that is vital for energy production, muscle and nerve
function, and bone growth; it also plays an important role as a buffer,
helping to maintain the body's acid-base balance.

Calcium – one of the most important minerals in the body; it essential for the
proper functioning of muscles, nerves, and the heart and is required in blood
clotting and in the formation of bones.

 PROTEIN

Albumin – a protein that makes up about 60% of protein in the blood and has
many roles such as keeping fluid from leaking out of blood vessels and
transporting hormones, vitamins, drugs, and ions like calcium throughout the
body.

 ELECTROLYTES

electrically charged chemicals that are vital to normal body processes, such
as nerve and muscle function; among other things, they help regulate the
amount of fluid in the body and maintain the acid-base balance. Electrolytes
include: Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Bicarbonate (Total CO2 )

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 C. LIVER FUNCTION TEST

INTRODUCTION:

Liver function tests (LFTs) are commonly used in clinical practice to screen for
liver disease, monitor the progression of known disease, and monitor the effects
of potentially hepatotoxic drugs. The most common LFTS include the serum
aminotransferases, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, albumin, and prothrombin
time. Aminotransferases, such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate
aminotransferase (AST), measure the concentration of intracellular hepatic
enzymes that leaked into the circulation and serve as a marker of hepatocyte
injury

LIVER FUNCTION TEST INCLUDES:

 SERUM BILIRUBIN
Measures the amount of bilirubin in your blood. Bilirubin is a waste product
made by the liver when it breaks down red blood cells. High levels of bilirubin
can indicate liver disease.
 SERUM ALBUMIN
Measures the amount of albumin in your blood. Albumin is a protein made in
the liver. Low levels of albumin can indicate liver disease.
 INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO (INR)
Measures how long it takes for your blood to clot. The liver produces clotting
factors, so an abnormal INR can indicate liver disease.
 ALANINE TRANSAMINASE (ALT)
Measures the amount of ALT in your blood. ALT is an enzyme that helps
convert proteins into energy for liver cells. High levels of ALT can indicate
liver damage.
 ASPARTATE TRANSAMINASE (AST)
Measures the amount of AST in your blood. AST is an enzyme that helps
break down amino acids. High levels of AST can indicate liver damage.

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ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE (ALP).

Measures the amount of ALP in your blood.ALP is an enzyme found in the

liver and bones that helps break down proteins. High levels of ALP can
indicate liver damage.

D. SGPT (Serum glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase)

(Also called ALT (Alanine Transaminase)
PRINCIPLE:
Alanine aminotransferase catalyzes the transamination of L-alanine to a-
ketoglutarate, forming L glutamate and pyruvate. The pyruvate formed is

reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) with simultaneous oxidation

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of reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The change in
absorbance is directly proportional to the ALT activity and is measured using a
dichromatic (340, 700 nm) rate technique.
L − Alanine + a − ketoglutarateALT − pyruvate + L − glutamate Pyruvate +
NADH + H + LDH − L − lactate + NAD+
NORMAL RANGE: 30-65 U/L.
Case Study 01
Name:
Age/sex: 21/female
Sample: serum
Result obtained: 116 U/L
Interpretation: The ALT level in patient’s serum is high.
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
Liver disease:
An ALT test can help diagnose liver disease early, when it may be easier to
treat.
Liver damage:
An ALT test can help diagnose liver damage caused by a number of factors,
including exposure to hepatitis, alcohol consumption, and certain medications.
Screening :
An ALT test can be part of a routine blood screening to check liver health.
Risk factors:
An ALT test can help identify people at risk for liver damage, such as those
with a family history of liver disease, diabetes, or obesity.
E. SGOT (Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetate Transaminase)
Also called AST (Aspartate Transaminase)
PRINCIPLE:
Aspartate aminotransferase catalyzes the transamination of L-aspartate to a-
Ketoglutarate, forming L-glutamate and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate formed
is reduced to malate by malate dehydrogenase (MDH) with simultaneous
oxidation of reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The change
in absorbance with time due to the conversion of NADH to NAD is directly
proportional to the AST activity and is measured using a dichromatic (340, 700
nm) rate technique.
L − Aspartate + a − ketoglutarateAS T − oxaloacetate + L − glutamate
Oxaloacetate + NADH + H + MDHL − malate + NAD+
NORMAL RANGE: 15-37 U/L
Case study 01
Name:
Age/sex: 21/female
Sample: serum

