LABORATORY MANUAL

ASE332

AEROSPACE STRUCTURE LABORATORY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(For private circulation only)

Name of the Student:

Registration & Roll No:

Section & Group No:

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No Experiments Page No

1. Clark -Maxwell Theorem 4-7

2. 8- 11
Elastic property of beam

3. 12- 21
Experiment on Curved Beams and Moment Area Theorem (M.A.T)

4. Behavior of columns 22-25

5. Shear center and Beam deflection 26- 33

6. 34- 37
Compression test on Universal Testing Machine

7. 38 - 41
Rotation Stiffness of beams

8. Aircraft "Symmetry Check" procedure in a given aircraft 42 - 44

9. Effectiveness study on Aircraft control surfaces in a given Aircraft 45 - 47

10. Retraction study on aircraft landing gears in a given Landing gear setup 48-51

Appendices

A. Unit Conversation 52
B. Basic Terms and Definition 53
2
 INDEX SHEET

Marks
S.No Date Experiment
Obtained

1 To verify Clark Maxwell theorem

2 To verify elastic properties of deflected beam

❖ To verify the Moment Area Theorem for a beam

3
❖ To find the deflection of curved beams

4 Study of behavior of columns and struts with different end conditions

❖ Shear Center location for open sections

5 ❖ Deflection of beams with various end conditions

WTP -1

6 Compression test on Composite material Using UTM

To determine the moment required to produce a given rotation

7 (rotational stiffness) at one end of the beam when the other end is
pinned

8 Symmetry check to be performed on a structure of a grounded aircraft

Fluctuation of aircraft control surfaces with respect to actuator

9

Reliability study of Landing Gear Retraction System Influenced by

Multi-factors
10

WTP -2

3
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 01

VERIFICATION OF CLARK’S MAXWELL RECIPROCAL THEOREM

Aim: To verify Clerk’s Maxwell Reciprocal theorem

Equipment’s and Apparatus: Consisting of a beam 100cm long and 1.25cm x4mm in cross section
with graduations every 10cm along the length. It is supported on two knife edge supports 70cm apart
with 30cm overhang on one side. Reciprocal theorem can be verified by direct measurements of the
deflection of various points with the help of dial gauge due to a load placed at the reciprocal points.

Learning Objectives: To find deflection of given beam by practical means and verify with the Clark
Maxwell reciprocal theorem theoretically.

Theory: Clark’s Maxwell theorem in its simplest form states that the deflection of any point A of the
elastic structure due to a load P at any other point B is the same as the deflection due to the same load
P applied at point A.

It is therefore easily derived that the deflection curve of a beam under unit load at any point is the
same as the influence line of deflection to that point when a unit load moves along the beam. Thus
application of the theorem to a beam can be verified by this experiment by plotting both the curves for
any point.

Procedure:
1. A load of 1kg (10N) is placed either at the center of the simply supported beam or at the
free end of the cantilever so that the deflection may be appreciable.

2. Measure the height of the upper edge of beam at the interval of 10cm by means of dial gauge
before and after loading and determine the deflection at 10cm interval before and after loading
at each point separately. This shall be measured by moving the dial gauge from one point to
another and taking the heights before and after loading at each point.

3. Now move a 1kg load along the beam at 10cm interval and for each position of the load, find
the deflection of the point where the load was applied in step 1, above. This deflection should
be measured at each such point before and after the loading separately.

4. Plot the graph between deflection as ordinate and position of point on abscissa and compare
the plot for graph drawn in step 2 and step 4. These are influence line ordinates for deflection
of the beam.

4
Observation and Calculations:

Load moving along the beam

Distance Deflection
from the of various
pinned end Beam unloaded Beam Loaded points(mm)
(cm) [1] Dial gauge Reading Dial Gauge Reading [3]-[2]
(mm) [2] (mm) [3]

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

5
Calculation:

6
Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications,9th Edition, (2014)
rd
2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, 2010)

Web links: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-48395-5_30#page-1

To be filled by faulty
Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor
S.No. Marks Max. Marks
and
obtained
10 excellent)
20
Understanding of the student about the
1
Procedure/apparatus.
20
Observations and analysis including learning
2
outcomes
10
Completion of experiment, Discipline and
3
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

7
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 02

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF DEFLECTED BEAM

Aim: To find the value of flexural rigidity (EI) for a given beam and compare it
with theoretical value.

