Aim High and

Work Hard
Building a World-Class
Learning System in Estonia

Eve Eisenschmidt, Mati Heidmets,

Maie Kitsing, Mikk Kasesalk,
and Katlin Vanari
 © 2023 National Center on Education and the Economy

This case study was produced as part of a cross-system study of learning systems in high-performing jurisdictions, commissioned by
the National Center on Education and the Economy and led by Geoff Masters, Chief Executive Officer of the Australian Council for
Education Research. The findings of that study are in the book Building a World-Class Learning System: Insights from some top-performing
school systems. For more information about this study and a full set of materials produced, please visit www.ncee.org

This work may be cited as:

Eisenschmidt, E. Heidmets, M., Kasesalk M., Kitsing, M., and Vanari K., “Aim High and Work Hard: Building a World-Class
Education System in Estonia” (Washington, DC: National Center on Education and the Economy, 2023).

ISBN: 979-8-9885450-0-2
 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION: KEY QUALITIES OF THE ESTONIAN LEARNING SYSTEM 1

Historical-cultural Background—Aim High and Work Hard Mindset 1
Broad Societal Support for Education 2
Turning Point in 1990s—Autonomy of Educators 3
Governance—Evidence-based and Equity-promoting 3
Diverse and Responsive School Network 4

ESTONIAN LEARNING SYSTEM: CONTEXT, DEVELOPMENT & STRATEGIC GOALS 5

Main Messages 5
Political, Cultural, Economic, Demographic Context 6
Historical Educational Context and Formation of the Learning System 7
Inclusivity and a Bottom-Up Approach to Strategic Planning 13

GOVERNANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE 18

Main Messages 18
Comprehensive Educational System 18
Educational Levels and School Types 20
Governance of Schools 21
Schools and Principals: A High Level of Autonomy 23
Data-driven and Feedback-based Governance 29

CURRICULUM AND STANDARDS FOR LEARNING 37

Main Messages 37
National Curriculum as Framework for Schools to Develop Their Own Curriculum 38
The Demanding Expectations for Learning and the Strong Academic Base of the Curriculum 50
Curriculum Defines General Competencies and Cross-curricular Topics to Prepare Students
for the Demands of the Future 51
Curriculum Updated Based on Data about Student Progress and the Learning Process 58
Hobby Education and Extracurricular Learning Complements Formal Education 60
ASSESSMENT, REPORTING, AND QUALIFICATIONS 65
Main Messages 65
Diverse Assessment of Learning Outcomes 66
National Level Assessment of Student Performance 71
High Public Interest in School Performance 75
New Approaches to Monitoring Schools 78
Alternative Assessment Strategies 80
A Standards Framework Provides Clear Pathways 82

TEACHERS AND LEARNING RESOURCES 85

Main Messages 85
High Standards for Teachers 86
Responsiveness of Teacher Professional Development to the Changes in the System and Society 94
Teachers’ Autonomy in Their Work 97
Monitoring and Improvement of Teachers’ Policies 100
Complementary Resources to Improve Teaching 104

EQUALITY AND EQUITY IN THE LEARNING SYSTEM 108

Main Messages 108
Social Policies to Support Children from an Early Age 109
Early Education for All Children 111
Comprehensive School System and Common Standards for All 112
Equal Access to Education and Learning Resources 113
Support for Children with Special Needs 115
Students of Different Ethnic Backgrounds 118
The Learning System Is Characterized by Little Stratification 120
Effectiveness of Equity-Seeking Education and Social Policies 121

CURRENT CHANGES AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 123

Current Changes 123
Looking to the Future: Strategies and Development Plans 147
Summary 152

REFERENCES 155
 Introduction: Key Qualities of the
Estonian Learning System

The success of the Republic of Estonia in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) was a
surprise both nationally and internationally and has led to several important questions. What are the
reasons for these results? Which historical developments and recent decisions have allowed a small and
not particularly rich country to build an education system that offers cutting-edge knowledge and skills in
both the European and global contexts?

This study attempts to answer those questions by distilling insights into the Estonian learning system. First,
we outline key qualities of the system that may have impacted the PISA results; next, we analyze six
different parts of the system (goals, standards, curriculum, assessment, teachers, governance, and equity)
providing a more detailed picture of Estonian education; finally, the report discusses the current
challenges of the Estonian learning system, mapping the debates about future options and possible
changes to teaching and learning practices.

The report reflects the opinions and understanding of the authors, but the proposed key qualities of the
Estonian learning system (see Figure 1 on the next page) were determined through a series of
conversations among top educators across the country, as well as scientific analysis and research evidence.

Historical-cultural Background—Aim High and Work Hard Mindset

Two powerful forces have shaped Estonia: a history of being a part of larger empires and a Protestant
world view. Establishing and maintaining national identity in such a context has given education a special
role and meaning in Estonian society. For most Estonians, education was the only way to escape from
poverty and to claim a uniquely Estonian identity. The aim high and work hard mindset began to dominate
our learning system as early as the 19th century and still underlies the system today. This mentality
manifests itself in a demanding, discipline-based curriculum; high expectations for the teaching profession

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 1

and the academic preparation of teachers; and an emphasis on discipline in the learning process,
including a focus on rankings and competitions among schools as well as the effective use of study time.

Figure 1. Key Qualities of the Estonian Learning System

Broad Societal Support for Education

Historically, Estonians have had to cope in relatively poor economic conditions. Education has long been
seen as the key path to both individual and national development, and as such has been broadly
supported by all parts of Estonian society. Learning and teaching in Estonia are not only the concern of
school and teachers, but of many others in society.

Estonia’s attitude of “education is everyone’s business” begins in kindergarten (for three-to-six-year-old

children). Local municipalities run a well-established kindergarten system, where learning and teaching
based on the national preschool framework curriculum starts. The Estonian hobby education system,
established more than a century ago, offers exceptionally wide opportunities for additional education and
self-development in music, sports, art, technology, etc. (For example, in the 2019-2020 academic year, 90
percent of students in comprehensive schools participated in some form of hobby education.) In addition,
a wide network of NGOs supporting education has developed since independence, to which the private
sector contributes significantly (including by publishing learning materials, software platforms,
development programs for schools, etc.). The digital revolution in the Estonian educational system has
been largely supported by private entrepreneurs in the technology field, who have invested significant

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 2

financial resources. Estonian families are also very involved in supporting their children in learning
activities.

Turning Point in 1990s—Autonomy of Educators

The 1990s were a major turning point for the Estonian learning system. After regaining independence
from the Soviet Union in 1991, Estonia redesigned its education system to provide a much broader degree
of autonomy for schools and teachers than had been the case under the Soviet system. As a result,
Estonian schools have for nearly 30 years created school development plans, developed school-level
curricula, established teachers' salary and professional advancement systems, hired teachers, and
supported teachers' professional development. Within the broad frame of the national curriculum,
Estonian teachers decide on the content, learning materials, methodology and assessment methods of each
subject taught, and are free to integrate subjects as they wish.

Governance—Evidence-based and Equity-promoting

Despite fast-paced changes in Estonian society over the last 30 years, the grounding principles of the post-
1990’s learning system have remained intact: decentralization of authority for decision-making and
autonomy for teachers and schools. Overall, the system is inclusive and encouraging of local responsibility;
there are no longer any kinds of external inspections for schools, and assessment and reporting
requirements are not burdensome. Schools' self-evaluation is supported by systematically collected data
made available to them (and, in part, to the public). Schools are encouraged to carry out data-informed
monitoring of their learning processes and benchmark themselves against other schools.

The key focus of governance of the learning system in recent decades has been ensuring equity of access
and opportunity in education. New policies aim to support low-income families or families facing other
challenges that can hinder a child’s development. To this end, Estonia provides free school lunches,
learning materials, and extracurricular activities for all students.

Students with special needs receive additional support, subsidized by the state, and inclusive education is a
principle embedded in the system from the preschool level. Regional counselling centers provide high-
quality support to both students and the adults (teachers, parents) who care for them.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 3

Diverse and Responsive School Network

A learning system with autonomy for teachers and school leaders, rooted in evidence-based governance,
has resulted in a diverse school network in Estonia. Schools develop their own identities, emphasizing
deep learning and promoting student independence and choices. There are schools oriented around
technology and schools focused on the humanities and languages. Increasingly, private schools are
experimenting with novel pedagogical approaches such as integrated subjects and project-based learning.
About a fifth of schools offer Russian-language instruction in basic schools, while several kindergartens
and primary schools use English or French as a language of instruction. The varied school landscape and
different approaches have not negatively impacted the overall quality of education: compared to the rest
of the world, regional differences in student performance are low in Estonia. Thus, the Estonian learning
system has managed to consistently provide high-level knowledge and skills to students across a variety of
school models and cultures.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 4

 1
1
Estonian Learning System:
Context, Development and Strategic Goals

This chapter gives a brief overview of the historical, political, cultural and economic context for the
formation of the Estonian learning system.

Main Messages

• The Protestant work ethic is a powerful force in Estonian culture, including the
school system. Students have always been expected to aim high and work hard; elements of
competition have been part of educational efforts.
• Throughout Estonia’s history, education has been an important engine in creating
and sustaining Estonian national identity. Education has always been valued among
ordinary citizens, who trust and support schools and teachers. A variety of institutions have
historically contributed to educating Estonian people in addition to schools, especially those
offering hobby education.
• The Estonian learning system relies on a bottom-up approach to strategic planning
and implementation. National strategies are developed through a broad, multi-year, public
and cross-government consultation process, which results in shared understanding and consensus
around national policy and goals. This is coupled with an approach to implementation that relies
on thoughtful piloting and action research by teachers and relies on the support of research
universities.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 5

Political, Cultural, Economic, Demographic Context

Political and Cultural Context

Estonia is a small country in the North-East of Europe. Estonia includes more than two thousand islands
and islets. More than 50 percent of its territory is covered by forest, making its population density among
the lowest in Europe.

Due to its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of Baltic
Germans and Slavs, as well as by its former ruling powers Sweden, Denmark, Poland and Russia. Estonia
has been a contested area between western and eastern Europe for many centuries. The Republic of
Estonia as an independent state was first established in 1918. After World War II, Estonia became part of
the Soviet Union until 1991, when it regained independence.

Today Estonia is a parliamentary republic with a single-chamber parliament. The President, who is
elected by the parliament for a five-year term, is the chief of state. The Constitution of June 1992 forms
the legal foundation of the state. The legal system is based on a civil law system. As a member of the
European Union, Estonia ensures its national law complies with the conditions of EU legislation.

Estonia is one of the least religious countries in the world, with only about 15 to 20 percent of the
population claiming any religious beliefs. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the largest denomination,
although most Russians-speaking citizens belong to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Economic Background and Demographic Context.

According to World Bank data, the GDP per capita in Estonia has gone up significantly since
independence in 1991. In 2022, Estonia’s GDP per capita was USD 27,944, ranking it 21st among
nations in Europe and 41st in the world.

Salaries and wages have considerably increased during the last decade. Average monthly gross wages were
about USD 800 in 2010; and about USD 1800 in 2022

The population of Estonia as of June 2022 was 1.33 million, comprising Estonians (69.4 percent) as well as
a large minority of Russians (24 percent).

Estonia has seen a positive net migration during the last six to seven years, resulting in population growth
despite a declining fertility rate. In 2019, 12,240 persons immigrated to Estonia (mainly from Finland,
Ukraine, and Russia) and 7,210 persons emigrated from Estonia.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 6

Historical Educational Context and Formation of the Learning System

Early History

For Estonians, living in a small nation on the borders of dominant cultures and large state powers, survival
can never be taken for granted. Throughout history, education has played an essential part in the nation’s
survival and renewal strategies.

The first schools in Estonia were set up at cathedrals and monasteries in the 13th century after Estonia
was conquered during crusades from Germany and Denmark. When the Swedish Kingdom started its
rule of continental Estonia in the 17th century, the first gymnasiums (secondary schools) were established
in Tartu (1630), in Tallinn (1632) and at the University of Tartu (1632). In keeping with its requirement
that individuals be able to read the Bible in order to marry, the church started to teach the peasantry to
read in the mid-17th century (Estonica 2020).

From 1684–1688, the first teacher training school, Forselius Seminary, began to prepare schoolmasters to
teach in the parishes, ushering in the first generation of educated people in rural areas. At the beginning
of the 18th century, Estonia fell under the domain of Russia. Girls started to attend school from the end of
the 18th century, which led to a rise in mothers teaching children to read at home. The prospect of
economic advancement encouraged peasants to acquire literacy on their own, though only a very small
percentage of children attended school. For example, in 1835, only 1 percent of Estonian children went to
school (Andresen 2002).

Following the reform of property ownership in the Russian Empire, Estonians had the opportunity to
become landowners from the middle of the 19th century. Improved economic conditions following the
land reforms coupled with increasing literacy rates led to a so-called “national awakening” in the mid 19th
century when Estonians began to develop a national identity. By the end of the 19th century, Estonian
literacy was the highest in the Russian Empire: according to the 1881 census, 94 percent of the population
could read and 48 percent could read and write, on a level with the most advanced nations in the world.
During the 1870-80s, the Russian Empire introduced three-year compulsory schooling, including within
Estonia. Following industrial development, Estonians moved to towns from rural areas, and by the second
half of the century all three local languages — German, Russian, and Estonian—were spoken in towns.

During the same period, a network of preschool and childcare facilities began to develop. The first
childcare institution in Estonia opened in 1840, accepting children aged two to seven from poorer
families. In 1862, Estonia established its first kindergarten. The task of kindergartens was to care for

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 7

children, teach crafts, provide religious education and teach children to read. The first Estonian-language
instruction kindergarten opened in Tartu in 1905 (Torm 2000). During the 19th century, most Estonian
kindergarten teachers were educated in Germany, and brought back home the pedagogical views of
Fröbel, Montessori and other educational pioneers.

In the second half of the 19th century, an informal education system called “peasant schools” began to
develop. These were not just academic schools; they offered reading, drama and music circles for the
wider public. In 1906, the Estonian Society for Popular Education was founded with the desire to spread
knowledge among the population. The main tasks of the society were to promote educational attainment
through schools, choirs, museums, libraries and bookshops, and to issue books and organize lectures and
workshops for adults (Laane 1994).

Education During the First Independent Nationhood (1918–1940)

The Republic of Estonia was proclaimed on February 24, 1918. One of the first decisions of the new state
was to establish an Estonian-language instruction basic school. Estonia introduced a compulsory four-year
education program in 1919, which was extended to six years in the 1920s. Pedagogy influenced by
Komensky, Rousseau, Pestalozzi and others spread rapidly in Estonia during this period, including
mother-tongue instruction, emphasis on art, handicraft and physical education, developing each child’s
natural talents, and supporting children’s extra-curricular activities. During the 1920s and 1930s,
Estonian educationalists such as Käis, Põld and others, adapted those ideas to local contexts, adding their
own views and approaches to key aspects of schooling.

The University of Tartu, which had relied on German-language instruction, re-opened in 1919 with
Estonian-language instruction. The university included the faculties of theology, medicine, law,
philosophy, mathematics and natural sciences, agriculture and veterinary science; teacher education was
only added later.

A cornerstone of Estonian teacher education was the establishment of the Tallinn Teachers’ Seminar in
1919, which was founded to prepare primary school teachers. This seminar is considered a predecessor of
Tallinn University.

The vocational education system also took shape during the independence period. By the end of the
1930s, four types of vocational schools existed in Estonia: schools with an economic, technical or
agricultural focus, and those studying home economics. The first school to educate kindergarten teachers

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 8

opened in 1920; by the end of the 1930s, there were 80 kindergartens serving 4,000 children in bigger
towns and villages (Jürimäe and Treier 2008).

In 1936, Estonia passed the Youth Organization Act, which organized and regulated activities for young
people outside of school. A youth department was established within the Ministry of Education and given
the responsibility to organize youth activities.

Between the two World Wars, Estonian educator Johannes Käis rose to prominence and influenced the
development of schools. His ideas resembled those of John Dewey, who was active in the US at the same
time. Käis disseminated the ideas of reform pedagogy, which resulted in the reformational school
movement and the publication of “School Reformer,” a new educational journal. According to Käis, "the
years of schooling are limited, but the education of the human spirit continues throughout … life. This
education takes place through literature, theatre, cinema and life experiences, as well as participation in
informal events – various courses, lectures, study trips." (Käis 1944/2018).

The Soviet Period (1944 –1991)

During the Soviet period (1944–1991), the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) maintained some
distinct features of their educational systems. In Estonia, these included use of the mother tongue as the
language of instruction from primary through university-level education, as well as use of original
Estonian textbooks for several subjects (in place of translations of Russian textbooks). In addition,
Estonian secondary education was one year longer than Russian secondary school. Those features made
the education system a crucial mechanism of cultural survival during the Soviet period.

Estonian compulsory schooling was extended during this period: a seven-year compulsory education was
established in 1949 and extended to eight years in the 1960s. By the early 1980s, 99 percent of 18-year-
olds had acquired upper secondary education (Ruus and Reiska 2010).

Participation in higher education also rose during the Soviet period. Between 1919 and 1939, the total
number of graduates of the University of Tartu was only 5,751. By the mid-1950s, over 10,000 students
were enrolled. In 1970, about 44 percent of students with a secondary education diploma enrolled in
institutions of higher education. This was true even though the curriculum of the Soviet period was
subject to political influence (it included a disproportionately large share of courses in Russian language,
literature and history) and isolated from the intellectual developments in the rest of the world. Still,
students were enrolled in an Estonian institution promoting Estonian language, culture and identity.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 9

The period also saw the expansion of Estonia’s kindergarten network and its vocational education system.
While Estonia initially used a Soviet Union curriculum for kindergarten, starting in the 1960s Estonia
developed its own subject-oriented kindergarten curriculum, with content adapted for the age group.
Estonia paid particular attention to vocational education during the Soviet period in support of the
planned economy, industrial mass production and large enterprise. It was during this period that Estonia
developed a network of vocational education institutions and invested in a renewed infrastructure
(Loogma 2020).

The Estonian Teachers’ Congress of 1987 was a breakthrough event for Estonian education. As reforms
emerged under Soviet perestroika, Estonian teachers at the Congress criticized the existing Soviet school
system and demanded more independence for Estonian education. The Congress formulated a plan to
establish a national curriculum for Estonian general education. It announced an open competition to
design a new curriculum, which created huge national interest. Philosophers, writers, university lecturers,
teachers, and even schoolchildren participated in nation-wide discussions about the future of Estonian
schools. In 1989, Estonia adopted the new national curriculum and schools started to implement it.

Independent Estonia

Educational reforms after regaining independence in 1991 may be divided into three stages (Ruus 2011):

During the first stage of change (the early and mid-1990s), rapid liberalization of the whole educational
system took place. Old Soviet-type regulations were eased, but new ones were not yet established. This
period involved a very loose legal framework and weak governmental regulation, on the one hand, and
new initiatives, including establishing private schools and universities, on the other. This period provided
opportunities to many new actors (like NQOs, private sector) in education, but also resulted in negative
outcomes, such as the bankruptcy of some newly established private universities and the loss of money
invested by students. Demands for the establishment of more quality control mechanisms in “liberalized”
education began to gain more momentum.