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Result obtained: 52 U/L
Interpretation: The AST level in patient’s serum is high.
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE :
An increase in AST levels may indicate:
• Acute hemolytic anemia
• Acute pancreatitis
• Acute renal failure.
• Heart attack
• Hepatitis
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Liver cancer
• Liver necrosis
F. LIPID PROFILE
INTRODUCTION:
A lipid profile test, also known as a lipid panel or cholesterol test, measures
the amount of fats and cholesterol in your blood. It helps predict your risk of
heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases.
LIPID PROFILE INCLUDES:
 Cholestrol
 Triglycerides
 Hdl
 CHOLESTEROL
PRINCIPLE:
Cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed by cholesterol ester hydrolase to produce free
cholesterol and fatty acids. The free cholesterol produced and pre-existing one
is oxidized by cholesterol oxidase to cholestenone-4-en-3-one and hydrogen
peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide thus formed is used to oxidize N. N
diethylaniline-4- aminoantipyrine to produce a chromosphere that absorbs at
540 nm. The absorbance due to oxidized N. N diethyl aniline- 4-
amincantipyrine is directly proportional to the total cholesterol concentration
and is measured using a polychromatic (452, 540,700 nm) end point technique
NORMAL RANGE: 0-200mg/dl.

Case study 01
Name:
Age/sex: 21/female.
Sample: serum
Result obtained: 236 mg/dl
Interpretation: The cholesterol level in patient’s serum is high.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

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 Elevated levels of serum cholesterol are associated with atherosclerosis,
nephritis, diabetes mellitus, Obstructive jaundice, Biliary cirrhosis,
lipoprotenemias, and myxedema. Decreased level in cholesterol is associated
with severe infection, severe anemia, and malnutrition.
 TRIGLYCERIDES
PRINCIPLE:
Triglycerides + water Glycerol +ATP Glycerol kinase Lipoprotein Lipase
Glycerol− 3 − phosphate + oxygen + Hydrogen peroxide Glycerol +fattyacids
Hydrogen peroxide + Aminoantipyrine Glycerolphosphate oxidase Glycerol− 3
− phosphate + ADP Quinoncimine + HCL + 4 − Chlorophenol + 4H20
The change in absorbance due to the formation of Quinonimine is directly
proportional to the total amount of glycerol and its precursors in the sample and
is measured using a dichromatic (510, 700 nm) endpoint technique.
NORMAL RANGE: 15-1000mg/dl
Case study 01
Name:
Age/sex: 34/male
Sample: Serum
Result obtained: 156 mg/dl.
Interpretation: the triglycerides level in patient is high.
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
TG level decreases in:
• Liver disease
• Cerebral infarction
• Hyper parathyroidism
• Hyperthyroidism
• Lactosuria,

 HDL
PRINCIPLE:
Chemical precipitation or ultracentrifugation are two methods used to separate
HDL cholesterol from other lipoproteins (like LDL and VLDL). An enzymatic
reaction is subsequently applied to the separated HDL cholesterol. The
cholesterol in the HDL particles reacts with certain enzymes to produce a
quantifiable product. A spectrophotometer is used to measure the enzymatic
reaction's product and determine how much HDL cholesterol is present in it by
measuring its absorbance at a specific wavelength. Following that, this value is
expressed in either millimoles per liter (mmol/L) or milligrammes per decilitre
(mg/dL).
NORMAL RANGE: 40-79mg/dl
Case study 01
Name:
Age/sex: 54/male

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 Sample: Serum
Result obtained: 90 mg/dl.
Interpretation: The HDL level in patient is high.
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Heart disease risk: A lipid profile test can help you and your doctor understand
your risk of heart disease.
Other medical conditions: A lipid profile test can help diagnose other medical
conditions, such as liver disease.
Response to treatment: A lipid profile test can help you and your doctor
monitor how well you're responding to cholesterol medications.
Mental illness: Lipid profile tests have been used to study patients with severe
mental illness, such as depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder.

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