Equipment’s and Apparatus: Elastic Properties of deflected beam, weight’s, hanger, dial
gauge, scale, and Vernier caliper.

Learning Objectives: To know about the elastic behavior of given beam and to find their flexural
rigidity by practical means and compare it with theoretical formula for beam to verify the results.

2
Formula: (1) Central upward deflection, y = w.a.L / 8EI ……. ……..(1)
2
(2) EI = w.a. L / 8y ……………………………………….. (2)
3
(3) Also it is known that EI for beam = E * bd /12 …..…… (3)
Diagram:

Theory:
For the beam with two equal overhangs and subjected to two concentrated loads W each
at free ends, maximum deflection y at the center is given by central upward deflection.
2
Central upward deflection, y = waL /8EI
Where, a = length of overhang on each side
W=load applied at the free ends
L = main span
E = modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam
I = moment of inertia of cross section of the beam
3
EI for beam = Ebd /12
Where, b = width of beam d=depth of beam
Procedure:
1. Find b and d of the beam and calculate the theoretical value of EI.

2. Measure the main span and overhang span of the beam with a scale.

3. By applying equal loads at the free end of the overhang beam, find the central deflection

8
4. Repeat the above steps for different loads

Observation:
Length of main span L (cm) =
Length of overhang on each side, a (cm) =
Width of beam, b (cm) =
Depth of beam, d (cm) =
Modulus of Elasticity, E (kg/cm2) = 2 x 106

Observation Table:

Equal loads at the Dial gauge reading

S.No at the midspan of EI from Eq(2) EI from Eq(3)
two ends (kg)
beam(cm)

Average values of EI from observation =

Average values of EI from calculation =

Result:-Flexural rigidity (EI) is found same theoretically and experimentally.

Precaution:-
1. Measure the center deflection y very accurately.
2. Ensure that the beam is devoid of initial curvature.
3. Loading should be within the elastic limit of the materials.

9
Calculation:

Result:

10
 Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th Edition, (2014)
rd
2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)
Web links:
http://courses.washington.edu/biomechs/labs/lab4.pdf

To be filled by faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

11
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 03
MOMENT AREA THEOREM

Aim: To verify the moment area theorem regarding the slopes and deflections of the beam.

Equipment and Apparatus: Beam assembly, weights and dial gauge

Learning Objectives: To find slope and deflection of beams by practical means and to verify the
results with theoretical formula.

Diagram:

Theory:
According to moment area theorem
1. The change of slope of the tangents of the elastic curve between any two points of the
deflected beam is equal to the area of M/EI diagram between these two points.
2. The deflection of any point relative to tangent at any other point is equal to the moment of
the area of the M/EI diagram between the two points at which the deflection is required.

2
Slope at B =Y /b
Since the tangent at C is horizontal due to symmetry,
2
Slope at B= shaded area / EI = 1 / EI [Wa / 2 + WA (L/2 – a)]
Displacement at B with respect to tangent at C

= (y1 + y2) =Moment of shaded area about B/EI

2
= 1 / EI [Wa / 2 (b+2/3a) + Wa (L/2 –a) (b+ a/2+L/2)]

Procedure:
1. Measure a, b and L of the beam
2. Place the hangers at equal distance from the supports A and load them with equal loads.
3. Measure the deflection by dial gauges at the end B (y2) and at the center C (y1)
4. Repeat the above steps for different loads.

12
Observations:
Length of main span, L (cm) =
Length of overhang on each side, a (cm) =
2 6
Modulus of elasticity, E (kg/cm ) = 2 x 10

Central Deflection Slope at B Deflection at

S. No. Load at each Deflection at Free end y2 y2 C=Deflection
Hanger (kg) y1 (cm) (cm) b at B (y1 )

Comments:
The moment area theorems may often be used more conveniently in the computation of slopes
and Deflection of beams and frames, practically when the deformation is caused by concentrated
rather than distributed loads. These theorems area based on a consideration of the geometry of
the elastic curve of the beam and the relation between the rate of a change of slope and the
bending moment a point on the elastic curve.