The second period, starting in the late 1990s, involved a step-by-step “return of the state,” including the
introduction of a more sophisticated legal framework, with steps taken to institute strategic planning and
management processes for education. It was during this period that Estonia introduced compulsory state
exams for secondary school graduates and established the Examination and Qualification Center and the
Qualification Authority; the Estonian Higher Education Accreditation Center also started accreditation of
Estonian higher education. The government began to use financing tools, as well as quality control
measures, more deliberately to shape the education sector. From 1999 to 2000, Estonia also made its first

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 10

attempts to create a national education strategy aimed at harmonizing a quite diverse learning system and
principles. Ultimately they were not successful at creating a national educational strategy at that time but
did establish a foundation for future efforts. However, after years of movement towards freedom in
education, by the late 1990s elements of centralized control and strategic planning were back in place.

The third period, which began around the new millennium, can be called “networking with Europe and
beyond.” This stage involved harmonizing Estonian education with European standards and frameworks,
including the Bologna process, following standards and guidelines in quality assurance, implementing a
learning outcomes-based approach, and increasing student enrollment, staff mobility and the participation
of researchers in EU framework programs. In addition, participation in international assessment of
education performance (TIMSS, PISA, TALIS, etc.) enhanced the importance of analytical tools in
Estonian educational decision-making and public debate.

Current national regulations for all levels of education (from preschools to universities) were developed
step-by-step throughout these three stages of independence. The constitution of Estonia (1992) guarantees
several important provisions for education:

Everyone has the right to education. Education for school-age children is compulsory to the extent
specified by the law and is free of charge in general schools established by the national government and
by local authorities. In order to make education accessible, the national government and local
authorities maintain a requisite number of educational institutions … Parents have the deciding say in
the choice of education for their children. Everyone has the right to be taught in Estonian. The language
of teaching in national minority educational institutions is chosen by the educational institution. The
provision of education is overseen by the national government. (Constitution of Estonia, 1992)

As early as the 1989-90 school year, Estonia completed and implemented a new national school
curriculum for Estonian-language instruction schools. Following input from many sectors in society, in
1996 the government approved an updated national curriculum for general education. In 2000, a second
phase of the national curriculum development process started, which centered on the integration of cross-
curricular themes and subjects and the relationships between the curriculum and extracurricular learning
(school and home relationships, students’ out-of-classroom and out-of-school activities, etc.).

To better integrate Russian-language instruction schools into the Estonian education system, amendments
to the law on basic and upper secondary schools were introduced in 1997. These amendments required
Russian-language secondary schools to begin the transition to Estonian language in 2007, with the aim to
have at least 60 percent of the curriculum taught in Estonian by 2011.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 11

During this period Estonia also focused on the modernization and improvement of vocational training, a
process which included rapid consolidation: in 1990 Estonia had 78 vocational schools; by 2020 the
number had decreased to 32 (including six institutions of professional higher education). Estonia
significantly modernized the infrastructure of the remaining schools, primarily using European structural
funds. Learning environments in vocational schools, in terms of the physical environment and the
availability of technology and other infrastructure, have improved dramatically since the 1990s (Loogma
2020). Unfortunately, this has not led to a significant increase in the popularity of vocational education
among young people.

The introduction of a higher education standard in 1996 and the signing of the Bologna Declaration in
1999 brought about a two-tier (3+2 years) bachelor-master’s study structure beginning in the 2002-2003
school year. Teacher training became a master’s level program at this time. In 1998, Estonia implemented
the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) categorization of educational levels, and
study programs were aligned to ISCED.

Starting in the 1990s, Estonia developed its lifelong learning system, with nearly 1,000 institutions
providing in-service training. In 2017, for example, the government offered 74,000 adult education
courses, with 373,000 participants. The participation of adults (aged 25-64) in training courses has
increased steadily in recent years, with 12 percent of the working age population enrolled in 2011, and
19.7 percent by 2018.

The milestones of the formulation of the Estonian learning system are shown in Table 1, below.

Table 1. The Milestones of the Formulation of the Estonian Learning System.

First gymnasiums were opened in Tallinn and Tartu, University of Tartu was opened
1600s
The Forselius Seminar began preparing schoolmasters

1700s Rural schooling, girls attending school, home schooling

First childcare center opened

1800s 94% of the population could read, 48% of the population could read and write

Obligatory 3-year schooling

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 12

 The Estonian Society for Popular Education was founded

University of Tartu was reopened and carried out instruction in Estonian

Obligatory 6-year education

1900-1950 The foundation of Tallinn Teacher’s Seminar

The first school to train kindergarten teachers was opened

80 kindergartens with 4,000 children in bigger towns and villages were opened

Youth Organization Act was passed

Obligatory 8-year education

Kindergartens develop their own curriculum

43% of those who possessed a secondary education diploma proceeded to higher

1950-1990 education institutions

Secondary level education became selective

Estonian teachers’ congress took place

New National curriculum was adopted

Estonia became independent

Stage I of change: weak governmental regulation, contradictory legal framework, new

initiatives and private sector entered education
1990-2000
Stage II of change: elements of centralized regulations and strategic planning were put
in place

Stage III of change: networking with Europe and the world

Non-university type of higher education (ISCED 1997 5B) was introduced

Two-tier (3 + 2 years) bachelor-master’s study structure was introduced

Qualification standards for vocational teachers were established

2000-2020
Secondary schools with Russian instruction language began the transition to Estonian
language instruction

Lifelong learning system was created for adults

Inclusivity and a Bottom-up Approach to Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is typically initiated and led by key stakeholders, including non-governmental
organizations and academic experts, and supported by politicians and administrators in the Ministry of
Education. This bottom-up approach to strategic planning emerged as the young republic evolved.
Strategic planning in Estonia can be divided into three periods: (1) mid-1980s to mid-1990s, (2) 1995 to
2004, and (3) 2004 to the present (Ruus 2011).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 13

The first phase of strategic planning began with the 1987 Estonia Teachers’ Congress, at which about
1,000 teachers strongly criticized the Soviet education system and demanded greater independence for
Estonian education. The Congress mapped a series of proposed improvements for teaching and learning
which resulted in a new curriculum in 1989—even before Estonia had regained its independence.
Between 1989 and 1996, educators worked to refine the curriculum, making it more outcome-based and
responsive to current educational issues. Finally implemented in 1996, Estonia saw its national curriculum
as instrumental to a market-driven European society—a true departure from decades of Soviet
communist rule. Estonia was one of the first countries to incorporate cross-disciplinary competencies such
as learning to learn and social competence into the curriculum.

The second phase started with the formation of the Estonian Education Forum (a non-governmental
institution) in 1994. The Forum encouraged expansive, bottom-up discussions of education involving a
variety of stakeholders. During its first conference, in 1995, the Forum set three goals: 1) evaluate what
has happened in education since 1987; 2) initiate an education development plan that takes into account
socio-economic and political changes; 3) involve all parties with educational interests in society in the
formation of education policy, including professional and trade unions and associations. Since that time,
the Estonian Education Forum, the Estonian Cooperation Assembly, and other civil society organizations
involving teachers, university lecturers, parents, etc., have actively participated in debates on the future of
education and drafted visionary documents. In 1999, the Learning Estonia vision document laid out a
very different vision for an education system–one that prioritized learning outcomes and the learning
process, no matter where or how teaching takes place. The document depicted education as a sector with
an ever-increasing diversity of learning environments, blurred boundaries between academic general
education and vocational education, and different but equally valuable forms of formal and informal
learning.

The third phase of strategic planning began when Estonia joined the European Union in 2004 and
adopted EU laws and related norms. Participation in international initiatives such as TIMSS, PISA, and
TALIS strongly influenced developments in the educational system, including putting a greater focus on
strategic planning. A boom of strategic planning took place from 2005–2015, resulting in the Teacher
Education Strategy 2009-2013; Vocational Education Strategy 2005-2008 and 2009–2013; and the
General Education Development Plan 2007–2011, among others.

Estonia’s Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 represents a significant movement away from a fragmented
approach (strategic plans for different levels and forms of education) in favor of an integrated approach (a
whole, cross-field strategy). Strategy development occurred in two stages. First, in cooperation with the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 14

Estonian Cooperation Assembly and the Estonian Education Forum (both NGOs), the Ministry of
Education and Research initiated the project “Five Challenges in Estonian Education – Education
Strategy for 2012V–2020” (see Table 2, below).

Table 2. Main Aims of Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020

The Lifelong Learning Strategy Change in the approach to learning

is a document that guides the Implementation of an approach to learning that supports each learner’s
most important developments in individual and social development, the acquisition of learning skills,
the area of education. It is the creativity and entrepreneurship at all levels and in all types of education.
basis on which the government
will make its decisions for
Competent and motivated teachers and school leadership
educational funding for the years
2014-2020 and for the The assessments of teachers and headmasters including their salaries are
consistent with the qualification requirements for the job and work-related
development of programs that
performance
support the achievement of
necessary changes.
Concordance of lifelong learning opportunities with the needs of labor
The general goal of drafting the market
Lifelong Learning Strategy is to Lifelong learning opportunities and career services that are diverse, flexible
provide all people in Estonia and of good quality, resulting in an increase in the number of people with
with learning opportunities that professional or vocational qualifications in different age groups, and an
are tailored to their needs and increase in overall participation in lifelong learning across Estonia.
capabilities throughout their
whole lifespan, in order for them A digital focus in lifelong learning
to maximize opportunities for
Modern digital technology is used for learning and teaching effectively and
dignified self-actualization within efficiently. An improvement in the digital skills of the total population has
society, in their work as well as been achieved, and access to the new generation of digital infrastructure is
in their family life. ensured

To pursue the general goal, five

Equal opportunities and increased participation in lifelong learning
strategic goals have been
established. Equal opportunities for lifelong learning have been created for every
individual

Source: https://www.hm.ee/en/estonian-lifelong-learning-strategy-2020

Secondly, inspired by the vision of Learning Estonia, an academic council convened by the president
initiated a broad, open-ended consultation process to develop a national education strategy. Experts from
different sectors contributed, including the head of the Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the
head of the National Student Council, representatives from other sectors such as the Ministry of Social
Affairs and Ministry of Economics, and members of the public.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 15

The Estonian government used the Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 as the basis for its decisions around
educational funding for the years 2014–2020. The overall goal of the strategy was to provide all people in
Estonia with learning opportunities tailored to their needs and abilities throughout their lifespan, in order
to maximize their opportunities for dignified self-actualization in work, family, and civic life.

In 2018, Estonia embarked on the next phase of strategic planning, Smart and Active Estonia for 2021–2035
(Ministry of Education and Research, n.d.b). The plan is moving in sync with other important strategic
processes in Estonia, such as Strategy Estonia 2035, Estonia’s long-term reform plan and the basis for
determining the use of future EU funds.

In light of global changes and our current strengths and weaknesses, Estonia has formulated five main
educational goals for 2035: (1) a “seamless” educational system that supports individual choices and
smooth transitions between levels of education as well as between school and work life; (2) a system that
promotes value for Estonian culture, language, and social cohesion; (3) development of new skills and
better use of existing skills; (4) learning as collaboration, with the teacher as a guide; (5) research-based
mindsets and top-level universities.

Major developments in the history of strategic planning for Estonia’s educational system are presented in
Figure 2, on the next page.

Figure 2. Envisioning the Future of Estonia’s Education System

Education in Estonia is an important public issue. In addition to educators and administrators, learners,
parents, and other stakeholders are engaged in future planning. Estonians perceive education as an
important competitive advantage for the future. A growing number of NGOs are focused on critical
debates in education and offer potential solutions, particularly those outside the traditional purview of
education. In 2020, The Ministry of Education and Research allocated 4.3 million euros to 54 different

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 16

non-governmental organizations for improving education in Estonia. These organizations can be grouped
into two categories: (1) organizations representing certain interest groups (e.g., Estonian Student Union,
Estonian Association of Hobby Schools); and (2) organizations which anticipate and attempt to solve
specific problems for the education system (e.g., Foundation for Bullying-free School or Teach for
Estonia). The government’s investment in these NGOs reflects its value for the diversity of the education
system and the different ways educational actors are trying to improve the outcome of the system.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 17

 1
2
Governance and Quality Assurance

This chapter presents a brief overview of the Estonian general educational system, including the objectives
and values which drive the learning system, as well as its governance and quality assurance mechanisms.

Main Messages:

• The Estonian education system is comprehensive. Education is compulsory for all children
permanently residing in Estonia. Basic education is the mandatory minimum for general education
requirements. Students are required to attend school until they acquire basic education or turn 17.
• Schools have a high level of autonomy. Principals and teachers enjoy a high level of public
trust, which has allowed them the freedom to develop their own approaches to teaching and
school culture. The Ministry of Education and Research monitors a national database of student
outcomes and only conducts school inspections in the case of complaints, rule violations, or, when
appropriate, on the basis of specific, Ministry-led evaluations.
• Evidence-based governance methods are increasing. Schools are encouraged to rely on the
results of their self-analysis and to use a variety of comparative data sets. The central government
collects a vast amount of data to monitor the system's overall performance and regulations. Local
governments and schools also collect data for self-improvement and accountability.

Comprehensive Educational System

General education in Estonia is divided into preschool, basic and upper-secondary education (see Figure
3, next page)

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 18

 Figure 3. Estonian Educational System

Preschool Education

Preschool education is provided to children between the ages of 18 months and seven years in dedicated
educational institutions. The main aim of the early stages of education is to support the child’s individual
growth and development. Local authorities provide preschool facilities to meet the needs of area families.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 19

Basic Education

Integrated primary and lower secondary education is the minimum general education requirement.
Students attend either comprehensive basic schools (grades 1–9) or primary schools (grades 1-6) and
secondary schools that serve grades 7-9. Graduating from basic school requires satisfactory completion of
the curriculum, completing a creative work project that meets standards, and passing exams in Estonian
language or Estonian as a second language, mathematics, and an exam on a subject of the student’s
choice. Following graduation from basic school, students have several choices for continuation on the
educational path. They can pursue upper secondary education at upper secondary school, pursue
vocational secondary education at a vocational education institution, attend adult upper secondary
schools, or simply start work. Students are required to attend school until they acquire basic education or
turn 17.

Educational Levels and School Types

General Secondary Education

General secondary education is provided by the upper secondary schools. Upper secondary education is
designed to help students become creative, multi-talented, socially mature and reliable citizens who
discover an occupation best suited to their individual interests and capacities. The curriculum for upper
secondary schools is divided into mandatory and voluntary courses (1 course = 35 academic hours).
Graduation from upper secondary school requires the student to complete, at minimum, a curriculum
consisting of at least 96 individual courses passed at a satisfactory level, usually within three years. To
graduate, students must pass three state exams: 1) Estonian language or Estonian as a second language, 2)
mathematics and 3) a foreign language exam. They must also pass one school exam based on the student’s
choice and complete a research paper or other project during their term of enrollment.

In Estonia, all schools, regardless of the language of study, follow the same national framework
curriculum. The length of the study period is at least 175 teaching days (35 weeks) and five school
holidays. Attaining general secondary education entitles students to continue their studies at a higher
educational institution or to pursue vocational education.

Vocational Education

Vocational education is organized by vocational educational institutions and professional higher

education institutions. The curriculum is organized by VET credit points (EKAP). One credit point

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 20

corresponds to 26 hours of study. Students are expected to earn 60 credit points each year. The full
curriculum for vocational secondary education (ISCED 3) is 180 credit points. To graduate from
vocational school, students must successfully complete the curriculum, including practical training, and
pass all required assessments and a final examination. Completion of vocational education with upper
secondary education allows students to continue studies at the higher education level.

There are also post-secondary VET programs (post-secondary non-tertiary education, ISCED 4), which
are 120–150 credit points. In addition, people with unfinished basic education can enter initial VET
programs, which are 15–120 credit points (ISCED 2).

Governance of Schools

Most preschools and general education facilities are operated by local governments and most vocational
schools are operated by the state. All municipal schools have designated service areas, meaning that the
schools must ensure available space for all school-aged children living in their area. For more detailed
information see Table 3 below.

Table 3. School Operator and Percentage of the Students in Each School Type, School
Year 2019-2020

General
Preschool Students education Students Vocational Students
Type institutions served institutions served schools served

Local
556 95.3% 428 88.9% 2 12.4%
government

State 0 0 33 4.3% 31 86.1%

Private 58 4.7% 57 6.8% 4 1.5%

Source: Haridussilm, n.d.

According to the 2010 Basic Schools and Upper Secondary Schools Act, each school’s operating costs will
be covered by the school owner. Schools draw funds from a variety of sources: allocations from the state
and rural municipality or from city budgets; contributions from private organizations; individual

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 21

donations; and income from extracurricular activities. These sources fund both municipal and private
schools. The bulk of funding for public schools comes from state and local governments, whereas parents
and private enterprises contribute to private schools, as well as the state.

Local Governments

Local governments (rural municipalities or cities) must guarantee a spot at school for all students who
reside in their administrative region. Local governments are authorized to maintain school buildings and
grounds, and to establish, reorganize, or close general education schools as needed. Local governments
track the number of children attending compulsory school, ensure school attendance control, and arrange
school transport, the provision of school meals, and related functions (Riigi Teataja 2010a).

In general, there are no entrance requirements for students enrolling in first grade. However, local
governments permit a subset of schools to select talented students through screening tests administered
before first grade. These schools (mostly located in Tallinn and Tartu, the two biggest municipalities) are
municipal schools; they are called “elite” by the media and the public. Their selectiveness creates
competition for admission. In 2020, one applicant out of ten was selected to attend first grade in one “elite
school” in Tallinn. The existence of these schools has inspired passionate discussions about equity and
fairness among politicians and educational experts, but local governments are free to operate them if they
wish.

The state allocates funds to municipalities depending on how many students are enrolled in municipal
schools. State subsidies cover teachers’ salaries, in-service training, learning materials (textbooks, ICT
equipment, etc.) and school lunches (Riigi Teataja 2010a).

Similar subsidies also support private general education schools (Private Schools Act 1998). The state does
not prescribe how the funds are to be used by schools. Local governments reserve the right (and the
obligation) to finance schools based on actual needs.

In 2019–2020, 11 percent of general education schools were private. The number of students learning in
private schools has been gradually increasing since 2005–2006 (Figure 4, next page). One possible
explanation is that private schools are better positioned to provide targeted educational opportunities to
families who value them. Private school curricula usually include alternative learning approaches and
have fewer students per class, with more opportunities for individualized learning and family
participation. Because private schools are largely subsidized by the state, families do not have to cover
huge financial costs to enroll their children.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 22

 Figure 4. Trends in Number of and Enrollment in Private/Public Schools

Source: EHIS, 2020

Schools and Principals: A High Level of Autonomy

Governance

School governance in Estonia involves three levels of administration: 1) the central government, 2) local
municipalities (rural municipalities and cities/towns) and 3) schools themselves.