Precaution:
1. Apply the concentration loads without jerks.
2. Measures the deflection only when the beam attains ion.
3. Measures the deflection very carefully and accurately.
4. Check the accuracy and least count of dial gauges used for measuring deflections.

13
 Calculation:

Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

14
Suggested readings for students:

Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th Edition, (2014)
rd
2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)
Web links: http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/105101085/downloads/lec-22.pdf

To be filled by faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

15
 CURVED BEAMS DEFLECTION

Aim: To find the deflection of curved beams.

Equipment’s and Apparatus: The different curved members Viz. Circle, semicircle with straight
arm, a quadrant of a circle and quadrant of a circle with straight arm, dial gauge, weights and
Vernier calliper

Learning Objectives: To find deflection of different types of curved beams apparatus and to verify
the results compared with theoretical values.

Theory: Castiglione’s first theorem is used to find the elastic displacements of curved members.
Theorem states" Partial derivative of the total strain energy of a structure with respect to any force
gives the displacement of the point of its application in the direction of the force".

The total strain energy of any structure is determined in terms of all the load with their actual values
and a fictitious load P applied at the point at which the deflection is required and it is acting in the
same direction in which the deflection is required. In case no external load is acting at the joint in
the direction desired, a fictitious load is applied in that direction and forces in all members are
worked out. After partial differentiation with respect to P, zero is substituted for fictious load P (or
if P is not fictitious its actual value is substituted). Thus the result is the required deflection.

In all cases the horizontal BH and vertical deflection BV due to vertical load W are to be determined.
These deflections are obtained by using Castigliano's first theorem where strain energy due to bending
only is taken into account. The results obtained for the four curved members shall be as follows:

16
 W

17
Procedure: -
1. Place a load on the hanger to activate the member and treat this as the initial position for
measuring deflections.

2. Fix the dial gauges for measuring horizontal and vertical deflections.

3. Place the additional loads at the steps mentioned in the table below for each case and tabulate
the Values of dial gauge reading against the applied loads.

Observations: -

Width of section (mm) b =

Depth of section (mm) d =

Least moment of inertia = E

2 6

Observation Table: -

(a) Quadrant of a circle

Dial gauge reading (mm) Deflection (mm)

Additional
S. No.
load (kg)
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
direction direction direction direction

18
(b) Quadrant with Straight leg

Dial gauge reading (mm) Deflection (mm)

Additional
S. No.
load (kg)
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
direction direction direction direction

(c) Semi-circle with straight leg

Dial gauge reading (mm) Deflection (mm)

Additional
S. No.
load (kg)
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
direction direction direction direction

19
(d) Circle

Dial gauge reading (mm) Deflection (mm)

Additional
S. No.
load (kg)
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
direction direction direction direction

Calculation:

Result:

20
Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai
Publications, 9thEdition, (2014)
rd
2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)
Web links:
http://www.ijee.ie/articles/Vol20-3/IJEE1497.pdf

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

21
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 04

COLUMN BEHAVIOUR WITH DIFFERENT END CONDITIONS

Aim: Study of behavior of columns and struts with different end conditions.

Equipment’s and Apparatus: Column Buckling Apparatus, Weights, Hanger, Dial Gauge,
Scale, Vernier caliper.

Learning Objectives: To check the behavior of columns strip with different end condition to
member shows signs of buckling the member leads to failure with small increase in load.

Theory: The load at which the member just buckles is called as crushing load. The buckling load,
as given by Euler, can be found by using following expression
2 5 2
P = π² EI/l e Where, E= 2 X 10 N/mm
I = Least moment of inertia of column section
Le = Effective length of column

Depending on support conditions, four cases may arise. The effective length for each of which
are given as:
1. Both ends are fixed le = L/ 2
2. One end is fixed and other is pinned le = L/√ 2
3. Both ends are pinned le = L

22
 4. One end is fixed and other is free le = 2L
Procedure: -
i) Pin a graph paper on the wooden board behind the column.
ii) Apply the load at the top of columns increasing gradually. At certain stage of loading the
columns shows abnormal deflections and gives the buckling load.
iii) Not the buckling load for each of the four columns. iv) Trace the deflected shapes of the columns over
the paper. Mark the points of change of curvature of the curves and measure the effective or
equivalent length for
each case separately.
v) Calculate the theoretical effective lengths and thus buckling loads by the expressions

Observation: -
1) Width of strip (mm) b =
2) Thickness of strip (mm) t =
3) Length of strip (mm) L =
4) Least moment of inertia I = bt³/12

Observation Table:-

Euler’s Buckling load Effective Length (mm)

S.No End Condition
Theoretical Observed Theoretical Observed

1. Both Ends Fixed

One end fixed and

2.
other pinned

3. Both ends pinned

One end fixed and

4.
other free

23
 Calculation:

Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

24
Suggested readings for students:
Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th Edition, (2014)

2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3rd Edition, (2010)
Web links:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105106112/5_compression/5_effective_lengths.pdf

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

25
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 05

A. Shear center

Aim:

To determine the shear center of an open section.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
➢ A thin cantilever beam of channel section.
➢ Two dial gauges.
➢ A steel support structure to mount the channel section as
cantilever.
➢ Two loading hooks.

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart
at the free end of the beam.
2. Place a two kilograms load at left side hook and note the dial
gauge readings
3. Remove one load from left end and place on right end, note
the dial gauge readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one
by one to the other hook noting each time the dial gauge
readings. Calculate the distance ‘e’ of the line of action from
the web thus:
(AB/2) (Wa – Wb) / Wv = e
5. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between
the dial gauge readings as the measure of the angle of twist θ
suffered by the section.
6. Plot θ against e and obtain the meeting point of the curve ( a
straight line in this case) with the e-axis (i.e., θ, the twist of the
section is zero for this location of the resultant vertical load).
This determines the shear center.

Dimensions of the beam and the section :

26
 Length of the beam (L) :
Height of the web (h) :
Width of the flange (b) :
Thickness of the sheet (t) :
Distance between the two hook stations :
Theoretical location of the shear center (e) : = 3b / [6+(h/b)]
Vertical load Wv = (Wa + Wb)
TABLE:

Dial gauge readings

S.No Wa Wb e = (AB/2) (Wa – Wb) / Wv
d1 d2 (d1-d2)

1
2
3
.
.
11

h= b=
etheo : = 3b / [6+(h/b)] =

From the graph,

eexp = when (d1 – d2) = 0

Calculation:

27
 Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

28
Suggested readings for students:
Books:
3. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th Edition, (2014)

4. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3rd Edition, (2010)
Web links:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105106112/5_compression/5_effective_lengths.pdf

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

29
 B. Beam deflection

Aim:
This experiment is to demonstrate the effect of distance at which the load acting
from the fixed end on deflection of the beam

THEORY:
❖ A Cantilever is a Beam one end of which is clamped and other end is free.
❖ A beam with a length L and is fixed at one end and the other end is free. Let the moment
of inertia of the Beam is ‘I’ about it’s neutral axis and the Young’s Modulus be ’E’.

bh3
Moment of inertia about the neutral axis I =
12
Deflection at the end where point load is acting = 

The deflection at the end (Max deflection)  is related to the load ‘W’, length ‘L’ moment of Inertia ‘I’
and Young’s Modulus ‘E’ through the equation.

WL3
=
3EI
We can observe that

i. If load is doubled deflection will also be doubled

ii. If span is doubled deflection increases y 8 times.
iii. If Young’s Modulus of material is more, then deflection will be less.
If Moment of Inertia is increased the deflection will reduced.

Some comments on sections of Beams & Materials.

i. Hollow section with same cross sectional area of a solid section; will have more
load carrying capacity and hence more stiffness.
ii. Beams area used with depth longer than width because of more Moment of
Inertia for the same cross-sectional area.

30
 iii. Mild Steel is stiffer than Aluminum because the Young’s Modulus of the former
material is bigger.

Concept of stiffness of Beam’s in Bending (Kb)

Stiffness of component in bending is defined as the ration of load required for unit deflection in
bending.
Bending stiffness Kb = W/

In the case of Simply supported Beam with control loading the Stiffness
3EI
Kb = 3
L
Hence
i. If E is doubled Stiffness will be doubled.
ii. If Moment of Inertia is doubled Stiffness will be doubled.
iii. If the Distance of load is doubled the Stiffness reduced by 1/8 times.
iv. Higher the Stiffness lesser will be the deflection of beam for the same load
applied.