The government and the Ministry of Education and Research are responsible for national education
policy and overall strategic planning for the education system. The responsibilities of the Ministry include
creating a legal framework and setting national development goals; the supervision and development of
the education system; establishing the framework for student learning objectives; defining the levels and
terms of funding; setting the requirements for the professional and pedagogical competence of educational
staff; determining minimum salaries of teachers; and managing the register of schools which form the
school network.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 23

As part of their obligation to provide basic education to all school-age children in their area, local
municipalities establish the hiring procedure for heads of schools and submit the procedure to the board
of trustees for review. The contract with the head of a municipal school is administered by the rural
municipality or city mayor (Riigi Teataja 2010a). Bigger cities such as Tallinn, Tartu, and Pärnu have
greater capacity to organize an education department within their municipality, which can include quality
assurance activities, overseeing collaboration among schools, and assisting schools with teachers’
professional development.

Estonian schools are highly autonomous. Legislation and regulations set by the central government are
not too detailed, which gives schools and municipalities opportunities to set specific rules geared toward
local circumstances. School principals bear full responsibility for the quality of education, financial
management, appointment and dismissal of teachers, level of teacher salaries (above a minimum), and
relations to the school community and the general public. A board of trustees serves as an important
advisory body overseeing the activities of students, teachers, school operators, parents, graduates and
affiliated organizations. The board supports the school in planning and improving the teaching and
learning process (Riigi Teataja 2010a). Parents who serve on the board can influence a school’s
development by guiding the school’s curriculum, development plan, and approach to pedagogy. At
schools where there is a student council, the board of trustees also includes a student representative
appointed by the council (Santiago et al 2016c).

Quality Enhancement and Accountability

While schools have significant autonomy, the central government sets performance indicators for
monitoring quality across the system. Because the Estonian public is highly invested in its school system
and pays close attention to performance, publicly available performance indicators are effective for
benchmarking and act as a latent control mechanism for the system actors. In light of this, formal
evaluation by the state is considered unnecessary in Estonia.

Schools are primarily responsible for improving the quality of learning opportunities for students. Schools
use internal quality control mechanisms such as internal evaluation and annual developmental
conversations with teachers to set the in-service training goals in line with institutional aims (Riigi Teataja
2010a). Schools should collaborate with teaching staff, students and parents on development plans. The
development plan lays out the goals, objectives and paths for school development and establishes
indicators to monitor progress. Each development plan covers at minimum a three-year term and includes
an internal evaluation process to identify the school’s strengths and weaknesses. While the results of

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 24

internal evaluation are used to inform future plans, evidence-based management has not yet been fully
adopted in Estonian schools.

The main components of national-level external evaluation are (1) the external evaluation of learning
outcomes (except preschool education); and (2) state supervision of specific issues that arise. The external
evaluation of the school is carried out only in the case of complaints or violations of general regulations or
legislation, which are uncommon (Riigi Teataja 2010a). State level supervision can result in sanctions,
starting with a precept instructing the school to resolve an issue or meet certain requirements during a
specific time frame (e.g., a school might be given two years to align its curriculum with the national
curriculum or raise teachers’ qualification standards). If the school does not comply with the order, the
state may impose a penalty. If the precept and penalty do not work, the state’s extreme and final step is to
withdraw the school’s permit. This happens very rarely. In general, Estonian schools monitor themselves
efficiently. This self-evaluation reduces the need for routine state supervision without specific cause.

Recently, state monitoring of schools has been shifting away from monitoring standard school processes
and towards needs-based supervision aimed at supporting schools at risk. The shift can be explained in
part by an administrative reform of the municipalities in 2017. By increasing the size of local governments
and improving their administrative capability, the state has been able to delegate monitoring to
municipalities; the shift has also saved money, as when resources are limited, it makes sense to prioritize
schools at risk. Once the state has identified an at-risk school (generally based on measures of student
performance), it supervises the efforts of school operators to improve learning conditions and ensure
improved outcomes.

According to the Basic Schools and Upper Secondary Schools Act (2010), there is also one preventive
form of external evaluation: the schooling permit procedure for opening new schools. To receive a
schooling permit, a prospective school must demonstrate the following: a curriculum aligned with the
national curriculum, a sufficient number of qualified staff, a suitable school environment meeting all
health and safety regulations, and adequate resources to maintain the school.

At the state level, the Ministry of Education and Research gathers and monitors information about the
entire school system in order to identify areas for improvement. The state supervision system aims to (1)
verify compliance with legislative requirements regulating study and educational activities, and (2) analyze
problems in the implementation of legislation regulating study and educational activities (Riigi Teataja
2010a). The following two thematic analyses by the Ministry provide examples of state oversight: “An
overview of the monitoring of the legality and relevance of the conditions and procedure for admission to

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 25

the upper secondary school,” and “an overview of monitoring the exclusion of students from basic school
and upper secondary school.”

Each year, the Annual Overview of the Ministry of Education and Research and the Annual Overview of
External Evaluation raise important issues about the education system and offer analysis that helps
educational specialists at the state, municipal and school level to evaluate their own institutions.
Additionally, the Ministry commissions frequent studies of the learning system from universities and think
tanks, to look at such issues as how formative assessment is implemented in schools or how teachers’ in-
service learning is supported.

Quality Enhancement in Vocational Education

Ensuring equal access to quality learning is an important aim of vocational education in Estonia. From
2011 through 2018, the Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education (EKKA) —
reorganized in 2022 and named The Estonian Quality Agency for Education (HAKA)—undertook
external evaluation and accreditation of vocational programs of study/curriculum groups in broad
curriculum areas (e.g., environmental protection, horticulture, ICT, trade, etc.). The evaluation looked at
several features of a study program, including the program’s content and structure; whether learning
outcomes are specified; entry and completion requirements; key competencies; principles for curriculum
updates; and principles for recognition of prior learning and work experience. During accreditation,
teaching effectiveness is assessed across five fields: (1) the teaching process; (2) leadership and
organizational management; (3) human resource management; (4) cooperation with interest groups; and
(5) resource management.

According to a directive from the Minister of Education and Research, schools are accredited to offer
programs in a particular curriculum area/group and only programs that receive accreditation have the
right to operate in a particular curriculum group. Accreditation takes place in four stages: (1) the school
conducts an internal evaluation of the program of study and compiles a report; (2) the evaluation
committee analyzes the program report, conducts an assessment visit and compiles an assessment report;
(3) the quality assessment council for vocational education in EKKA makes an accreditation decision
based on the internal and external reports and submits a proposal to the Minister of Education and
Research; (4) on the basis of the proposal, the Minister of Education and Research decides whether or not
to extend the right to conduct studies in the program group. If granted, the right to conduct studies is
extended by three or six years (Table 4, next page).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 26

Table 4. Main Strengths and Challenges of Estonian Vocational Education Based on
Accreditation Results, 2011-2018

STRENGTHS CHALLENGES

Modern learning environment and technology Resources are not used optimally.

Staff meet qualifications and teachers are committed and The VET teacher workforce is aging; teachers are
experienced, and practitioners are involved. overburdened; staff development, including internships, is
not systematic.

Curriculum development is consistent and takes place in The use of e-learning tools is minimal; learning and
cooperation with employers. assessment methods are teacher-led with little input or
feedback from students.

Work-based learning is being implemented. Enrollment is declining and drop-out rates are high.

Leadership and management are systematic and inclusive. Development visions and plans are vague; the division of
responsibilities in management is unclear.

Employers cooperate and their interests are considered In-service supervisors are not trained; internships are not
(curricula, electives). assessed in advance; the organization and content of the
internship are not in line with the learning objectives or
learning outcomes; cooperation with employers is formal.

Source: Kroonmäe, 2019

Both the accreditation report and the results of the internal evaluation are publicly available. Vocational
education institutions use the results for strategic planning, improvement of curricula and teaching
methods, etc., while the Minister of Education uses the evaluation results for strategic development of
vocational education at the system level (Cedefop, 2017). Accreditation reports reflect expert opinion
about such issues as resource planning, leadership and management, and staff compliance, and include a
summary of each program’s strengths and challenges. At the end of the 2011-2018 accreditation period, a
clear set of challenges facing vocational institutions had emerged. Among these were planning and use of
resources, especially as the number of students significantly decreased; the maintenance of the learning
environment, including keeping technology and machinery up to date; and the recruitment of teachers.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 27

Internal evaluation reports of schools also showed that school leaders had difficulty collecting feedback
from students, teachers and other stakeholders, analyzing the results and using them in development work
(Kroonmäe, Taimsoo, and Lauri 2020) (Table 4).

By contrast, curriculum development emerged as a strength. During that time, institutions made a shift to
outcomes-based curricula, and development work with internal and external stakeholders to implement
this curricula was intensive. An important emphasis in curriculum development was alignment with the
requirements of the labor market and the expectations of target groups (learners, the labor market, the
state, and society in general).

Since 2019, all vocational education institutions are required to be accredited at least once every six years.
Ideally, this will promote alignment across institutions and ensure high-quality learning for all vocational
students in Estonia. Currently, institutions are focused on the following goals:

1. Developing strong programs of study Study program development should be targeted,

systematic and managed; programs should meet the needs of learners and the labor market;
studies should be designed to take into account the uniqueness of the learners and the learning
environment.
2. Strengthening the teaching and learning process Students’ choice of specialization
should be supported; the learning environment should support students in achieving their
learning outcomes; program design should be adapted to student needs and interests; teaching
content, methodology and evaluation should be based on learning outcomes; student support
services should be in place and available to students.
3. Improving the professionalism of teachers Teachers should have all relevant
qualifications; work volume and job positions should be planned in advance; the professional and
occupational development of teachers should be informed by the programs of study, the needs of
learners, feedback from the stakeholders and self-evaluation.

With these goals in mind, the state monitors performance of vocational education using the same
indicators used by accreditors and by schools: (1) trends in admission (including in-service training); (2)
trends in the share of early leavers (drop-outs); (3) trends in the share of graduates; (4) trends in the
employment rate of alumni, including the share of those continuing in education and training; (5) trends
in passing the vocational examination; (6) trends in student satisfaction; (7) other indicators, including
students’ mobility, taking part in competitions and contests, etc. (Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and
Vocational Education homepage: https://haka.ee/en/external-assessment-vet-estonia/).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 28

Data-driven and Feedback-based Governance

During the last few decades, Estonia has shifted towards more data-driven and feedback-based
governance of its learning system. This governance model has its roots in the early nineties, when
Estonian schools (with the support of non-governmental initiatives as well as the Ministry) widely adopted
the kind of organization management mindset usually seen in the business sector. While this approach is
uncommon in the educational field, several initiatives like “Unique school” (“Omanäoline kool”),
“Learning organization” (“Õppiv kool”), and “EFQM model for quality assurance at school” have
promoted continuous organizational improvement and introduced the so-called Deming cycle for school
leaders. This has enriched school culture and leadership practices in Estonian schools.

Monitoring the System and Common Indicators for All Schools

Estonia collects a vast amount of data on its schools in order to monitor the education system's
performance and adherence to regulations. The central government intervenes when it sees schools
deviating from national standards or from their own development plans. Estonia makes school data
available to the public, a practice critical to maintaining quality in a system where schools operate with
significant autonomy.

The Ministry of Education and Research uses a range of tools to monitor two main aspects of the “health”
of the school system: 1) how well schools are functioning and performing, and 2) how well schools are
implementing national strategies (e.g., the Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020).

Monitoring School Performance

Many steps are involved in monitoring an individual school’s performance. First, information on student
learning outcomes is collected from sample-based national standard-determining tests (see more in
chapter 4) in grades 3 and 6 and from national examinations in grades 9 and 12 (see Table 5. Target
groups of the Satisfaction and School Environment Survey 2017-2022 later in this chapter).

The Education and Youth Authority (Harno) analyzes the results of the assessments and supplies schools
with detailed feedback on their students' performance. The information in the overview is drawn from
existing EHIS information and “satisfaction questionnaires” completed by students, teachers and parents.
The annual school overviews and general system-level reports are publicly available in Education Eye
(haridussilm.ee). Every school can design its own report choosing indicators and years (to analyze trends)
and compare its own performance with the national average.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 29

In addition, the Ministry of Education and Research sets performance indicators (most recently in 2016)
for basic and upper secondary schools. The indicators for basic schools are as follow: (1) share of 8th grade
students satisfied with the school; (2) proportion of 8th grade students who did not experience bullying at
school; (3) frequency of use of digital solutions in teaching and learning activities in the 8th grade; (4)
proportion of unexcused absences among 8th grade students; (5) proportion of 8th grade students
participating in extracurricular activities; and (6) alignment of the basic school final examinations and the
annual school grades for respective subjects.

The indicators for upper secondary schools are as follow: (1) results of basic school final examinations for
students entering the 10th grade of upper secondary schools; (2) proportion of 11th grade students who are
satisfied with the school; (3) frequency of use of digital solutions in teaching and educational activities in
the 11th grade; (5) alignment of scores on state examinations and school grades for subjects and the
contribution of the upper secondary school to the progress of students (Act of the Minister of Education
and Research 2016). Assessing a school's contribution to student progress is complex, as learning
outcomes depend on many different factors, some of which can be controlled by the school (e.g., the
structure of the learning process, teaching methods) and some of which cannot (e.g., students' previous
knowledge, learning or extracurricular opportunities related to the location of the school).

Performance indicators are designed to give parents, communities, and the state a more complete picture
of how well a school functions than learning outcomes alone can provide. Ideally, schools will use
performance indicators to help them evaluate teaching, school climate, student well-being, and other
factors, and to involve important stakeholders (including parents and students) in the evaluation process.

Monitoring the Progress of Strategy Implementation

The Ministry of Education and Research uses several key indicators to monitor the progress of the
Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 toward strategic goals (Table 5).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 30

Table 5. Key Indicators of the Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020

Indicator Target level Starting

2020 level 2012

Key indicators

Participation rate in lifelong learning among adults (% of those aged 25-64 who
stated they had received education or training during the four weeks preceding 20% 13%
the survey)

Percentage of adults (aged 25-64) with general education only

Not over 25% 30%
(no professional or vocational education)

Early school leavers (% of the population aged 18-24 with not more than a lower
Below 9% 11%
secondary education and not enrolled in further education or training)

Top achievers in basic skills (the percentage of top performers) a) reading a) 10% a) 8%
b) mathematics c) science b) 16% b) 15%
c) 14% c) 13%

Employment rate of recent graduates (aged 20-34; one to three years after
At least 82% 74%
leaving education)

Digital competencies (% of individuals aged 16-74 with computer skills) 80% 65%

Comparison of general education teachers’ salaries (ratio of salaries to earnings 0.64%

≥1.0%
for full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education aged 25-64) (2011)

Stakeholders’ satisfaction with lifelong learning (central, regular survey) Satisfaction

has increased

I-Change in approach to learning

Low achievers in basic skills in a) reading b) mathematics c) science a) 8% a) 9%

b) 8% b) 11%
c) 5% c) 5%

Drop-out rate from lower-secondary compulsory education <1% 0.6%

Drop-out rate from: a) 26%

a) <20%
a) vocational schools b) 1%
b) <1%
b) general upper secondary schools c) 21%
c) 15%
c) higher education schools (2011)

II-Competent and motivated teachers and school leadership

Percentage share of teachers who are aged 30 or below >13% 10%

Competition for study places in teacher education Competition

-
has increased

Ratio of female and male teachers in general education 75:25 86:14

III-Alignment of lifelong learning opportunities with the needs of the

labor market

Share of tertiary graduates in mathematics, science and technology as a percentage of

25% 22%
all tertiary graduates

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 31

 Indicator Target level Starting
2020 level 2012

Share of basic education graduates who passed career counselling 100%

Share of basic education graduates who continue their studies in vocational upper
35% 29%
secondary education

Ratio of general and vocational upper secondary students 60:40 67:33

Student mobility 10% 3.5%

IV-Digital focus in lifelong learning

Share of students who use computers, digital and mobile personal devices for studies 100%
every school day

Share of Year 8 students at digitally supportive schools 100% 33%

Share of Year 8 students in schools with virtual learning environment 100% 54%

Share of basic education graduates whose ICT basic skills are assessed and certified 100%

V-Equal opportunities and increased participation in lifelong learning

Tertiary education attainment, adults aged 30-34 40% 39%

Participants in early education (aged 4 to compulsory starting age) 95% 89%

(2011)

Share of Russian-language school graduates who master the Estonian language at B1 90% 57%
level

Share of labor costs of governmental education expenditures 60% 55% (2011)

Share of teachers’ labor costs of governmental expenditures on general education 50% 38% (2011)

Optimization of the use of space in educational institutions (m2) 3 million 3.5 million

Source: Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020

In 2020, the Ministry of Education and Research analyzed the implementation of the Estonia Lifelong
Learning Strategy. The analysis shows that while significant progress was made not all progress indicators
were met fully or partially (Ministry of Education and Research 2020c). The participation rate for lifelong
learning (one of the key indicators in the analysis) grew rapidly, reaching 20.1 percent in 2019 for the
population aged 25-64. This is 0.4 percent more than in 2018 and 3 percent more than in 2017. The
participation of individuals with a low level of education (basic education or lower) rose sharply. In 2015,
only 4 percent of 25 to 64-year-olds in this group participated in lifelong learning; by 2019 participation
had climbed to 9.1 percent. Although participation rates in lifelong learning have increased mainly due to
rising participation in non-formal learning such as in-service training, data also showed an increasing

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 32

interest among adult learners in formal learning, including both vocational and higher education
offerings.

However, the share of early school leavers aged 18 to 24 has remained the same over the last six years,
despite a brief decrease, and there is no clear sign of an upward trend in the level of education for this
group. Gender imbalances remain a concern, as men still outnumber women among Estonians with low
levels of education, and boys still outnumber girls among early school leavers.

The 2018 PISA survey focused on functional reading skills (for more information, see
https://www.oecd.org/pisa/). The average score of Estonian students in reading was the highest score in
Europe, 523 points (compared to the OECD average of 487). The number of top-level readers increased
from 11.1 percent (2015) to 13.9 percent (2018); in 2018, the average number of top-level readers in
OECD countries was 8.5 percent. The analysis also looked at PISA data to assess progress of young
people in mathematics and science. Estonia’s overall score in math was also the highest score in Europe,
523 points. The share of top performers in mathematical literacy increased from 14.2 percent (2015) to
15.5 percent (2019). The results of mathematical literacy differ by gender and language of instruction,
however. The average score of boys in mathematical literacy was 528 points, while that of girls was 519.
The average score of Estonian students in science literacy was 530 points, the highest score in Europe.
The share of top performers in science literacy in 2018 was 12.2 percent, somewhat less than in 2015
(13.5 percent). The best results in science were achieved by students with Estonian as the language of
instruction, with girls scoring 544 points on average and boys scoring 537. Boys and girls with Russian as
the language of instruction scored an average of 500 and 499 points, respectively.