Maximum Bending stress f = 6WL/BD2

IV. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: The set-up contains the following

iii. One rigid clamping support for fixing one end of the beam.
iv. Beams of different section
v. Loading arrangement along with different weights.
vi. Dial gauge with magnetic stand.
vii. Measuring tape or Steel Scale
V. PROCEDURE:

i. Clamp the Beam horizontally on the clamping support at one end.

ii. Measure the length of cantilever L (distance from clamp end to loading point)
iii. Fix the dial gauge under the beam at the loading point to Read down-ward
moment and set to zero.
iv. Hang the loading Pan at the free end of the cantilever.
v. Load the cantilever with different loads (W) and note the dial gauge readings ()
vi. Change the length of cantilever for two more different lengths repeat the
experiment.
vii. Change the position of cantilever and repeat the experiment for the other value
of I for rectangular cross-section.

VI. PRECAUTIONS:
i. Beam should be positioned Horizontally
ii. The length of the cantilever should be measured properly

31
 iii. The dial gauge spindle knob should always touch the beam at the bottom of
loading point.
iv. Loading hanger should be placed at known distance of cantilever length.
v. All the errors should be eliminated while taking readings.
vi. Elastic limit of the Bema should not exceeded.

VII. OBSERVATIONS:
a) Independent Variables: 1. Load
2. Span
3. Moment of Inertia (By choosing different
sections)
4. Young’s Modulus (By choosing different
Materials)

b) Dependant Variable: Bending Deflection 

c) Derived Variable: Bending Stiffness

Sl.No. Beam Cross Y.M.E M.I.I.Mm4 Span Load Deflection Bending

Material Section N/mm2 L W in  in mm Stiffness
mm N N/mm

Bending stress f =

VIII. GRAPHS:

Deflection Vs W, L, I and E
Stiffness Vs W, L, I and E

Calculation:

32
Result:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
3. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai
Publications, 9thEdition, (2014)
rd
4. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

33
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 06

COMPRESSION TEST

Aim:
To perform compression test on UTM

APPARATUS:-
1. UTM or A compression testing m/c,
2. Cylindrical or cube shaped specimen,
3. Vernier caliper,
4. Liner scale.

34
THEORY:-
Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in portion walls in case of frame
structure. In bad bearing walls total weight from slab and upper floor comes directly through brick and
then it is transversed to the foundation. In case the bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force
on other hand in case of frame structure bricks are used only for construction of portion walls, layers
comes directly on the lower layers or wall. In this case bricks are loaded with compressive nature of
force. Hence for safely measures before using
the bricks in actual practice they have to be tested in laboratory for their compressive strength.
PROCEDURE: -
1. Select some brick with uniform shape and size.
2. Measure it‟s all dimensions. (LxBxH)
3. Now fill the frog of the brick with fine sand.
4. Place the brick on the lower platform of compression testing machine and lower the spindle till the
upper motion of ram is offered by a specimen the oil pressure start increasing the pointer start returning
to zero leaving the drug pointer that is maximum reading which can be noted down.

TABULATION: - (Refer Tables)

PRECAUTIONS:-
1) Measure the dimensions of Brick accurately.
2) Specimen should be placed as for as possible in the of lower plate.
3) The range of the gauge fitted on the machine should not be more than double the breaking load of
specimen for reliable results

Max. Load at failure

Compressive Strength = ----------------------------- KPa
Loaded Area of brick

35
Calculation:

36
Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

Suggested readings for students:

Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th Edition,
2.(2014) Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 rd Edition, (2010)

Web links: http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/105105109/pdf/m5l32.pdf

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor Marks

S.No. Max. Marks
and 10 excellent) obtained

Understanding of the student about the

1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

37
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 07

ROTATIONAL STIFFNESS

Aim: - To determine the moment required to produce a given rotation

(rotational stiffness) at one end of the beam when the other end is pinned.