Comparative Data for School Self-evaluation

Estonia has developed central data collection and databases in order to support school self-evaluation.
The Center for Applied Social Sciences (CASS) of the University of Tartu (UT) piloted satisfaction
questionnaires in 2016. The first survey of students, teachers, parents, alumni and employers took place in
2018 (Table 6). Currently, The Education and Youth Authority (Harno) conducts a survey annually and
provides feedback to all educational institutions by compiling school-based reports. These reports include
data for each school along with comparable data on similar schools (e.g., small rural schools, state
gymnasiums, etc.). The focus of the Satisfaction and School Environment Survey can vary from year to
year (see Table 6, next page).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 33

Table 6. Target Groups of the Satisfaction and School Environment Survey 2017-2022

Pre-primary Education General Education Vocational Education

Teachers (including teaching Students in grades 4, 8 and 11 Students

assistants and assistant teachers)
Teachers Teachers
Before 1991

Parents
Parents of basic school students

Students at adult upper secondary

schools

Teachers (including teaching Students in grades 4, 8 and 11

assistants and assistant teachers)
Teachers
Parents
Parents of basic school students

Students at adult upper secondary

2018

schools

Students in grades 4, 8 and 11 Students

Students at adult upper secondary

2019

schools

Students in grades 4, 8 and 11 Students

Students at adult upper secondary

2020

schools

Teachers (including teaching Students in grades 4, 8 and 11 Students

assistants and assistant teachers)
Teachers Teachers
Parents
Parents of basic school students

Students at adult upper secondary

2021

school

Students in grades 4, 8 and 11 Students

Students at adult upper secondary

2022

schools

Source: https://harno.ee.

In addition, anyone interested in their school’s data or general education statistics can look up a “school
report card” in Education Eye (haridussilm.ee). The report card is designed to provide comprehensive
information on each school's learning environment, education process, and student performance for
parents, school operators, the community and the state. This information helps the school with self-

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 34

evaluation and alerts the Ministry to any serious problems. Table 7 (below) shows what data are collected
at the national level and what data are available for school self-evaluation and benchmarking.

Table 7. National Level Data Collection

For school,
For For ECEC institution,
Data students teachers VET school

Well-being and satisfaction survey in

1 General education: 4th, 8th and 11th grade students, teachers x
and parents

2 Well-being and satisfaction survey

x
in ECEC, teachers and parents

3 Well-being and satisfaction survey

x
VET students and teachers

Baseline tests at the beginning of 4th grade in math and mother

tongue (to monitor the achievements of 1st school stage) and at
4 the beginning of 7th grade in math, mother tongue, English, x x
German and science (to monitor the achievements of 2nd
school stage)

2nd, 3rd, 6th, 8th grade diagnostic tests of general

5 competencies of learning to learn skills, self-determination, x
communication skills

6 Self-evaluation by teachers of 2nd, 3rd, 6th grades around

x
general competencies

7 5th, 8th, 9th, 10th grade baseline (diagnostic) tests in math and
x x
mother tongue

8 5th, 8th grade baseline (diagnostic) tests in Estonian as second

x x
language

9 10th, 11th, 12th grade self-evaluation of entrepreneurship

x x
competence

10 8th, 11th grade digital competence test x x x

11 9th grade final exams (math, Estonian language, elective *Statistical overview
x x
subject) is in open access

12 9th grade math, Estonian language teachers’ feedback

x
questionnaire about examination

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 35

 For school,
For For ECEC institution,
Data students teachers VET school

13 12th grade state exams (math, Estonian language, foreign *Statistical overview
x x
language) is in open access

14 School digital readiness and digitalization monitoring tool:

x
digital mirror

15 PISA feedback x

Different kinds of support, research and monitoring are available from the Ministry and universities to
help schools analyze their students’ learning process. Tallinn University invites schools to participate in its
school monitoring surveys, which focus on school climate and issues related to teaching (e.g., the
leadership style of principals, the sense of empowerment among teachers, etc.). The surveys also include
views on the work environment and teachers’ well-being (Kõiv, Liik, and Heidmets, 2019).

Estonians value education and see it as an important investment in the future, so it makes sense that
different stakeholders (e.g., students, parents, community members) hold schools accountable for their
activities and results. Performance rankings are the subject of intense public interest and underperforming
schools do not escape notice. Parents are motivated to find the best schools for their children and interest
in private schools is increasing.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 36

 3
Curriculum and Standards for Learning

This chapter discusses how Estonia’s national curriculum sets standards for schools for the performance of
all students. It includes an overview of curriculum design, learning expectations for students, and the
contribution of extracurricular activities to formal education.

Main Messages:

• The schools develop their curriculum within the framework of the national
curriculum. Schools are encouraged to innovate, which fosters a sense of “ownership” of the
curriculum and its outcomes. Teachers have a high level of autonomy in how they implement the
curriculum and are encouraged to collaborate at the school and local level to create new learning
approaches.
• Expectations for learning are high, and the curriculum aims to promote deep
conceptual understanding. The curriculum aims to create a strong academic base for all
students. To meet these high expectations, individualized support is offered to all students who
need it.
• Curriculum defines general competencies and cross curricular topics and encourages
integration of subjects to prepare students for the demands of the future. Schools
provide opportunities for students to prepare for work and citizenship by focusing learning on
broad competencies and addressing topics and issues from different perspectives.
• Curriculum is regularly updated based on data about student progress and the
learning process. Progress on key indicators and national survey results help schools benchmark
their performance. The national curriculum sets expectations for student learning. Attainment is
monitored through standard-determining tests, which are sample-based and subject specific. The
tests are low-stakes and their main aim is to inform stakeholders how effective the study process
has been.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 37

 • Outside-of-class learning complements formal school education. Hobby school
programs can be aligned with the school curriculum. Extracurricular activities including extended
day programs have a long tradition and are subsidized by the government. Institutions such as
nature centers, hobby clubs, and museums collaborate with schools to help students build stronger
connections between different fields.

National Curriculum as Framework for Schools to Develop Their Own Curriculum

National Curriculum as a Framework for School Curriculum

Estonia has renewed its national curriculum three times since regaining independence, publishing the first
version in 1996, the second in 2002, and the third in 2011. However, across these iterations, the
curriculum has maintained consistency (see Table 8). At the beginning of the 1990s, the curriculum
shifted to focus on students’ learning experience. This approach, dominant in Nordic countries, is rooted
in the works of the world-famous Estonian curriculum theorist and researcher Hilda Taba, who studied
with John Dewey in the United States during the 1930s. Her book, Curriculum Development: Theory and
Practice (1962), influenced the creation of the first Estonian curriculum after independence in 1991.

In Estonia, the national curriculum is a law. Until 2010, it consisted of a general section and subject
appendices. As of 2011, the subjects have been replaced by broader subject fields, as part of an effort to
better integrate learning in key areas. The general section describes the human values fostered by
education, the goals for learning and education, and general principles for how to shape the learning
environment, organize studies, conduct assessment, and establish graduation requirements. The national
curriculum applies to all general education schools whether state, municipal, or private. Thus, all students
must meet the same standards to graduate from school. Graduation requirements for basic and upper
secondary school are based on the national curriculum of 2011, which aligns with the Estonian
qualification framework, which, in turn, aligns with the European qualification framework through the
Professions Act (2008). Curriculum development grounded in a competency-based approach has been
consistent since the transformative period of the 1990s (see Table 8, next page). All three versions of the
national curriculum since re-independence have utilized a competency-based approach by defining
learning outcomes in subject fields and by levels.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 38

Table 8. Development of the National Curriculum

Before
Content-based curriculum (Lehrplan)
1991

1991-1996 Transformation period

Release of the first Estonian curriculum with

• General and subject competencies

1996
• Social constructivist approach to learning

More decision-making authority for schools

More subject integration

2002
Modified cross-curricular topics

Separated primary and upper-secondary curriculum

Modified and extended general competencies

2010
Subject fields created

Decreased and renewed content

Modified general competencies including digital competence

2011
Modified learning outcomes for subject fields

The national curriculum of 1996 defined a suite of new general and subject competencies, which the 2002
curriculum expanded with explanations of the competencies. For the 2011 curriculum, Estonia
implemented the European recommendations (European Parliament and Council 2008) for a general
competence framework. Educational objectives are described as learning outcomes for each school level
(grades 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 and upper secondary 10-12) in all three versions of the curriculum. This structure
gives schools the freedom to decide how to divide learning outcomes across the grades. Since 2011, the
common national curriculum has been separated into two curricula, one for basic school and one for
upper secondary school. Learning outcomes have also changed over time. In the 1996 curriculum,
learning outcomes were divided between knowledge and skills, whereas in the 2011 version learning
outcomes are described as the ability to apply knowledge and skills to solve problems.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 39

Table 9. Example of Learning Outcomes of Mathematics at the End of Grade 3: 1996, 2002
and 2011

1996 At the end of the first stage of study, the student knows
• Components and results of four arithmetic operations
• Sequence of natural numbers from 1 to 10, 000
• The representation of natural numbers in the decimal system
• The correlations among the units of measurement they have learned
• How to tell time and use a calendar (days, months)
• Basic planar and 3-dimensional shapes (circle, triangle, tetragon, square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon,
sphere, cube, tetrahedron, cylinder, cone)
At the end of the first stage of study, the student can
• Read and write natural numbers up to 10, 000
• Determine a number’s place in a sequence of natural numbers
• Compare numbers orally and in writing
• Do mental addition, subtraction, multiplication and division within 100
• Add and subtract four-digit numbers in writing
• Multiply and divide two-digit numbers in writing
• Add and subtract single-named numbers
• Determine the sequence of operations in an expression
• Find the numerical value of a letter in an equation by finding connections between the data and the
sought information
• Compose one operation text tasks
• Analyze and solve one and two operation text tasks
• Using a ruler or divider, draw a triangle, tetragon, circle and a line with a predetermined length
• Compare lines by measuring them and calculate the length of the line

2002 At the end of the first stage of study, the student knows
• Components and results of four arithmetic operations
• Sequence of natural numbers from 1 to 10, 000
• The representation of natural numbers in the decimal system
• The sequence of operations in an expression
• The correlations among the units of measurement they have learned
• How to tell time and use a calendar (days, months)
• Basic planar and 3-dimensional shapes (circle, triangle, tetragon, square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon,
sphere, cube, tetrahedron, cylinder, cone)
• The multiplication table by heart
At the end of the first stage of study, the student can
• Read and write natural numbers up to 10, 000
• Determine a number’s place in a sequence of natural numbers
• Compare numbers
• Do mental addition, subtraction, multiplication and division within 100
• Add and subtract four-digit numbers in writing

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 40

 • Add and subtract single-named numbers
• Determine the sequence of operations in an expression
• Determine the numerical value of a letter in an equation by finding connections between the data and the
sought information
• Find the numerical value of a letter
• Compose one operation text tasks
• Analyze and solve one and two operation text tasks
• Using a ruler or divider, draw a triangle, tetragon, circle and a line with a predetermined length
• Compare lines by measuring them and calculate the length of the line

2011 At the end of the first stage of study, the student

• Has respect for his or her family, class and school; is polite, keeps promises; knows that no one is to be
humiliated, teased or mocked; is capable of listening to his or her peers and considering them
• Wants to learn, derives pleasure from knowledge and aptitude, is able to learn alone and with others, in
pairs and groups, is capable of budgeting time for studying, hobbies, chores and rest
• Is aware of his or her ethnic identity and takes a respectful attitude to his or her people
• Is capable of adapting him or herself to an assignment and making sense of his or her actions in fulfilling
the assignment; is able to prepare a schedule for the day and follow it
• Is capable of finding and understanding information in texts (including data, terms, characters, activities,
events and their time and place) and presenting the information orally and in written form
• Understands and uses learned everyday expressions and simple phrases in a foreign language
• Calculates and knows how to use tools suitable for measurement and to solve age-appropriate assignments
• Acts in a prudent manner with regard to nature
• Knows how to notice and describe differences and similarities, knows how to compare objects and
phenomena, categorize them on the basis of one or two characteristics, and to read a simple plan, table
diagram and map
• Is able to use simple computer programs and technical devices used at home and at school
• Has respect for his or her hometown or region, homeland and the Estonian state, knows its symbols and
complies with it rules of conduct
• Is able to notice and assess beauty, has an appreciation for creativity and takes pleasure in exercise,
creative self-expression and activities
• Maintains cleanliness and order, looks after his or her appearance and health and has a desire to be
healthy
• Is able to avoid dangerous situations and summon assistance in the case of danger, knows safe traffic
practices
• Knows to whom to turn to with various problems and is prepared to do so.

In addition to learning outcomes for basic and upper secondary schools, the national curriculum specifies
a required number of lessons for compulsory subjects each week according to the stages of study. There is
ongoing discussion among education stakeholders about which subjects should dominate the curriculum.
For example, unions for traditional subject teachers might argue that their subjects should remain in the
curriculum, while other stakeholders might lobby to add new subjects or decrease compulsory lessons.
The national curriculum of 1996 stated only the range and overall number of lessons, but the more recent

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 41

versions specify a compulsory number of weekly lessons. Each school gets some choice of which lessons to
teach, depending on its particular needs and values (Table 10, below).

Table 10. Weekly Number of Lessons for Compulsory Subjects

1996 2002 2011

Stages of Study:
I: grades 1-3
I II III I II III I II III
II: grades 4-6
III: grades 7-9

Estonian 18–22 14-16 11-12 19 15 19 11 6

12
Literature - - - - - - 4 6

Foreign language A - 8-11 7-9 3 9 9 3 9 9

Foreign language B - 3-4 8-10 - 3 9 - 3 9

Science 7-8 2 3 7 2 3 7 2
6-8
Human studies 3 3 2 1 2↓ 2 2↑
4-5
Social studies - - - 1 2 - - -

Mathematics 9-13 12-15 12-15 10 13 13 10 13 13

Geography - - 5-6 - - 5 - - 5

Biology - - 5-6 - - 5 - - 5

Chemistry - - 4-5 - - 4 - - 4

Physics - - 4-5 - - 4 - - 4

Music 6-8 - 3 6 4 3 6 4 3

History -- 3-4 5-6 - 3 6 - 3 6

Physical education 8-10 6-8 6 8 8 6 8 8 6

Art 10-13 4-5 3 9 3 3 4.5 3 3

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 42

 1996 2002 2011

Manual training, handicraft and home

5-6 5 5 4.5 5 5
economics, technology studies

Electives decided on school level 7 10 4 8 10 4

- - -
(4)* (7)* (1)* (2) * (1)* (1)*

*In schools that do not use Estonian as the language of instruction

How to determine the time allocations for different subjects has been a topic of debate. Nevertheless, the
hours required for most subjects have remained relatively stable across all iterations of the national
curriculum, and the most important decisions regarding the specific number of lessons are made at the
school level. As such, the national curricula for basic and secondary school follow the principle that the
purposes are decided at the state level whilst the methods are decided by teachers at the school level.
According to the current version of the national curriculum for upper secondary school, only 63 courses
out of 96 are specified as compulsory. The school has significant autonomy to decide on elective courses
according to teacher specialization and historical strengths in subject areas. Teachers, with their interests
and areas of expertise, play a crucial role in proposing electives.

The national curriculum for upper secondary schools requires schools to offer at least 11 elective courses
(one course is equal to 35 academic hours). These courses can be arranged in collaboration with other
organizations (e.g., hobby schools, vocational schools, NGSs, enterprises, etc.).

The national curriculum has some exceptions for schools where the language of instruction is Russian.
The main difference is the requirement to study Estonian as a second language, in addition to studying
Russian as the first language. There is no obligation to study an additional foreign language. In 2007,
Russian-language upper secondary schools began to transition to Estonian as the language of instruction.
Since 2011, all students in grade 10 have been required to take at least 60 percent of their course load in
Estonian. This is quite demanding, as many students are not fluent in Estonian when they graduate from
Russian-language basic schools.

Vocational education curricula are designed based on the Vocational Education Standard (2013) and the
Vocational Educational Institutions Act (2013). The policy states that the curriculum should specify the
goals, objectives and functions of vocational, professional and occupational training; the learning
outcomes to be achieved; links with the qualifications framework established in the Professions Act (2008);
the requirements for entry and completion of studies; detail on the specific modules that make up the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 43

curriculum; learning outcomes and assessment criteria; and options and conditions for choosing modules
and specialization opportunities. The standards established by each profession form the basis for
determining which professional skills are taught in a course of study in that area. The national curricula
are prepared in cooperation with social partners, based on the Vocational Education Standard (2013).
The core studies modules are designed to meet professional standards, while general studies modules align
with the national curriculum for upper secondary schools. There are VET framework curricula in 21
different curriculum areas for full-time studies. Vocational programs follow basic education and
correspond to the qualification level 4 in the national qualification framework. Vocation programs are at
least three years, and the study load is 180 Estonian vocational education credit points (EKAP). The
vocational curriculum also includes general studies worth at least 30 credit points. There are 10 fields of
study which align with professional standards and 44 curriculum groups. However, not all programs in all
curriculum groups have secondary education (level 4) programs; some only have programs that follow
general education (level 5) (See also in chapter 4.5).

As with general education, the national curriculum for vocational education provides a framework within
which each school designs its own curricula to meet the specific needs of its students. In vocational
education, this includes specialties and subspecialties. For example, the curriculum for Construction
includes requirements for at least five specializations:

1. Mason-concrete worker,
2. Carpenter-log house builder,
3. Finishing work in construction,
4. Facility serviceman, and
5. Installation of building water supply, sewage, heating and ventilation systems.

The vocational education framework is developed at the national level in collaboration with employers;
professional standards are renewed regularly every five years and study programs are updated
accordingly.

Schools Are Encouraged to Innovate, Fostering a Sense of Ownership of the Curriculum

and Its Outcomes

The two national curricula (Riigi Teataja 2011a, Riigi Teataja 2011b) provide schools with the
framework within which to create their own school curriculum. The requirements for the school
curriculum are explained in the national curriculum and similar principles pertain to both curricula. All

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 44

teachers and support staff are required to participate in discussions about the school curriculum. The
school is required to involve students, parents and other stakeholders in creating the curriculum. The
head of school is responsible for preparing, implementing and developing the school curriculum
democratically (Riigi Teataja 2011a). In practice, the head of school has a leading role in curriculum
development, especially in creating the general part of the curriculum, and school staff voluntarily
participate in these discussions. Working groups of teachers are formed to propose issues for discussion.
Teachers are most interested in developing class syllabi, and participation among subject teachers is
generally high. The role of other stakeholders, including students, is generally modest. Student input is
most relevant to decisions around electives (Kõiv 2012). Overall, schools in Estonia have more autonomy
than the OECD average, with a greater capacity to make decisions on the curriculum (Fraccola, Field,
Figueroa, Peterka, Jankova, Golden 2016).

The school curriculum specifies all details and choices required by the national curriculum. With the
consent of the school's board of trustees, regional and/or school context or identity can be taken into
account when modifying compulsory subjects and cross-curricular topics, linking compulsory courses to
elective ones, or changing the arrangement of teaching time, as long as the achievement of learning
outcomes, general competencies and educational objectives stated in the national curriculum are assured.
According to the national curriculum, the school curriculum should consist of a general section and
syllabi. The general section of the school curriculum should include the following:

1. School values and special features, expected learning and educational outcomes of the school;
2. Organization of studies including information about the arrangement of teaching time by subject
and year; implementation of cross subject topics and integration of subjects; elective subjects and
foreign languages; use of languages of instruction other than Estonian; revision of subject titles or
time allocations provided in the national curriculum and the reasons for these differences;
3. Activities planned for diversifying the learning environment, including those supporting the
implementation of the curriculum, study trips and other such activities;
4. Procedure for selecting the subject, supervising preparation and grading of the creative project in
the last year of basic school;
5. Organization of support and evaluating the development and learning of the students;
6. Principles of organizing the studies of students with special educational needs and procedure for
implementing support services;
7. Organization of career studies, including career information and counselling;
8. Organization of informing and counselling students and parents;
9. Principles of planning cooperation and work by the teachers; and

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 45

 10. Procedure for updating and supplementing the school curriculum.

Source: National Curriculum for Basic Schools 2011

This means a school’s decisions regarding its curriculum include

• What learning outcomes should be achieved for each grade?