Equipment’s and Apparatus: Beam Apparatus, Weight’s, Hanger, Dial Gauge, Scale, Vernier
Calliper

Learning Objectives: To find rotational stiffness for given beam and verify it with theoretical
formula as how beam behave with loading condition

Diagram:

Theory: -
For a beam AB which is simply supported at A and fixed at B, a clock – wise rotation of
ØA can be effected by applying a clockwise moment of MA ={ 4EI / L }X ØA at A, =
stiffness X Rotation which in turn induces a clockwise moment of MB = 1 / 2 MA on the
member at B. The expression MA ={ 4EI / L } is called the stiffness factor, which is
defined as the moment required to be applied at A to cause a rotation of 1 radian at A of a
span AB simply supported at A and fixed at B. The number MA / MB = + 1 / 2 is the carry
over factor, which is the ratio of the moment induced at B due to the moment applied at A.

If the far end is hinged instead of being fixed, the moment required to rotate the tangent at the
near end through 1 radian will be 3EI / L instead of {4EI / L} Moment required to produce a
given rotation at one end of the beam when the other end is pinned is 3 / 4 th of the moment
required to produce the same rotation when the other end is fixed.

Procedure: -A) Beam with overhang having far end pinned.

Load = kg.
Measure the height of free end C of the beam from the top of the table.
Load W is applied at the free end C. The beam will get deflected as shown in the Measure the
height of
the deflected end C from the table top. The difference will give the deflection y. Measure the
deflection
38
Y at C and find the slope (Y/a) at A.
Repeat the above steps for different loads.
(B) Beam with overhang having far end fixed.
1. Repeat all the steps as in beam with far end connected.

A graph is plotted between moment as ordinate and slopes for pinned end and
slopes for fixed end as abscissa.
Find the ratio of moments in the two cases for the same slope.

Observation Table:

Far end pinned Far end fixed

S.No Load W (kg) Slope y/a Slope y/a
Deflection y (cm) Deflection y (cm)
(radian) (radian)

Note:
a= cm
Deflection =
Slope =

Precautions
1. Measures the deflection of the free end C of the beam very accurately.
2. Apply the load at the free end without any jerks.
3. Perform this experiment away from any external disturbances.

39
Calculation:

Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

40
Suggested readings for students:
Books:
1. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 9th
Edition, (2014)
rd
2. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)
Web links: http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/105105109/pdf/m5l33.pdf

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor

and Marks
S.No. Max. Marks
10 obtained
excellent)
Understanding of the student about the
1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

41
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 08

Aircraft "Symmetry Check"

Aim: - Symmetry check to be performed on a structure of a grounded aircraft

OCCASION
➢ On assemble/erection of new aircraft
➢ Replacement/removal of major component
➢ Heavy landing reports
➢ Followed by flight through turbulence
➢ Repeated smog on flight cross section
➢ Any modifications on aircraft which affect its performance
➢ As and when required by DGCA

PRECAUTIONS
➢ Refer aircraft maintenance manual ensure the caution surroundings of aircraft
➢ The jacking area should be free
➢ Observe all safety precaution for leveling
➢ Check the accuracy of spirit level
➢ Always finish leveling procedure only by checking the longitudinal level

REQUIREMENT
➢ Working hrs=3
➢ Man power=3
➢ Document= aircraft maintenance manual and rigging check up

TOOLS USED
➢ Measuring tape
➢ Spirit level
➢ Plumb bob
➢ Leveling board
➢ Tripod jack
➢ Support jack

PROCEDURE
METHOD:1
By means of direct measuring with tape

42
MEHTOD:2
By dropping plumb bob and marking and measuring method

METHOD:3
➢ Place the aircraft in rigging position
➢ Check the incident angle of wing
➢ Check the dihedral angle of main plane
➢ Check the sweep back angle
➢ Check the dihedral angle of tail plane
➢ Drop the plumb bob from spin center and tail wheel center and measure the length
of aircraft
➢ Drop the plumb bob from either wing tips and mark it on the ground
➢ From fin top hinge or tail where center drops the plumb bob and mark it
➢ Measure the diagonal distance
➢ Check the fin verticality
➢ Measure the spin center to each wing tip
➢ Tabulate in the format give

Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

43
To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor

and Marks
S.No. Max. Marks
10 obtained
excellent)
Understanding of the student about the
1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

44
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 09

Effectiveness study on Aircraft control surfaces

Aim: -
To determine the Fluctuation of aircraft control surfaces with respect to actuator