• What compulsory subjects and cross-curricular topics should be covered in each grade, taking into
account the school’s distinct identity, its organization of professional training, and the content of its
language-integrated learning? The school is allowed to modify the list of compulsory subjects and
the allocation of lesson hours set in the national curriculum, provided it can assure achievement of
learning outcomes.
• What is the best way to organize learning and educational activities? This can be done in different
ways: subjects can be learned throughout a school year or during a particular period of the school
year; general learning can focus on specific topics without differentiating subject courses.
• What is the best way to organize elective courses and align their content with the study fields so
that students can specialize in-depth in a particular subject area?

The syllabi within subject fields (e.g., math, science, Estonian, etc.) describe learning outcomes, subject
content by grades, and the plan for the division of lesson hours by grades.

Schools’ experiences and approaches to creating curricula have varied. The requirement is sometimes
considered a bureaucratic task, and some have questioned whether teachers and students are engaged in
meaningful discussions about the general part of the school curriculum (Erss 2020, Kõiv 2012). However,
at some schools the responsibility to develop a unique curriculum has initiated deep conversations about
their particular approach to learning, which the school curriculum ultimately captured and
communicated to community stakeholders. Examples of schools with unique curricula are mostly private
institutions with alternative pedagogies (e.g., Steiner Waldorf education); Christian schools; or schools
with a specific, well-defined pedagogical approach (e.g., Open School, Emili School, Tartu Private
School) (Kuurme 2020).

Other schools have a specialized focus that determines their unique curriculum. Since the Soviet period,
talented students have attended specialized schools or classes. For example, in 1958 the first specialized
Music class was opened at Tallinn Secondary School No 21; in 1960 the first specialized English class was
created at Tallinn Secondary School No 7 (the present English College); in 1962 a specialized Art class
was established at Tallinn School No 46 (the present Pelgulinna Gymnasium); and in 1963 a specialized

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 46

Chemistry class was formed at Tartu Secondary School No 5 (the present Tamme School). In addition to
specialized classes, a few specialized schools were opened, such as Tallinn Music High School in 1961 and
Nõo Secondary School in 1964, which accepted students specializing in science. Schools are welcome to
develop this kind of specialization and can fit the necessary coursework into the framework of the national
curriculum, but specialization is not widespread among schools.

Teachers Have a High Level of Autonomy in How They Implement the Curriculum

Estonian teachers have autonomy to choose the appropriate learning materials, teaching and assessment
methods to achieve required learning outcomes. The formal requirements for planning the learning
process or reporting activities have decreased. The state-developed curricular materials supplied to
teachers now function more as models for teachers to adapt than required texts to use. However, the
handbooks for teachers put out by private publishers remain popular among teachers, as they give
detailed suggestions for what to do in the classroom. On the national level there is a curriculum portal
(https://oppekava.ee/) which organizes the guidelines and recommendations for teachers starting from
curriculum development to learning resources for subjects. This is shown in the table of contents of the
subject area handbook (see Box 1, next page).

A recent study (Erss 2020) confirms that Estonian teachers devote less attention to the general part of the
national or school curriculum (including both their content and pedagogical positions) than to the more
detailed syllabi. Overall, teachers are less interested in broad discussions about the pedagogical approach
of their school and how to conceptualize general skills than in the more familiar syllabi for their course.

Teachers contribute to discussions about subject curricula via subject associations, which are involved in
national curricular development. These associations include such active communities as the Mother
Tongue Society, the Association of Foreign Language Teachers, the Association of Biology Teachers, and
the Estonian History and Civics Teachers Association.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 47

 Box 1. Example of National Guidance for Schools Provided in Each Subject Area

The table of contents in the subject area handbook

1. Using the upper secondary school general curriculum and subject

syllabus for foreign language
1.1. Subject Introduction
1.2. Description of the subject syllabus and its connections to the general
curriculum
1.3. Integration
1.4. Cross curricular topics in subject syllabus
1.5. Recommendations for organizing foreign language syllabuses in schools
1.6. Most important changes in upper secondary school foreign language study
organization and subject syllabi
1.7. Recommendations for designing a learning environment
1.8. Reaching learning outcomes. Opinion study by Piret Kanne
2. Materials by subject

3. Methodological writings and articles

3.1. “A Teacher’s Professional Development – What and How?” by Eve
Eisenschmidt
3.2. “Adult Language Learner,” by Kristiina Krabi
3.3. “Fostering a Self-motivated Student in the Study of Foreign Language,” by
Annekatrin Kaivapalu
3.4. “Special Needs Students as Foreign Language Learners,” by Mare Valk

Source: https://oppekava.ee/

The current national curricula for Basic and Upper Secondary School reflect changes in the role of school
and teacher. The content analysis of the recent versions (Erss 2020) reveals a shift from teachers’
individual autonomy to collective autonomy. The national curriculum of 1996 highlighted the autonomy
of individual teachers by using such expressions as “the teacher decides,” or “the teacher chooses,” in the
context of evaluation criteria and forms, teaching methods, and subject integration. The teacher’s role was
described as the “planner, creator and encourager to learn.” The rhetoric emphasizing teachers’
autonomy has become more common since 2002, focusing mostly on teachers’ duties, although these are
expressed primarily from the student’s point of view: “The student has to know [on] what and when
[they] will be assessed…”. Most of the text uses impersonal forms: “Situations will be created,” “tasks will

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 48

be used,” etc. Schools and collectives, instead of teachers, are increasingly referred to as the decision
makers: “The school’s task is to support the following field-specific competencies…” or “the school
modifies its fields of study.” Furthermore, synonyms such as “the school staff,” “the school community,”
or “teachers’ council,” are often used in place of “teacher” or “teachers” (ibid).

Box 2. Example of School Curriculum Subject Integration

Kiviõli I Secondary School promotes entrepreneurial values such as student initiative

and responsibility through an integrated curriculum and real-life perspective. The aims
of the curriculum are to be “more learner friendly, learner centered and connected to
real life” which engage the community and partner more effectively with school work.
The school is offering integrated courses at the lower and upper-secondary level, which
combine different subject areas.

Example 1: History, art history, literature and practical Estonian language are co-
designed and co-taught by three different subject teachers.

Example 2: Integrated geography and mother tongue classes are taught together by
two teachers.

Example 3: Social studies and geography are taught by two teachers and a guest
lecturer from the local community. Students have the freedom to work anywhere within
the school, such as in the library, classroom or computer class.

Subject integration, which is emphasized in the current national curriculum, requires greater
collaboration among teachers. In response, more and more opportunities for regular collaboration are
provided in schools, such as scheduled weekly discussion time for teachers. Previously, teachers’
cooperation was mostly about organizing school events; now, the cooperation has become more
substantive, with teachers coordinating the integration of subjects, leading joint projects, designing
learning materials, etc.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 49

The Demanding Expectations for Learning and the Strong Academic Base of the
Curriculum

Strong Academic Bases

The first national curriculum in 1996 was developed in close cooperation with the Finnish National Board
of Education as a historically and culturally close country, and the final version was reviewed by Finnish
curriculum experts. The experts concluded that the aim of the curriculum was to develop students'
metacognitive skills, learning skills and self-assessment skills. They also noted that while the general part of
the curriculum followed a socio-constructivist approach, syllabi of the subject fields developed by schools
were academically oriented. In basic school, they found the Estonian mathematics syllabus more
demanding than the Finnish one and Estonian students more likely to acquire deeper knowledge than
students in Finland (Assessment of the Estonian curriculum 1999).

The Soviet period curriculum was thought to be too science-centered and teachers were criticized for
their strong subject-orientation (Erss 2015). During the 1930s, J. Käis, the educational innovator and
scientist, had already created an Estonian natural science methodology. He focused attention on the child
and on practical knowledge and skills, as well as the need to take into consideration the individuality of the
student and their experiences in the natural world (Käis 1992). Käis developed an integrated learning
methodology (üldõpetus) where the topics were chosen from the child's everyday life, based on their
observations, experiences and interests. Students’ natural curiosity about the world would be
accommodated and supported by active learning in outdoor settings. Käis’ ideas were incorporated into
the science curricula developed in the 1990s (Henno 2008). Educators strongly advocated for inquiry- and
problem-based learning in natural sciences and created relevant teaching materials created to support
educators (Pedaste 2006, Rannikmäe, and Laius 2004).

The syllabi of subject fields define the academic objectives or learning outcomes for each school stage
(grade band) in the national curriculum. These are compiled in cooperation with active teachers, experts,
and university researchers. This has led to a dissimilarity of syllabi, with the details and style of describing
the learning content, learning outcomes, and assessment criteria differing from one subject field to
another. Although a student-centered approach has been followed in all curriculum development, strong
subject-orientation is still rooted in the Estonian national curriculum. For that reason, subject syllabi stand
on strong discipline bases; this relatively strong “academism” of the science syllabi has been mentioned by
curriculum designers (Henno 2008).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 50

Simplified Curriculum Based on Common Standards

The national curricula apply to all schools in the nation, but exceptions can be made based on students’
needs. There is a parallel simplified national curriculum (Põhikooli lihtsustatud riiklik õppekava 2010) for
students with mild, moderate, and severe and profound learning difficulties. For these students, an
individualized study plan is developed, based on the student’s developmental needs, that includes core
values; learning and educational objectives; concept of learning; assessment principles; requirements for a
safe learning environment; and rules regarding notification and counselling of parents and students as
stated in the documentation. The simplified national curriculum differs in several substantive ways from
the traditional national curricula. It focuses on acquiring practical skills and knowledge, with an emphasis
on practical training rather than sciences (such as Physics or Chemistry) and foreign languages. Mastery of
life skills and coping skills is also in the foreground. Remedial methods support students’ development so
they can cope with everyday activities at home, at service facilities, and in the workplace (National
Qualification Authority 2016).

Every year a new individual study plan is created for students with learning difficulties comprising
information about the student’s pedagogical, psychological and health conditions; specific exceptions in
the learning content and outcomes because of these conditions; applied special methods or special
conditions for carrying out learning activities; and procedures to assess outcomes and development,
including means and methods of assessment and means and methods of feedback concerning the student’s
development. Besides students with special educational needs, an individual curriculum can be arranged
for students who reside abroad or choose home education.

Estonia has organized classes inclusively since re-independence. Students with special educational needs
usually study in a regular class at their school of residence. Separate schools for students with special
needs, which existed in Soviet times, have been eliminated.

Curriculum Defines General Competencies and Cross-curricular Topics to Prepare

Students for the Demands of the Future

General Competencies, Cross-curricular Topics and Integration of Different Subjects Are

Part of the National Curriculum

There are differences among the three versions of the Estonian national curriculum (1996, 2002, 2011) in
the development of general competencies, cross-curricular topics and integration of different subjects.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 51

General Competencies

The first national curriculum (1996) included four cross-subject general competencies (see Table 11,
below); the next version of the national curriculum (2002) included the same general competencies but
added subject domain competencies. The third version of the national curriculum (2011) introduced eight
general competencies to be developed across all subject fields. An interdisciplinary approach to teaching
was introduced to help students attain these competencies. Competence is defined as a compilation of
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that ensure readiness to engage in lifelong learning and an ability to
attain results in a chosen field.

Table 11. General Competencies in Three Versions of the National Curriculum

1996 Competencies:
• communication competence
• operational competence (including learning to learn)
• value competence

2002 General competencies: Domain specific competencies:

• learning to learn competence • nature competence
• operational competence (e.g., setting goals, • social competence
making plans, working with others) • reflection and interaction competence
• value competence • communication competence
• self-determination competence • technological competence
• cultural competence
• mathematical competence

2011 General competencies*: • communication competence

• cultural and value competence • mathematics, natural sciences and technology
• social and citizen competence competence
• self-management competence • entrepreneurship competence
• learning to learn competence • digital competence

*The domain specific competencies are described in the appendices of subject areas.

Learning to learn competence is part of all three versions of the national curriculum. It is defined as the
ability to organize the learning environment and procure the information needed for learning; to plan
how to study and follow the plan; to use learning outcomes, including skills and strategies, in different
contexts and to solve diverse problems; to analyze one’s knowledge and skills as well as one’s strengths and
weaknesses, and, on that basis, one’s need for further learning (Riigi Teataja 2011a, Riigi Teataja 2011b).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 52

Cross-curricular Topics

Since the first national curriculum in 1996, a set of cross-curricular topics in different subject fields (see
Table 12) have been included. Cross-curricular topics are a means of integrating general and subject field
competencies; subjects and subject fields are considered when modifying the physical environment of the
school. As Table 12 shows, cross-curricular topics span numerous subjects and fields that are priorities for
society. These topics are intended to develop both the individual and society as a whole, supporting the
pupil’s capacity to apply his or her knowledge in different situations through the synthesis of diverse facts
and perspectives. A school’s curriculum should include all possible cross-subject activities whenever the
integration of different subjects and subject fields can take place.

Table 12. Cross-curricular Topics in Three Versions of the National Curricula

1996 • Traffic
2011 • Lifelong learning and career
planning
• Choice of a profession
• Environment and sustainable
• Informatics and ICT development
• Civic initiative and
2002 • Environment and sustainable entrepreneurship
development • Cultural identity
• Professional career and career • Information environment
planning
• Technology and innovation
• ICT and media
• Health and safety
• Safety
• Values and morals

Source: National Curriculum for Basic School and Upper Secondary School: 2006, 2002, 2011

Cross-curricular activities can be organized in a variety of different ways: as an interdisciplinary course at

school (e.g., IT, career, media); as an extra-curricular course (e.g., cultural identity); as an elective course
(e.g., first-aid, career planning, cultural studies); as a thematic week (e.g., traffic week, nature week, foreign
languages week); or as a homeroom activity led by the teacher. To encourage and carry out cross-
curricular activities, schools use coordinators in addition to relying on cooperation between teachers. For
example, schools sometimes appoint career coordinators, who are responsible for collecting and sharing
information as well as coordinating activities and analyzing the work done concerning professional
careers. In order to organize health promotion, schools have formed health boards and hosted special
events.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 53

Integration of Subjects

Curricula stresses the importance of collaboration and integration of subject fields. Subject specific
curricula make provisions for opportunities for combining subject-specific and inter-disciplinary
approaches by organizing learning activities around cross-curricular topics and using shared approaches
to assessment (see https://www.hm.ee/en/activities/pre-school-basic-and-secondary-education).

Integration is a goal because it allows teachers to develop students' general competencies together with
subject specific competencies. Integration of studies is achieved by following common thematic emphases
through diversely structured learning activities, subject lessons, internal school projects, cross-curricular
topics, and study assignments and methods. To succeed in integration, the school’s task is to shape the
learning environment and foster cooperation between teachers in a manner that enables a cross-
disciplinary approach: specifying competencies, setting learning objectives and determining common
problems and terminology for various subjects (Riigi Teataja 2011a).

Schools take a variety of approaches to integrating teaching. First, some schools integrate all subjects at
the first school level (grades 1-3, or even up to grade 6). For example, they might focus on certain topics
like “Our Neighborhood,” “Living Together,” “Travelling to Europe,” “Hiking in the Countryside,” etc.,
rather than conventional subject lessons like math, science, history, etc.

Box 3. Examples of School Plans for Subject Integration

Haabneeme Basic School

At the beginning of each school year, new project ideas—including projects with other
schools—are generated and added to the school’s work plan. Every project has a project
manager whose task is to define the project objectives regarding developing general
competencies with the project team. The project must have a clear objective and fixed
time frame. After the project has ended, outcomes are analyzed and recommendations

for improving the project activities in the future are planned. After the project has
ended, an analysis of the outcome is carried out and suggestions for the future about
improving the project activities are planned.

Source: Haabneeme 2015

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 54

 Tartu School

Integration takes place in the following ways:

• Integration within the subject where one topic leads to another and complements
the whole
• Trans-disciplinary learning
• Integration within a subject where teachers of the same subject cooperate and plan
integrated activities together (e.g., Estonian language and literature)
• Using the same learning activities —projects, literary reports, research, creative work,
essays or portfolios — across classrooms
• Parallel teaching of the same content in different classrooms over a specific time
period (e.g., proportional relationship in physics and mathematics, runic song in
music and literature),
• School projects and thematic weeks covering cross-curricular topics
• Grade projects where every grade has a specific task, e.g., grades 7-9 organize
and manage school events
• Thematic days and weeks connecting learning outcomes to real life
• Contests between classes or grade
• Outdoor learning camps
• Topic-centered integration where a theme is investigated in three different ways
during one school year (cross-curricular topics, interdisciplinary projects, outdoor
learning camps)

Source: Tartu Erakool 2015

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 55

Links to Community in General Education

The board of trustees is a valuable partner for the school when developing the curriculum, as it represents
students, teachers, owners, parents, graduates and organizations supporting the school. In theory, the
board helps to link the learning process with the local community. In reality, however, this resource
depends on the often limited capacity of board members to contribute.

One vehicle to establish connections and offer joint activities with the community is cross-curricular
topics. Increasingly, schools have involved the broader community in designing activities focused on these
topics and identifying partners to help teach them (Jaani and Luisk 2011).

Box 4. Examples of Cross-curricular Joint Activity with

Local Authorities and Regional Hobby Schools

Haabneeme Basic School Curriculum

In 2019, 135 years had passed since the birth of General Laidoner. The school theatre
brought the story of Maria and Johan Laidoner and the foundation of the Republic of
Estonia to the stage. In addition to the workers of the Laidoner Museum, a music school
and a hobby center helped to compile the story about actual events. The roles of the
general and his wife were performed by alumni of the school. All other members of the
cast were students. The audience consisted of students and all the people interested in
the play. The local authorities invited the play to be performed at the Independence
Day celebration held for honorary citizens.

Source: Tiisvelt, 2011

Links to Future Work Life in Vocational Education

In vocational education, relationships with industry groups are prioritized so that the needs of the labor
market are reflected in the curriculum. The inclusion of social partners in curriculum development is
prescribed by the Vocational Education Standard (2013): “The national curriculum shall be prepared in
cooperation with social partners on the basis of the Vocational Education Standard, corresponding
professional standards and the national curriculum for upper secondary schools.” As a result, vocational

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 56

schools have established close cooperative ties with representatives of relevant industries in the
professional world. Cooperation with professionals is also a key aspect in quality assessment of vocational
education. The curriculum is designed to integrate theory and the application of theory. The modules in
vocational education curricula are not focused only on the acquisition of knowledge, but also on the
development of the skills needed to apply knowledge.

OSKA (a system for forecasting labor requirements, see: https://oska.kutsekoda.ee/en/) provides

valuable input for curriculum development in vocational education. OSKA conducts applied research
surveys on sectoral needs for labor and uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative research
methods to analyze professional qualifications across all levels of education. Five economic sectors are
examined each year. Additional information on employment, skills and qualifications is collected from
personal interviews with sectoral experts and group discussions. The interviews focus on future economic
trends and the resulting changes in the needs for workers, skills, education and training in each sector, and
solicit input with suggestions for improving qualifications. Sectoral expert panels also assess labor market
needs in numbers of jobs and training capacities broken down by key professions. An OSKA general
report on changes in labor requirements, labor market developments and trends likely to influence them
over the next 10 years is prepared annually. A study on application of the OSKA system (Melesk,
Haaristo, and Haugas, 2018) found that its methodology successfully monitors and forecasts the need for
labor and skills in Estonia. The study further found that vocational schools need curricular flexibility in
order to make efficient use of the results.

To better meet the needs of the labor market, workplace-based study programs were implemented in
2002. These programs constitute a special form of vocational education where practical assignments to
companies or institutions make up at least two-thirds of the course work (Vocational Educational
Institutions Act 2013). The student achieves the same learning outcomes described in the curriculum by
completing tasks in the workplace. Estonia currently considers school-based workshops that simulate a
workplace as a form of workplace learning experience (OECD 2020a). The remainder of the studies will
be undertaken at school. When these experiences take place in a workplace, the employer must
compensate students for tasks performed to the amount agreed upon in an intern contract. Wages must
not be less than the statutory minimum wage established by the government. In 2017, further guidelines
were developed for the implementation of work-based learning and provided training for supervisors and
additional transportation and accommodation to support students in VET education. The number of
students in workplace-based studies is growing and has reached 1,700 students (almost 7 percent of VET-
students). The graduates from workplace-based studies have pointed to the practicality of the studies as
the main positive aspect. The feedback from graduates also highlights some shortcomings, which include

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 57

contradictory information from the school and the company and provision of only low-level learning tasks
in the workplace (Melesk, Koppel, and Michelson, 2017).

Work-based learning (in the workplace or in a school workshop) makes up at least one-half of the
curriculum of all vocational programs (Vocational Educational Institutions Act 2013). The school must
guarantee the student an internship place in industry as well as preparation for practice and supervision
and assessment of that work practice.

Despite efforts to better connect programs to jobs, government studies on vocational education (conducted
in 2008, 2013, and 2018) show a decrease rather than an increase in the share of secondary or upper
secondary school graduates opting for vocational education in recent years. There are also considerable
gender and regional gaps in vocational education, with men and students from rural areas both
overrepresented.

Curriculum Updated Based on Data about Student Progress and the Learning Process

The Curriculum Is Continuously Revised Based on Societal Expectations and New

Knowledge

The national curriculum receives input from many sources. At the Ministry of Education and Research,
the Preschool and Basic Education Department compiles and develops the basic school curriculum, while
the Secondary Education Department is responsible for the upper secondary curriculum and for
vocational school curricula. The national curriculum is approved by the Government and vocational
education curricula are approved by the Minister of Education. Within the Ministry, the curriculum
development process is coordinated by the governmental Education and Youth Board (Harno), established
by the Ministry of Education and Research. Experts from the University of Tartu and Tallinn University
are closely connected to these processes. The first version of the national curriculum, in 1996, was
prepared by the project team of Tallinn Pedagogical University (Tallinn University’s predecessor). In
2000, preparation for what would become the 2011 version of the national curriculum began, and one of
the concept papers was proposed by the Center for Curriculum Development at the University of Tartu.
Furthermore, key studies by university researchers have contributed to curriculum development, such as
“Best practices in implementing cross-curricular topics in Estonian schools” (2010), “Development and
implementation of the school curriculum” (2012), “Assessment-evaluation practices used in Estonian
general education schools” (2018), etc.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 58

In 2016, the Ministry initiated the most recent update of the learning outcomes of the national
curriculum. The process began with the analysis of the content and scope of the subject syllabi as well as a
collection of proposals for reform by interest groups. The Ministry piloted revised learning outcomes
compiled by subject field teams in seven Estonian schools.

The implementation of curriculum revisions has been facilitated by other reforms introduced to schools.
These include, among others, the introduction of school development plans and self-evaluations (see
chapter 2); prioritizing formative assessment (see chapter 4); and introducing digital tools for curriculum
implementation, record keeping, and feedback to students and parents (ekool, stuudium) (see chapter 4).

The Attainment of Curricular Learning Goals Is Monitored Nationally

Standard-determining tests monitor student progress toward learning goals. These tests map pupils’
knowledge at the end of the first stage (grade 3) and second stage (grade 6) of studies. These low-stake tests
are not assessed and are not used for formal monitoring of schools but aim to help teachers improve and
organize the teaching and learning process. Teachers in low-performing schools are given in-depth
feedback on the extent to which students have mastered the competencies being assessed and where there
are difficulties (see also chapter 4). In addition, these tests aim to generally evaluate the achievement of
general competencies, subject field competencies, cross-curricular topics and learning outcomes.
Standard-determining tests serve as a valuable source of information for the Ministry when making
decisions about educational policies and the development of the national curriculum.

The standard-determining tests take place in:

● The 1st stage of school at:

o Grade 3: Estonian (in schools with Estonian as the language of instruction or Russian (in
schools with Russian as the language of instruction)
● The 2nd stage of school at:
o Grade 4: natural sciences and mathematics
o Grade 6: Estonian (in schools with Estonian as the language of instruction or Russian (in
schools with Russian as the language of instruction)
● The 3rd stage of school at:
o Grade 7: natural sciences and mathematics
o Grade 8: digital competencies
● The upper secondary stage of school at:
o Grade 11: digital competencies

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 59

Since 2016, all standard-determining tests are electronic tests on the platform EIS (examination
information system). The same platform provides samples of the tests for schools.

Hobby Education and Extracurricular Learning Complements Formal Education

The Formalization of Hobby Education

In Estonia, hobby education is an important complement to general education. Participation is voluntary

and the activities are shaped by young people’s interests and initiative. Acknowledging young people’s
individuality and personal strengths should be priorities in teaching extracurricular activities (Standard for
Hobby Education 2007). Teachers should create an open and positive environment and encourage
students to find joy in the activities, which also promotes learning and creativity. These kinds of
experiences make students more secure (Huviharidusstandardi infoteatmik 2007).

According to the Hobby School Act of 2006, hobby schools are independent institutions operating in five
subject areas:

1. Sports
2. Technology
3. Nature
4. General culture, including ethnic schools
5. Music and arts

Hobby school curricula are regulated by the Standard for Hobby Education (2007) and approved by the
Ministry of Education and Research. All students are registered in the national database every academic
year. In the 2019/2020 school year, there were 782 hobby schools (310 sport schools and 146 music and
art schools) with 4,546 curricula, enrolling 146, 691 students (almost 90 percent of all students). Of the
students, 43 percent were between 7 and 11 years of age and 31 percent were between 12 and 18 years
(Education Eye, n.d.).

The integration of non-formal learning into students’ more formal schooling is growing in importance in
Estonia. The national curriculum for basic schools gives schools the authority to consider extracurricular
learning, such as hobby schools and after school activities, as a part of a student’s curriculum. These
decisions should be based on an agreement between the parent or student and the principal (or another
person authorized by the principal). The main criterion for evaluation is whether the student achieves the
learning outcomes set out in the school curriculum or individual curriculum (Riigi Teataja 2011a). The

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 60

school establishes all processes and requirements for grading and transfer of credits from other institutions;
there are no other guidelines from the state or municipality.

It is more common in upper secondary schools to offer electives in cooperation with hobby schools as a
part of a student’s individual learning plan. In basic school, every student is considered as an individual
case: the student reports on his or her hobby school activities to, for example, a music or sport teacher
who then evaluate the activities and recognize them as a part of the curriculum if they meet with
approval.

Current educational strategy strongly endorses a flexible individual learning and community approach to
education and promotes diverse learning opportunities for students of every region. By this approach, a
variety of traditional and non-traditional sites can be linked together as learning environments, including
general education and vocational schools, adult education institutions, cultural and youth institutions,
civic organizations, local businesses, workplaces, etc. Individual learning paths are developed by
combining these options and considering learning in different environments (Smart and Active People
2035, 2019).

The Integration of Extracurricular and Work-based Learning

In addition to hobby schools, general education schools organize extracurricular activities. The
organization of extracurricular activities in schools is governed by the Hobby Schools Act (Riigi Teataja
2010a). Teachers or outside experts in the field lead the extra-curricular activities.

Local municipalities get support from the state budget for hobby education (at hobby schools) and for
extracurricular activities such as choirs, art, sports, robotics, etc., offered by school hobby clubs, usually at
the same school where the student learns (Financing of Municipal Schools from the State Budget:
Conditions and Procedure for the Distribution and Use of the Support Fund Assigned to Local
Government by the State Budget Act 2015). Offering extracurricular activities at school makes them easily
accessible to students aged seven to 19 years; this is especially important for students from a low
socioeconomic background, who cannot afford to pay the fees at hobby schools (which are actually quite
low and more a symbolic token of commitment).

Schools also create extended day programs to offer students supervision, instruction and guidance in
managing spare time, doing homework, pursuing hobbies and developing extracurricular interests.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 61

Since the 1990s, every Estonian school has employed a recreation manager. The position is funded by the
local municipality and oversees a variety of tasks: managing the school’s community relations; creating
and improving the school’s traditional celebrations (e.g., the school’s anniversary); organizing school
events; fostering community; organizing clubs; and supporting students’ talents, interests and initiatives.
The recreation manager helps schools move away from the idea of formal education as something very
structured or focused on professional training, and towards the idea of education as a fully immersive
experience with diverse forms of student-led learning (Education and Socio-Economic Status - Estonian
Case 2018).

Box 5. Example of School Schedule for Ninth Grade Student

from Pelgulinna Gymnasium

The students in ninth grade can participate in a whole day of school activities:

8:30-13:00 – learning activities in the classroom (transdisciplinary learning, physical

activities).

13:30-14:30 – “hobby” classes. There is a choice among different activities: swimming,

gymnastics and dancing, folk dance, singing and choir, puzzles, computer skills, robotics,
computer coding, nature and environment protection, art and manual skills, crafts,
recycling, board games, economics.

14:35-15:00 – lunch (for additional fee, approximately 1-1.50 euros)

15:00-16:30 – outdoor activities

Students have to choose new activities for both school semesters (except choir, folk
dance, gymnastics, and swimming). Taking part in activities after 13:00 is not
compulsory for students. All the activities are free, except for lunch. These whole day
school days are held only on certain days of the week.

Source: Pelgulinna Gymnasium Website

About 40 percent of Estonian youth (approximately 106,650 people aged seven to 26 years) participate in
hobby education (Villenthal, Kaunismaa, Veemaa, Talur, Žuravljova, Varblane 2016). The most popular

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 62

activities include sports and music, while the least popular ones relate to mathematics and technology. Of
the participants, 33 percent engage in extracurricular activities on school premises, 25 percent at youth
centers, 15 percent at hobby schools and 11 percent at other cultural or social institutions. Activities
offered at school are often more accessible for students in rural regions. There are only two local
municipalities that do not offer on-site after school programs and that is due to the small number of
students. The role of schools in making extracurricular activities accessible is clearly very important
(Villenthal, et al 2016). For example, in Tallinn municipality, approximately 50 percent of students ages
seven to 18 participate in extracurricular activities after school. Some students not only go to hobby school
(for music, acting or sports), but also participate in afterschool programs at their general education school.

Support for Schools by Other Institutions

The national curriculum states that studies may be organized outside the school premises (e.g., in the
school yard, natural areas, museums, archives, environmental education centers, companies and
institutions) and in virtual study environments (Riigi Teataja 2011a). Museums are particularly rich
education sites, offering programs in accordance with the national curricula. Museum pedagogy is based
on cooperation between school and museum and as such is also part of teacher education programs. The
national program Interesting school (2020-2025) has focused on this type of integration of formal and
informal learning. Under the program, schools collect their initiatives and innovative strategies to arrange
learning processes and share them with other schools (see more in Chapter 5).

Museums have a wide selection of educational activities for students of different age groups and school
stages. They offer both museum lessons and tours for students at all school levels and for adults as well.
These activities take place both in museum classrooms and unique museum environments such as
exhibitions and thematic rooms. The educational program offered by museums supports the acquisition of
learning goals in the national curriculum. Local municipalities fund the participation of students and
assure the availability of the program to rural schools. The museums are also transferring their lessons and
tours to digital platforms.

For example, the program “Me, superorganism” explains how bacteria and people live together. Students
learn how the microbial community of the human body affects people’s health and wellbeing. Schools are
encouraged to arrange whole class visits to museums to study certain topics in these rich environments,
with the support of educational program coordinators in museums.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 63

Tartu municipality has taken a systematic approach to developing programs created in partnership
between schools and other educational institutions, launching the Learning can happen everywhere program.
The aim of this program is to enrich learning with both short-term and long-term projects through the
integration of formal and informal education, i.e., involving cooperation with museums, higher education
institutions, vocational schools and enterprises.

Universities offer training and enrichment for talented young people. These are courses that prepare
students for university and offer them opportunities to develop or broaden the mind. Talented students
are offered these courses starting at age 12, but the main focus is high school students. For example, the
Youth Academy of the University of Tartu offers students of basic and upper secondary school
opportunities to learn different subjects in-depth, prepare for subject contests, and prepare for university
studies. Participation in the courses also develops independent work skills. Students can take part in e-
courses, use study materials and spend quality time at science camps. Schools can request programs from
research labs or workshops for physics, chemistry and biology and may even carry out experiments.
Teachers are offered in-service training and can use materials in their school lessons (University of Tartu
2020).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 64

 1
4
Assessment, Reporting, and Qualifications

This chapter discusses how student assessment is designed to support every student’s development and
inform the learning process at schools. Estonia uses diverse assessment mechanisms and issues reports at
the school and governmental level.

Main Messages:

• The assessment of learning outcomes is diverse in Estonia. Since 2011, the focus of reform
has been moving away from prioritizing summative assessment to rely more on formative assessment
alongside summative assessment, based on each school’s individual approach. According to principles
of assessment at both the national and school level, the teacher is responsible for choosing suitable
assessment methods (including formative assessment), timing, tasks and tools.
• The assessment and reporting balances the need to provide useful information for
multiple audiences and to support the learning process. The external assessment of learning
outcomes includes final examinations for basic school and state examinations at the upper secondary
level. The number of graduation examinations has decreased from five to three in recent years.
Estonia aims to balance internal and external assessment, involving both teachers at school and
assessors outside the school.
• The results of the assessment are of public interest. A school’s reputation traditionally
depends on how well its upper secondary graduates perform on state examinations. Some educational
scientists and experts at the national level have criticized this reliance on only one measure of school
quality and are seeking alternative sources of performance data to create a more balanced approach.
For example, complementary data on student progress can be gathered from extracurricular
activities, competitions and events that foster talents related to academic subjects, as well as practical
competencies, to provide a richer profile of a school.
• There are new approaches to monitoring schools at the national level. Estonia’s strategic
aims in education call for a shift from external evaluation and inspection of schools toward schools´

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 65

 self-evaluation. Teaching and learning are the focus of monitoring and evaluation. New reporting
mechanisms and sources of data are being developed at the national level to better inform schools on
how to create a better learning environment.
• Estonia sets clear national standards and allows diverse assessment strategies at the
school level to measure progress towards them. In addition to traditional examinations,
graduates must pass assessments of their general and practical competencies, such as creative projects
in basic school and a research paper in upper secondary school. Due to the national qualification
framework, variety among schools’ teaching and assessment approaches has not resulted in barriers
for transitions within the educational system.
• A clear national assessment framework that accommodates and encourages a variety of
approaches at the school level has fostered a coherent but flexible learning system for Estonia’s
students.

Diverse Assessment of Learning Outcomes

In Estonia, assessment is defined as a systematic gathering of information about student development;

analysis of such information; and subsequent feedback. Education law stresses the importance of using
assessment data to inform ongoing revisions of curriculum and education policies.

From Traditional Summative Assessment to Individualized Formative Assessment

Estonia’s national approach to assessment reflects a widespread understanding of the objective of

assessment in the learning process, which is to support the overall development of students. This includes
giving feedback on the academic achievement of students; encouraging and guiding students to study with
purpose; fostering the self-esteem of students; and guiding and supporting students in making their future
education choices. This view of assessment also includes objectives for teachers and schools: to support
learning and development of individual students and prepare them to move on to the next level of school
and ultimately to work and further education (Riigi Teataja 2010a).

Summative assessment has been in place in Estonia since the 19th century (Värä 2020). Estonia applies a
system of grades that are in the National Curriculum. The grades are used in evaluating a student’s
achievements in learning outcomes during an observed period or for an observed topic:

• The grade 5 or “very good” is used if the achieved learning outcomes are fully in accordance with,
or exceed, the required learning outcomes that are the basis for the student’s study.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 66

 • The grade 4 or “good” is used if the achieved learning outcomes are generally in accordance with
the required learning outcomes that are the basis for the student’s study.
• The grade 3 or “satisfactory” is used if the achieved learning outcomes enable the student to
continue studies or graduate from the school without having substantial problems managing
continued study or future life.
• The grade 2 or “poor” is used if there has been development for the student in these learning
outcomes, but it is insufficient for the student to manage without substantial problems in continued
study or future life.
• The grade 1 or “weak” is used if the achieved learning outcomes mean not being able to manage
without substantial difficulties in continued study or future life, and if there has been no
development for the pupil in these learning outcomes.

The National Curriculum (2011) also prescribes the 5-point grading scale, to which teachers can make
their own exceptions. Thus, grade 5 is awarded to students who have achieved 90–100 percent of the
maximum possible number of points, grade 4 for 75–89 percent of possible points, grade 3 for 50–74
percent, grade 2 for 20–49 percent and grade 1 for 0–19 percent. Students are awarded grades as part of
ongoing studies, as period or course grades, and as yearly grades. Debate about the use of the 5-point
scale with two negative grades was most active at the beginning of Estonia’s restored independence, with
heads of schools being the chief objectors to reform of the grade scale (Värä 2020).

Summative grades are based on the comparison of the students’ knowledge and skills in a subject with the
expected learning outcomes established in the subject syllabus. At the school level, assessment principles
are described in guidelines which often include types of grades (see box 6, next page).

To support teachers in the assessment process, The Education and Youth Authority (Harno) develops e-
task sets and diagnostic tests in all subject areas in primary and basic schools. The aim of these tools is to
encourage teachers to use a range of assessment methods to support the assessment of learning outcomes
established in the curriculum. E-task sets are prepared for topics which would be more easily acquired
with the help of plentiful visual interactive materials. These e-task sets have been published for teachers
since 2018. Every set also has a diagnostic test aimed at determining the extent of the students’ previous
knowledge and skills as well as gaps in previously acquired knowledge within a specific narrow topic
(Jakobson, Liiv, Lausing, Meesak, Shipova, 2018).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 67

 Box 6. Example of School Guidelines on Grading from Rahumäe Basic School

The numerical assessment of learning outcomes is divided into four parts:

1. A processed grade (test, group work, re-telling, discussion, etc.) covers small-scale
materials and is aimed to be an interim assessment of learning outcomes. Students do
not have to be given prior notice when their work will be assessed with a process
grade.
2. A summative work grade (test paper, essay, project, presentation, etc.) covers
substantial materials and is aimed at assessing the achievement of learning outcomes.
On one school day a student may only have one summative assessment which the
subject teacher marks in the test plan in e-School.
3. A trimester grade is awarded on the basis of at least three graded works.
4. A yearly grade is awarded on the basis of trimester grades.