THEORY
Aileron: the movement of aircraft about lateral axis is called rolling or bank. This moment ailerons are linked
together by control cable. So this one aileron is down when other is up that is they function in different directions.
Elevator: The movement of aircraft about longitudinal axis is called pitching. Elevator are used to control
this pitching movement. Elevators are linked together by actual cable so that both elevator are down that is move in
same direction

OCCASION
➢ Major servicing of aircraft
➢ Aircraft flies when one wing low
➢ As and when required by DGCA

REQUIREMENTS
➢ Man hours=3
➢ Man power=3+1
➢ Documents= Aircraft maintenance manual

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

➢ Tripod
➢ Aircraft ladder
➢ Longitudinal and lateral leveling board
➢ Spirit level
➢ Plumb bob
➢ Measuring tape

PRECAUTIONS
FOR AILERONS
45
 ➢ Observe all the safety precautions for leveling]
➢ Accuracy of spirit level has to be checked

PROCEDURE
➢ Place the aircraft over the level board
➢ Locate the C.G point and place the leveling board and spirit level on it
➢ Locate the C.G point and place the leveling board and spirit level over it
➢ Level the aircraft as per the concerned maintenance manual
➢ Measure the chord length of aileron
➢ Measure the distance travelled by aileron in upward direction from neutral position to port
side
➢ Take the distance from upper wing
➢ Measure the downward distance travelled by aileron form neutral position
➢ Find deflection angle from measured distance
➢ Check angle of deflection within specified limit

FOR ELEVATORS
➢ Measure the distance travelled in upward direction from neutral position to deflected
position
➢ Take distance from upper hinge
➢ Measure distance travelled by elevator from neutral position
➢ Find the deflection angle from neutral position
➢ Check the angle of deflection is within the specified limit

Result:

Error Analysis:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

46
To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor

and Marks
S.No. Max. Marks
10 obtained
excellent)
Understanding of the student about the
1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

47
Date: EXPERIMENT NO. 10

Retraction study on aircraft landing gears

Aim:
Reliability study of Landing Gear Retraction System Influenced by Multi-factors

Gear Door Clearances:

Landing gear doors have specific allowable clearances between the doors and the aircraft structure
that must be maintained. Adjustments are typically made at the hinge installations or to the
connecting links that support and move the door. On some installations, door hinges are adjusted by
placing a serrated hinge with an elongated mounting hole in the proper position in a hinge support
fitting. Using serrated washers, the mounting bolt is torqued to hold the position. Figure illustrates
this type of mounting, which allows linear adjustments via the elongated hole.

48
The distance landing gear doors open or close may depend upon the length of the door
linkage. Rod end adjustments are common to fit the door. Adjustments to door stops are also
a possibility. The manufacturer’s maintenance manual specifies the length of the linkages and
gives procedure for adjusting the stops. Follow all specified procedures that are accomplished
with the aircraft on jacks and the gear retracted. Doors that are too tight can cause structural
damage. Doors that are too loose catch wind in flight, which could cause wear and potential
failure, as well as parasite drag.
Drag and Side Brace Adjustment
Each landing gear has specific adjustments and tolerances per the manufacturer that permit
the gear to function as intended. A common geometry used to lock a landing gear in the down
position involves a collapsible side brace that is extended and held in an over-center position
through the use of a locking link. Springs and actuators may also contribute to the motion of
the linkage. Adjustments and tests are needed to ensure proper operation

Landing Gear Retraction Test

The proper functioning of a landing gear system and components can be checked by
performing a landing gear retraction test. This is also known as swinging the gear. The
aircraft is properly supported on jacks for this check, and the landing gear should be cleaned
and lubricated if needed. The gear is then raised and lowered as though the aircraft were in
flight while a close visual inspection is performed. All parts of the system should be observed
for security and proper operation. The emergency back-up extension system should be
checked whenever swinging the gear.

Retraction tests are performed at various times, such as during annual inspection. Any time a
landing gear component is replaced that could affect the correct functioning of the landing
gear system, a retraction test should follow when adjustments to landing gear linkages or
components that affect gear system performance are made. It may be necessary to swing the
gear after a hard or overweight landing. It is also common to swing the gear while attempting
to locate a malfunction within the system. For all required retraction tests and the specific
inspection points to check, consult the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for the aircraft in
question as each landing gear system is unique.