Source: Legal act for assessment in Rahumäe Basic School

On the school level, the use of a different grading system can be decided in the school’s curriculum. In
addition to the 5-point system, schools can use other assessment systems. For instance, a 5-point system
where grades are specified with “+” and “–”; verbal (descriptive) assessment (mainly in the 1st class, often
in the entire 1st stage of study and in some schools also in the 2nd stage of study); summative numerical
assessment together with descriptive assessment; letter-based (A to F) assessment (more frequently in the
2nd and 3rd stages of study; also referred to as the 6-point system); undifferentiated assessment such as
pass/fail (mainly in art subjects, personal, social and health education, and electives in the upper
secondary level) (Vool and Jürimäe 2019).

The use of different grading systems varies by the stage of study and subject as well as the size and
location of the school. Verbal descriptive assessment is preferred in primary school classes and schools
with small classes, while a numerical grading system (including the letter-based system) is preferred in
basic school and upper secondary school, and undifferentiated assessment in creative and elective subjects.

In order to make the teachers’ work easier, schools have standardized descriptive designations for each
grade (see Box 7, next page). Verbal feedback is used in the 2nd stage of study, often followed by a
transition period where both numerical and verbal assessments are used—for instance, a numerical grade
is accompanied by a written comment. In addition, all these formats allow the use of the principles of
assessment for learning, or formative assessment, to a greater or lesser degree (Aksen et al 2018).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 68

 Box 7. Example of School’s Standardized Verbal Assessment

I commend you for motivated and consistent studies!

I commend your teamwork skills!

I commend your independent work skills!

I commend your discussion and analysis ability!

I commend your skill of formulating and asking questions!

I see that you could be more motivated and consistent in your studies.

I see that you could contribute more to teamwork.

I see that you could contribute more to your independent work.

I see that you could dedicate more to developing your discussion and analysis ability.

I see that you could polish your skill of asking question. Dare to ask questions!

Source: Rahumäe Basic School

The diversity of the grading systems highlights a flaw in the Estonian approach: it is difficult to ensure that
school grading is comparable and aligned to the national curriculum. At the end of the 2nd stage of study
(grade 6), or if a student leaves a school before then, the verbal assessments of the current academic year
must be converted to the nationally applicable grade scale, as these form the basis for the transfer of the
student to the next class (Riigi Teataja 2010a). Conversion may prove difficult for schools, which is why
guidelines and tools have been developed on a school level (Aksen, Jürimäe et al 2018).

The consequences of low grades for students are additional opportunities to improve the grade. Students
have an opportunity to get extra help by participating in support classes and/or retaking an assessment
task if they have received a low grade or no grade at all. These extra help and re-assessment classes are
planned after school. If a student’s yearly grade in a subject is “weak” or “poor,” the school may assign
the student additional studies in that subject, which means the student performs extra tasks under the
direct instruction of a teacher, in order to acquire the knowledge and skills required in the curriculum.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 69

These additional studies are conducted after the end of the last semester and before the summer break.
Repeating a year, which was previously the common consequence of low grades, has since 2006 been a
very exceptional measure. In Estonia, fewer than 4 percent of students have repeated a grade at least once
in primary, lower secondary or upper secondary school, below the OECD average of 11 percent (OECD
2016b). According to the national curriculum, if a student’s yearly grades in three or more subjects are
“poor” or “weak” and it is not expedient to use an individual study program or other support systems, the
teacher’s council may assign the student to repeat a year in order to achieve the learning outcomes
required in the curriculum.

The use of formative assessment is the most topical challenge for Estonian schools. Formative assessment
is understood to mean assessment performed during studies based on the national curriculum to analyze a
student’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and behavior. The goal is to provide feedback to students on
the results that can help encourage and guide the student in planning for further studies. Formative
assessment is above all focused on comparing the student’s development with his or her previous
achievements. Feedback provides a timely and precise description of the student’s strengths and
challenges and contains proposals for further activities which support the student’s development. There is
an increasing effort to use formative assessment alongside the traditional assessment system (Vool and
Jürimäe, 2019). Feedback from formative assessment is provided verbally or in written form or even by
using a set of emoticons and symbols. There are also different interpretations of verbal feedback—a
common example is to replace a numerical grade with a brief verbal comment (e.g., 5 is “very good”; 4 is
“good,” etc.). Implementing formative assessment is demanding and depends on teachers’ readiness to
apply an approach different from that in which they were initially trained (Aksen et al. 2018).

The assessment of student development also varies by subject. In subjects such as physical education and
art, it is easier to compare the student with his or her own earlier results and thereby allow the
development of the student at his or her own pace. However, in subjects where state examinations and
standard-determining tests are held, teachers must determine that all students have achieved the outcomes
established in the national curriculum by the established time. Schools rethinking their approach to
learning must consider how to assess student growth within the context of progress toward a specific
benchmark or standard (Aksen et al. 2018).

Teacher as a Main Actor in Assessment

In Estonian schools, teachers make the choices related to the classroom assessment of students. Indeed, a
key part of the Occupational Qualification Standard of Teachers (2020), states that the teacher

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 70

“…systemically applies various feedback and assessment methods that support learning, including digital
technologies, based on the learner’s specifics and the documents that regulate assessment; prepares
assessment models/criteria and assesses learners on the basis thereof; supports learners in the development
of self-assessment skills; agrees on the principles and arrangement of feedback provision with learners and
parents.” Estonian teachers have traditionally made choices related to assessment and above all relied on
the assessment practices of their subject area (Aksen, Jürimäe et al., 2018). However, schools are growing
more focused on how to create their own approach to assessment and are using the national curriculum to
help define general principles of assessment in their own curriculum as well as harmonize different
teachers’ approaches across schools.

Collaboration among teachers in planning classroom assessments has increased recently. Teachers
understand that collaboration is important in assessing general competencies. The most common way to
shape and assess general competencies is to organize cross-subject projects and events outside school (e.g.,
theme days or excursions), which are focused on a specific general competency or on the integration of
two or more subjects. The criteria for assessment are set by the school and usually the project is assessed
by supervising teachers or by a committee of subject teachers (Aksen, Jürimäe et al., 2008).

Subject teachers from different schools collaborate on assessment via subject-specific associations (OECD
2001). It is common practice for teachers to collaborate on the design of state examinations as well as on
exam evaluation. This process allows teachers to harmonize their approaches to test design and evaluation
criteria.

National Level Assessment of Student Performance

Assessment at Key Points

Uniform, national assessment of student performance takes place only twice during general education in
Estonia; more frequent assessment is arranged by schools or teachers and is designed to inform teaching
and learning practice. Students must meet national requirements for graduation, but these are generally
met through school-set criteria (e.g., school examinations, creative work, research projects) not national
examinations (Table 13, next page).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 71

Table 13. Graduation Requirements for Basic School and Upper Secondary School

Basic school Upper secondary school

graduation requirements graduation requirements

Basic school is completed by students: The upper secondary school graduation certificate is given
to students:
● who have achieved a grade of at least “satisfactory” in
all subjects in the most recent year; ● who have achieved grades of at least “satisfactory” for
● who have carried out creative work in the third stage the stage of study or “satisfactory” or “pass” for
of study; and elective courses;
● who have scored at least a “satisfactory” result in the ● who have scored at least a “satisfactory” result in the
state final examinations in Estonian language, state examinations in the Estonian language, in
mathematics and one subject of the student’s choice. mathematics and in a foreign language corresponding
to the required study load in the subject;
● who have scored at least a “satisfactory” result in the
school examination of an upper secondary school;
● who have during upper secondary school studies
conducted a research project or a practical assignment,
except in the case of graduation from the school as an
external student.

Source: National Basic School Curriculum, National Upper Secondary School Curriculum, 2011

The objective of basic school final examinations is to provide an overview of the knowledge and skills the
graduate has acquired. In order to compare the effectiveness of schools across the country, to identify
schools that need assistance, and to assess the added value of various programs, every student takes three
mandatory examinations with uniform tasks. In the case of students with special educational needs (SEN),
the final state examinations with uniform tasks may be replaced with a school developed examination. A
school may issue a basic school graduation certificate with distinction to recognize high achievement.

A missing element of the subject-specific system of final examinations is assessment of general and area-
specific competencies. Recently, the Ministry of Education and Research has prioritized the role of
schools in determining whether students should graduate basic school, and possible changes to the
current, state-level requirement are under discussion (Ministry of Education and Research 2015). In 2019,
the Ministry also initiated a draft amendment to abolish basic school final examinations. One of its main
arguments was the need to reduce stress among students related to final examinations and students
applying to upper secondary schools based on their grades before the final examination. The basic school
final examinations with their uniform questions do not allow the assessment of differentiated studies in the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 72

case of learners with special educational needs (SEN final examination 2019). Ultimately, the amendment
was not approved due to strong opposition from different stakeholders and debates continue. Public
discussion related to the amendment touched on student stress and anxiety during the examination
period; parental fear that students would lose the motivation to study without the impetus of exams;
concern among politicians over losing a state-level overview of school quality; and subject teachers’
concern with lowering the standards for subject-related knowledge.

The aim of upper secondary school final examinations is to provide an overview of the knowledge and
skills the graduate acquired in upper secondary school. As of 2014, the results of the state exams no longer
determine whether students graduate from upper secondary school. Some upper secondary schools award
students with high learning outcomes a gold or silver medal, as determined by school-based assessments.
The number of state and school examinations required for graduation from upper secondary school has
been steadily decreasing in Estonia. When state examinations were first introduced in 1997, some
suggested they were too challenging and raised concern that students and teachers spent too much time
preparing for them (OECD 2001). Still, evidence from empirical, international studies shows that students
from countries with external exit examinations perform significantly better on international student
assessments. Externally defined assessments can clearly signal to students and teachers the standards
expected of all students (OECD 2015,148).

For these reasons, Estonia chose not to eliminate exit exams. It has, however, implemented reforms. As of
2014, the number of state examinations at the end of upper secondary school was reduced from five to
three: mathematics, mother tongue, and foreign language. This allows teachers of other subjects more
autonomy to decide what to teach and how to evaluate the outcomes. The Ministry also plans to modify
the state exams to better evaluate the competencies achieved and not focus as much on factual knowledge
(Ministry of Education and Research 2015).

For students engaged in vocational studies, assessment is part of the study process; students take fair and
unbiased assessments to determine if their competencies match the learning outcomes described in the
curriculum (Vocational Educational Institutions Act 2013). One difference between vocational and
general education is that a threshold is defined as a level of describing learning outcomes. Passing a
vocational examination or a professional final examination is a precondition to completing vocational
studies. It is a single examination, which may be complex and comprise various parts. Students studying
in languages other than Estonian must either take the state examination in Estonian as a second language
or take the vocational examination or the professional final examination in Estonian. In other cases,
taking the state examinations is voluntary.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 73

Pursuant to the Professions Act, the vocational examination determines whether students have acquired
the competencies necessary for their chosen profession. The examinations have been considerably
updated in order to reflect the evolving requirements of the workplace. The proportion of students who
pass the vocational examination has grown steadily in recent years and indicates increasing efficiency of
vocational schools.

Multiple Actors in Assessment

Estonia uses internal and external assessment to ensure objectivity. The assessment of students’ learning
outcomes involves various parties who share roles and responsibilities. Pursuant to the national
curriculum, assessment has three components: 1) a systematic gathering of information about the student’s
development, 2) an analysis of the information, and 3) the provision of feedback. Assessment is the basis
for planning further studies. In the case of internal assessment within the school, teachers familiar with the
student are the assessors, while in the case of external assessment, assessors have no relation to the student
(OECD 2015).

Teachers are responsible for decisions related to internal assessment. They are generally not required to
submit a report to school administrators on their chosen assessment methods. They do, however, have to
prepare a workplan describing how they used formative or summative assessment. Schools are required
by law to keep records of learning outcomes in a student register. The record contains aggregated data
including yearly or course grades, transfer examination grades, and stage of study grades (Riigi Teataja
2010a). Teachers use a class journal to record data on student grades, participation/absence, lesson
content, and homework. Ever more frequently, schools manage and administer data related to students in
information systems (e.g., an electronic diary, eSchool, Studium).

Basic school final examinations are a hybrid form of internal and external assessment. The Ministry’s
Education and Youth Authority (Harno) prepares and compiles the tasks which make up the examinations,
while subject-specific committees of acting teachers and university lecturers develop the examination
paper, the assessment guidelines and the correspondence table. Guidelines on conducting examinations
are also made available to schools. A final examination committee at each school is responsible for the
organization, conduct and assessment of examinations. The composition of this committee is approved by
the school principal; the number of members is established at the national level, depending on the number
of students taking the examination: there must be at least one committee member per every 20 students
taking the examination.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 74

Final examinations for vocational students are also a hybrid form of internal and external assessment. At
the completion of studies, a vocational examination assessment committee evaluates students’ final exams,
according to criteria established in the Professions Act (2008). The committee must consist of at least three
members. No more than a third of those members can be affiliated with the student’s educational
institution, and no more than a third can be from the same institution as the student’s prospective
employer. It is common practice in vocational schools to engage representatives of professional
associations in vocational examination assessment committees.

Assessment is external in the case of state examinations. The state examinations taken upon completing
upper secondary school are prepared and organized by the Education and Youth Authority (Harno) and
conducted by a committee formed by the principal, but the examination papers are graded by a
committee formed at the national level. Student responses that must be subjectively assessed are reviewed
by two or three assessors.

Local governments and school administrators tend to have a smaller role in choices and decisions related
to assessment. However, there are exceptions. The 2015 quality agreement of Tartu basic schools, for
example, stipulates principles according to which assessment for learning is used in all stages of study;
undifferentiated assessment is used in skill-based and creative subjects, and only verbal feedback is used in
the first stage of study.

High Public Interest in School Performance

Demanding Audience of Assessment and Reporting

The Estonian public takes a strong interest in education, particularly the results of state examinations in
upper-secondary schools. The exam-based ranking of upper secondary schools attracts significant public
and media attention. The Education and Youth Authority (Harno) prepares summaries of state
examination results, highlighting changes and trends from year to year. Based on these summaries, media
companies and journalists compile ranking lists of upper secondary schools, which are published under
titles such as “Find your school among this year’s state examination results!” or “Check out the ranking of
your school in this year’s state examination ranking list.” The so-called elite schools of larger cities are
usually the highest ranked. Although experts argue that a ranking based on state examinations is not a
true indicator of a school’s quality (given that student performance is often influenced by circumstances
outside an individual school’s control), parents still use the ranking list as an important selection criterion
for choosing a school. However, fewer and fewer upper secondary schools are invested in these rankings

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 75

in any case, as research from other countries has shown negative effects of external exit exams. These
include an excessive focus on test preparation, narrowing of the curriculum, taking repeated practice tests,
training students to answer specific questions expected to be on the exam, and allocating more resources
to the tested subjects (OECD 2015, 148).

In order to provide broader information about school quality, the Estonian government conducts a survey
on satisfaction with the school environment (see also Chapter 2). Schools or local municipalities used to
carry out similar satisfaction surveys, but these did not provide comparable information (Lukk et al 2016).
Since 2017, national surveys have been used to record how students, teachers and parents feel about their
school’s social and physical environment. Feedback from the survey is intended to help individual schools
with planning and development but is also useful for local governments (Põld 2019).

In an effort to further broaden measures of school quality, the Ministry of Education and Research has
developed a performance indicator to characterize each school’s added value to upper secondary school
learning outcomes. Since 2016, factors under school control such as the education program, teaching
methods, study materials and selection of personnel, have been factored into this indicator. Consideration
is also given to factors beyond the school’s control, such as the knowledge and skills of the students when
they entered secondary school, the earlier knowledge of the students, their age and gender, the size of the
school, the choice of language of study, and the capability of the local government, as well as other
location-related aspects. The Ministry plans to create similar indicators for evaluating the contribution of
basic schools to learning outcomes. The data characterizing the contribution of upper secondary schools
show that the Estonian education system is fundamentally good and that the differences between schools
in supporting the development of students are rather small. The starting level of students has a great
impact on learning outcomes, while the generally equal opportunities in acquiring education among
students of different genders, in schools of different sizes, and in regions with different opportunities have
a small impact in the assessment of contribution (Ministry of Education and Research 2016).

Appreciation of Students’ Broader Capabilities

The Estonian education system also includes various ways besides grades for students to demonstrate their
abilities and receive recognition. These opportunities were initially developed mainly for gifted or talented
students, but more recently new formats have emerged, such as the incubation of student business or
vocational competitions, that allow a broader range of students to participate and demonstrate practical
skills and teamwork.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 76

Students can test themselves, show their knowledge and skills, expand their networks and discover new
opportunities at subject-specific competitions called Olympiads. Estonia holds Olympiads in diverse
subjects (e.g., biology, languages, mathematics) as well as general competitions of learning skills where the
main emphasis is on identifying and using relevant information. Olympiads are a long-standing
tradition—the first Olympiad in exact sciences was held in Estonia in the academic year of 1953/54. In
addition to the traditional Olympiads (biology since 1961, geography since 1966, languages and
informatics since 1988), new Olympiads have been introduced more recently, including the personal,
social and health education Olympiad in 2011, and the art Olympiad in 2013 (School of Exact Sciences of
the University of Tartu, n.d.). Today, the School of Exact Sciences of the University of Tartu organizes
national and international Olympiads held in Estonia and arranges for the participation of Estonian
students in competitions abroad. The Estonian Olympiad system consists of multiple-round Olympiads
and open subject-specific competitions. Olympiads are held in Estonia in about twenty subjects, both in
sciences and humanities. Olympiads are organized by universities and academic associations (e.g., the
Personal, Social and Health Education Association, the Society for Education through Art, etc.) (School of
Exact Sciences of the University of Tartu, n.d.). Since 1992, when Estonia started participating in global
Olympiads, Estonian students have achieved very good results, bringing home medals every year.
Universities may take the results of Olympiads into account upon admission and give advantages to
applicants who performed well. In addition to the Olympiads, the Estonian Research Council holds the
Estonian National Contests of Young Scientists and Young Inventors for students (Estonian Research
Council 2020).

Vocational students can test the accuracy and speed of their theoretical and practical skills at vocational
competitions. For spectators, the competitions offer a chance to see young professionals from different
schools working in a variety of professions. Employers can also scout potential future employees. Innove
has organized vocational competitions for young professionals in Estonia since 2006. Over 20
competitions are held at the Young Professional skills festival. Young people can also take part in the
international competitions EuroSkills and Worldskills (Innove 2020b).