49
The following is a list of general inspection items to be performed while swinging the
gear:

1. Check the landing gear for proper extension and retraction.

2. Check all switches, lights, and warning devices for proper operation.
3. Check the landing gear doors for clearance and freedom from binding.
4. Check landing gear linkage for proper operation, adjustment, and general condition.
5. Check the alternate/emergency extension or retraction systems for proper operation.
6. Investigate any unusual sounds, such as those caused by rubbing, binding, chafing, or
vibration

Result:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt):

50
Suggested readings for students:
Books:
3. Theory Of Structures By S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayan, Dhanpat Rai Publications,
9th Edition, (2014)
rd
4. Basic Structure Analysis by C.S. Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 3 Edition, (2010)

To be filled in by Faculty

Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor

and Marks
S.No. Max. Marks
10 obtained
excellent)
Understanding of the student about the
1 20
Procedure/apparatus.

Observations and analysis including learning

2 20
outcomes

Completion of experiment, Discipline and

3 10
Cleanliness

Signature
Total marks
of Faculty
obtained
with UID

51
 APPENDEX – A
UNIT CONVERSION
Length Conversion:
1 ft = 12inch 1 inch = 0.0833333ft
1 ft = 304.8mm 1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 30.48 cm 1inch = 2.54 cm
1 ft = 3.048 m 1 inch = 0.0254 m
1 mm =0.001m 1m = 1000mm
1 mm = 0.1 m 1 m = 100 cm
1mm= 0.0393701 inch 1mm = 0.00328084 ft

Mass Conversion:
1 kg = 1000 g 1 g = 1000 mg

1 kg = 2.20462lbs (pound) 1 lbs = 0.453592 kg

1 kg = 9.8066500286389 N 1 N = 0.101971621 kg

1 kg = 0.00980665 KN 1 KN = 101.97162129779 kg

1 kg = 0.001 tonnes 1 ton = 1000 kg

52
 APPENDEX – B
Basic Terms and Definition

Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To find this, the distance advanced
by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite number of complete rotation of the screw is determined.

The pitch can be represented as;

Least Count of the Screw Gauge

The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the screw is turned through 1
division of the head scale.

The least count can be calculated using the formula;

1 mm is the division in Main scale and there are 10 divisions in vernier scale, so least count is
1/10 = 0.1 mm. A Vernier scale on caliper may have a least count of 0.02 mm while a
micrometer have least count of 0.01 mm.
Deflection of Beam:

Flexural Rigidity of Beam:

Flexural Rigidity = Modulus of Elasticity * Moment of Inertia or (EI)
• Modulus of Elasticity : (Stress / Strain)
• Stress = Force / Area
• Unit of Stress = N/mm2 or Kg/cm2 or Kn/m2
• Strain = Change in length / Original Length.
• Unit of Strain = Unit less
• Unit of Moment of inertia = mm4 or cm4
•
So Unit for Flexural Rigidity = (N/mm2) * mm4 = N-mm2

53
Stiffness of Beam:

The bending stiffness is the resistance of a member against bending deformation. It is a function
of elastic modulus (E), the area moment of inertia ( I )of the beam cross-section about the axis of
interest, length of the beam and beam boundary condition. Bending stiffness of a beam can
analytically be derived from the equation of beam deflection when it is applied by a force.

Possibility of Sway in Portal frames:

• Unsymmetrical loading
• Unsymmetrical out-line of portal frame
• Different End condition of column
• Non-uniform section (M.I)
• Horizontal load on the column frame.
• Settlement of supports of the frame

Two Hinge Arch Three Hinge Arch

Two hinged arches are indeterminate to the degreeThree hinged arches are the determinate structures
equal to 1.
Structurally more efficient Easy to analyze. But in construction the central
hinge may involve additional expenditure
Will develop stress due to sinking of support Since determinate no stresses due to support
sinking

Rotational Stiffness:
Stiffness is the rigidity of an object, the extent to which it resists deformation in the
response to applied force. Stiffness (k) is the relationship between an applied force and
the displacement the force produces. Rotational Stiffness can be calculated by using
the formula; k = n.G.J/L
where, k = The rotational stiffness
n = An integer depending on the boundary condition
G = The rigidity modulus of the material ( or shear modulus)
J = The second moment of area about the rotation axis (m4/rad)
L = Length of the element/material (m

54