Through the Estonian business studies program Junior Achievement Estonia, students can showcase their
entrepreneurial skills in student companies (for upper secondary students) and mini companies (for basic
school students). These companies are led by an instructor who has completed training and is certified to
teach in the program. In a student company, at least three students work for one school year. Each spring,
the best Estonian student company is chosen to represent Estonia at the European student company
competition (Junior Achievement Eesti 2020). Both competitions are covered in local and national media.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 77

New Approaches to Monitoring Schools

Reconceptualizing the External Evaluation of Learning Outcomes

As part of the Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020, the role and tasks of the Estonian external evaluation
system have been reconceptualized. In countries with high levels of school autonomy, external evaluation
generally focuses on assessment of student learning outcomes (OECD 2015) and that is what Estonia is
designing its system to do (Ministry of Education and Research 2015). Thus, the current aim of the
external evaluation is to give students, parents, schools, administrators and the government the most
objective and comparable feedback possible on student achievement of the learning outcomes in national
curricula, as well as on the effectiveness of different schools in helping students achieve these outcomes.
Evaluation feedback also guides education policy making.

The national system of external evaluation includes the following parts:

• a uniform set of tests and tasks to assess the objectives of the national curriculum, prioritizing the
general competencies and the cross-curricular topics;
• uniform basic school final examinations, primarily used to inform admission to upper secondary
schools rather than determine graduation from basic school;
• state examinations at the end of upper secondary school;
• international and national surveys, which are planned in consideration of all the objective areas of
the curriculum: general competencies, subject areas, and cross-curricular topics.

Source: Ministry of Education and Research 2015

The electronic examination information system (EIS) has improved the efficiency of all parts of the
external examination system. EIS conducts and administers tests; assesses tests electronically; provides
feedback on performance; displays assessed tests for teachers/students; and provides access to and stores
electronic tasks in a bank which teachers and students can access. In addition to its usefulness for students,
teachers and parents, it is also useful to organizers of state examinations and basic school final
examinations. EIS public data is generalized, or anonymized (Innove 2020a).

External examinations have also been redesigned to better support school principals and teachers in
making decisions necessary to achieve the objectives of the national curriculum. For example, an
increasing number of indicators used to assess the efficiency of schools now focus on teaching and
learning, and more mechanisms are underway to allow schools to compare themselves with other schools.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 78

External assessment is also used to identify and commend progressive and efficient educators. “Estonia
Learns and Thanks” recognizes educators for outstanding innovative activities in ten categories. See
Chapter 2 for more information about school evaluation and monitoring.

Assessment Is Combined with Monitoring

The achievement of the objectives of the national curriculum is assessed using low-stakes tests, or
standard-determining tests. The state now sees these tests as serving a dual purpose: informing the
Ministry about student achievement across the county and also evaluating literacy skills of individual
students to help teachers better target their teaching (Ministry of Education and Research 2020e).

In light of this additional purpose, standard-determining tests are now held in the autumn semester
instead of the spring, so that teachers can gather information about what their students know at the start
of the school year. Students, teachers and parents are informed they do not need to study or otherwise
prepare for standard-determining tests. The tests give feedback to help students identify areas of academic
strength and weakness. For instance, the feedback for the test in nature studies provides an overview of the
levels achieved by the student (basic, medium, high and top levels) with recommendations in four areas:
knowledge, analysis skills, planning skills and interpretation skills. If necessary, the teacher may
“annotate” the feedback sheets to help the student interpret the results. For example, a teacher might use
the terms “skilled,” “familiar” or “study more,” for each of the assessed topics (computation, geometric
shapes, measurement, and word problems) on the standard-determining test in math.

The national tests are combined with additional data to support decision-making at both the national and
school level on how to better support learning. Since 2015, background surveys of students and their
teachers have been conducted alongside the basic school final examinations. The surveys aim to
determine how a school’s learning environment relates to the learning outcomes of students and to
provide individual feedback to subject teachers concerning their 9th grade students (Põld 2019). The
background surveys are administered to students in the final year of basic school and to their subject
teachers in mathematics, Estonian language, and Estonian as a second language. The surveys give
teachers information about whether their class activities support learning outcomes. The survey feedback
helps teachers compare their teaching methods and student examination results with the other teachers
and students in the country (Innove 2020c).

Teachers consider the feedback useful and report they have used information from previous surveys to
analyze and organize their work (Põld 2019). An analysis of the results of final examinations gives schools

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 79

feedback on the efficiency of their programs of study and the contribution of the school. The Ministry of
Education and Research receives an analysis of grade 9 learning outcomes across the nation, as well as the
contribution of individual schools to the progress of students. Proposals for updating study methodology
and study literature and amending the national curriculum based on this analysis are also presented.

Alternative Assessment Strategies

Variety in Assessment Methods and Tools

Many Estonian schools have long required student research and practical projects. Students at schools
where study areas include art, music, economics and others have the most experience in preparing and
defending practical projects. Research projects have become a tradition at many schools, as they foster the
ability of students to identify and seek solutions to complex problems (Soll 2011).

At the end of basic school, students carry out a creative project based on a cross-curricular topic or one
that integrates subjects they have studied; the completion of the creative project is a requirement for
graduation from basic school. The creative project may be a survey, a research study, an invention, a
work of art, a performance, a video, or a piece of music (Raudsepp 2019, The Basic Schools and Upper
Secondary Schools Act 2010, the National Curriculum for Upper Secondary Schools 2011). There are no
detailed assessment criteria for creative projects at the national level; schools decide how to assess these
projects.

In order to set up students for success, the Estonian Research Council recommends that every school
should have a creative project coordinator to organize work and oversee the completion of all the creative
projects and research papers. The coordinator bears general responsibility for the work process and
develops the school’s guidelines, gathers topics for creative projects and research papers, is familiar with
previous projects and papers, and counsels, supports and trains students. The Estonian Research Council
assists school coordinators across the country to promote best practices, share students’ research papers as
examples and assist schools in developing guidelines. Still, schools have had various issues in preparing
research papers. For instance, identifying suitable and reasonable topics has been challenging, as has
hiring enough instructors with the necessary competencies for supervising research papers. There is also
some concern that schools have paid too much attention to the formal presentation style of the papers, as
opposed to their content (Väljataga 2018).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 80

 Box 8. Example of School Guidelines for the Assessment of Creative Projects

At Tartu Hansa School, grading of creative projects is weighted as follows:

1. Process (20%)
2. Content of work (40%)
3. Format of the work (20%)
4. Creative work defense meeting (20%)

Work process is graded by the advisor and includes:

1. Sticking to the schedule: Work stages and parts were finished on schedule.
Deviations were caused by objective reasons. Student presented the work on time
for the creative work defense meeting.
2. Student motivation: Student cared for the creative work, was in contact
continuously with the advisor, and took the recommendations of the advisor into
consideration.
3. Advisors’ assessment of the creative work: Work was fully compliant with demands.
4. Student growth in the work process: Student learned new work methods, skills and
knowledge. Student’s work skills have increased and confidence grown.

Source: Tartu Hansa School

In addition to subject knowledge, students’ behavior and commitment to learning are also assessed
formatively. For example, at the end of a term of study, a school might gather expert evaluations from all
teachers and make decisions collaboratively. These assessments usually include feedback on student
learning outcomes, motivation and social skills (Aksen, Jürimäe et al., 2018).

Since 2011, schools have been required to hold development interviews with students, teachers and
parents once per school year to plan future studies and set development objectives for the student (Riigi
Teataja 2010a). Organized entirely at the school level, development interviews give teachers the
opportunity to explain their assessments, highlight areas for more work, and plan further steps in
cooperation with the student and the parent (Aksen, Jürimäe et al., 2018). Schools share information with
parents about grades, absences, class assignments and homework via an electronic information system.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 81

In some cases, parents have resisted alternative forms of grading. This is usually the case when parents feel
that numerical grades are clearer than descriptive feedback they may receive about their child’s progress.
However, such resistance tends to fade over time as parents get used to the alternative approaches (Aksen,
Jürimäe et al., 2018). For students, numerical grades are still thought to be clearer and more meaningful
than descriptive feedback (Aksen, Jürimäe et al., 2018).

A Standards Framework Provides Clear Pathways

All academic and vocational schools in Estonia align their programs to the Estonian Qualifications
Framework (Figure 5, below), which is identical to the European Qualifications Framework (2008). The
framework includes qualifications awarded by institutions in the formal education system (general
education qualifications, vocational qualifications and higher education qualifications) as well as
vocational qualifications awarded by nationally recognized organizations (professional associations, etc.)
that award professional degrees (National Qualification Authority 2016).

Figure 5. Estonian Qualifications Framework

In 2005, Estonia began its effort to link its 5-level vocational Qualifications Framework to the framework
created in Europe. Major employer and employee organizations, the Estonian Chamber of Commerce
and Industry, the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Ministry of Economy and Communications
contributed to the development of a new, 8-level Estonian Qualifications Framework, which was
established by the Professions Act of 2008. The Estonian general education system has four types of
qualifications that are part of this framework:

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 82

 • the basic school graduation certificate
• the basic school graduation certificate under the simplified curriculum
• the basic school graduation certificate under the curriculum for students with moderate learning
difficulties (see earlier in Chapter 3)
• the upper secondary school graduation certificate.

The basic school graduation certificate notes which of the three basic curricula the student followed, as
the differences in the level of studies are significant.

Basic school education is the prescribed minimum level of general education in Estonia; once completed,
the student is entitled to pursue secondary education (Riigi Teataja 2010a).

Everyone has an equal right to compete for admission to upper secondary school. Although all students
take basic school final examinations, nearly half of upper secondary schools also hold admission tests as a
way of differentiating candidates according to criteria specific to their school curriculum. Admission
criteria must be objective and transparent (Riigi Teataja 2010a).

The upper secondary school final examinations fulfil two functions: graduation from upper secondary
school and admission to a higher education institution. After the introduction of state examinations in
1997, universities accepted them as a replacement for admission examinations; the 2001 OECD report
confirmed a correlation between the results of state examinations and the learning outcomes of the first
year at a university. The importance of state examinations in admission to higher education institutions
has varied over time. Universities have tried various admission procedures, particularly in specialized
fields with tight competition (e.g., law, economics, etc.), admitting students solely based on their state
examinations rankings, or, alternatively, admitting all students who passed a threshold on certain state
examinations. The competitiveness of admissions varies by study program and according to changes in
demographics. As low graduation rates have become a problem in higher education, universities have put
in place admission examinations to allow selection of candidates motivated to study in the specific area of
specialization. Thus, the importance of state examinations in admission to higher education has decreased
in recent years.

A student’s previous studies or related experience (such as education obtained abroad, work experience,
participation in hobby groups or sports schools, or independent studies) can also be considered part of
their general education if the parent and a school representative agree that these experiences contribute to
learning outcomes in the school’s curriculum. It is interesting to note that the student is not consulted

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 83

during this process, although the national curriculum for basic schools expects learners to be independent
in making their life decisions (National Qualification Authority 2016).

Achieving alignment with the European Qualifications Framework was most time-consuming in
vocational education. The assessment system previously used in vocational studies was not in line with the
outcomes-based approach of the new Framework, as students who completed courses were issued a
certificate which confirmed course participation in the achieved grade but did not confirm formal
qualification (OECD 2001). Since 2013, the graduates of vocational studies receive a final graduation
document aligned with the European Qualifications Framework (Standard of Vocational Education
2013). The Framework professional standards serve as benchmarks to align a particular vocational
curriculum to a level (from 2 to 5) in the Framework. Level 5 vocational training, also known as
specialized vocational training, was established in Estonia during the 2013-2014 academic year; there was
no equivalent level of vocational training available previously. The learning outcomes of all types of
vocational training, meaning the knowledge, skills and attitudes mastered during the course study, have
been described in the Vocational Education Standard.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 84

 1
5
Teachers and Learning Resources

This chapter gives an overview of the preparation and continuous professional development of Estonian
teachers, including which learning materials are available for teachers and how the educational system is
supported by other sectors.

Main Messages:

• Teachers are held to high standards. Teacher education in Estonia has been consolidated
and is centered in the two research universities. Teacher educators work closely with schools.
Teaching has high professional standards.
• Professional development is responsive to changes in the education system and
larger society. The content of professional learning is determined at the school level. Schools are
free to arrange both the content and format of in-service training. Universities are the main
providers of in-service training.
• Teachers have autonomy in their work. Teachers design the content of their classroom
studies based on the national framework curriculum. Schools and teachers are free to choose their
own learning methods and materials. The trend is to create and use digital learning materials and
environments.
• Policies to support teaching are regularly monitored and improvements are
strategically planned. Teacher education programs are externally evaluated and updated
regularly based on research results. National strategies are designed to systematically support
professional development.
• A variety of resources is used to improve teaching. Third parties and the private sector are
involved in attracting newcomers to teaching. Digitalization of learning is supported by both the
government and the private sector.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 85

High Standards for Teachers

Estonian Teachers Are Well-Educated Professionals

Approximately 50 percent of Estonian teachers were educated during the Soviet era. They were trained to
a high academic standard, with a strong subject knowledge base.

Today, teacher education is centered at two research universities: Tallinn University and the University of
Tartu. (Art, music and vocational education teacher preparation is arranged in collaboration with the
Estonian Academy of Art, Estonian Music Academy and Tallinn University of Technology.) The most
significant changes to the teacher education framework related to higher education reforms were based on
the 2002 Bologna process in Europe, which created the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). Sixty
ECTS are equivalent to one full year of studies. The 3 (bachelor, 180 ECTS) +2 (master, 120 ECTS)
curricular system was launched in 2006 in Estonia. Table 14 below gives an overview of the national
requirements for teacher education by school type and level.

Table 14. National Requirements for Teacher Education by Educational Level

Educational level Teacher type/education programs

Kindergarten, preschool Preschool teacher (3-years bachelor’s education)

Class teacher in primary school (integrated 5-years master’s education with

Basic school: primary school education as a major)

(grades 1-6), and lower Subject teacher in lower secondary school (3-years bachelor’s education with
secondary (grades 7-9) subject or pedagogy as a major, continued with 2-years master’s education with
pedagogy as a major)

Subject teacher in upper secondary school (3-years bachelor’s education with

Upper secondary school
subject or pedagogy as a major, continued with 2-years master’s education with
(grades 10-12)
pedagogy as a major)

Subject teacher in vocational education has similar preparation as for teacher in

upper secondary level (3-years bachelor’s education with subject or pedagogy as

Vocational school a major, continued with 2- years master’s education with pedagogy as a major)

Vocational education teacher (3-years bachelor’s education with pedagogy as a

major)

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 86

Kindergarten and vocational education teachers are prepared at the bachelor level. Preschool and
kindergarten teachers must have a bachelor’s degree (180 ECTS) with pedagogy as a major; however,
many teachers at this level continue on to achieve master’s degrees. Vocational education teachers usually
first acquire a degree in an occupational specialization from a university, a higher education institute, or a
vocational school. In order to acquire a vocational education teacher’s qualification, they return to
university and get a bachelor’s degree (180 ECTS) with pedagogy as a major.

Class teachers and secondary subject teachers are prepared at the master level. Estonian universities
follow two initial teacher education models: Class teachers at the primary level enroll in a 5-year (300
ECTS) integrated bachelor’s and master’s program, in which subject and pedagogical studies take place
concurrently. Class teachers get a master’s degree with pedagogy as a major that qualifies them to work in
grades 1 to 6. Secondary subject teachers first complete a bachelor level program in a subject area and
then follow this with a master’s program in pedagogy. An alternative model for secondary subject teachers
is to complete a bachelor level program in pedagogy with two subject minors before a master’s program in
pedagogy.

The Estonian Teacher Training Strategy for 2009-2013 states: “Universities will establish initial education
curricula by branches of study so that students can gain a qualification that allows them to teach several
subjects in schools (at least two subjects from all curricula for teachers in comprehensive schools) and to
start studying pedagogy immediately [upon entering] higher education.” This emphasis on multiple
subject qualification led to the development of the alternative study path described above. There were at
least three reasons why the concurrent model (integrated subject and pedagogical studies) was introduced.
First, research on teacher education has shown that students who pursue only subject related studies at the
bachelor level are more likely to lose motivation to become a teacher, while those who pursue integrated
pedagogical and subject studies develop a “teacher’s identity” (Löfström et al 2010). Second, teachers who
study at least two subjects are more prepared to integrate subjects when they teach. And finally, an
alternative path to teaching helps address the issue of shortage of subject teachers in small rural schools,
where teachers qualified in only one subject might not have enough lessons for a full workload.

In addition, there is a growing population of teachers in Estonia—approximately 50 percent of the

current total workforce—who teach full time and study at the university simultaneously. The reason for
this is simple: a lack of teachers. As a remedy, schools have begun collaborating with universities, offering
students teaching positions when they enter their teacher-training programs and providing them with
mentors and on-the-job training. In turn, the universities work to tailor their programs to fit the needs and
interests of working students.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 87

Since 2000, Estonia has outlined general requirements for teacher education at all levels, preschool
through higher education. These requirements are for the initial education period, induction period and
in-service training. According to the Framework Guidelines for Teacher Education (2019), teacher education for
all school levels consists of four parts: (1) general studies; (2) subject studies; (3) general studies in
educational science, psychological and didactic studies and practical training (pedagogical studies); (4)
educational research work or final exam in pedagogy. General studies focus on the development of the
teacher’s overall cultural, communicative, and social competencies, including foreign languages and ICT
skills. Subject studies aim to provide subject knowledge based on requirements for different educational
levels and a systemic understanding of the human being, the surrounding environment and society.
Pedagogical studies should aim to acquire competencies described in the teacher’s professional standard,
should be at least 60 ECTS, and should include general educational science, psychology, didactic studies,
educational research methods and practical training. Practical training should be at least 10 ECTS.

In 2016, Tallinn University updated its 2-year master’s level subject teacher education curriculum to
better integrate theoretical and practical studies in teacher education. The university developed integrated
practice tasks that incorporated knowledge and skills learned both in the subject-specific “Didactics”
courses and the educational sciences and psychology courses (see Figure 6, next pagge). This means that
student teachers carry out practice tasks related to themes in their coursework. When in schools, they
observe experienced teachers at work (e.g., designing their lesson or giving feedback to students) then co-
teach with these teachers and eventually move on to independent teaching.

Theoretical knowledge and practice are also closely linked in initial teacher education at the University of
Tartu. The practice requirement at both universities is much greater than the national requirement, and
the practical component is closely related to coursework. Practical tasks are organized so that student
teachers can observe and analyze authentic teaching and learning situations throughout their studies.
During the second half of the teacher training program, student teachers teach independently under the
supervision of an experienced teacher.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 88

 Figure 6. Components of Subject Teacher Education Professional Studies
at Tallinn University

Source: Tallin University

Strong Research Basis of Teacher Education

As with other academics, teacher educators are expected to conduct research. They work closely with
schools on research projects. While teacher education programs have long included a research
component, it wasn’t until 2019 that research skills became a requirement for new teachers. The new
policy required graduation examinations or final theses to include an educational research project, with
the goal of enabling future teachers to make evidence-based decisions in the classroom (Ministry of
Education and Science, 2019b). However, in line with long-standing university research traditions, some
of these master’s theses remain subject-oriented, with only a limited pedagogical component.

The 2004 version of this policy act set out the requirements for teacher educators. In that year, a policy
established standards for teacher educators in universities that included both a requirement to do research
and a requirement to have practical experience. It included the following provisions: (1) The same
requirements established for all academic staff in higher education would now apply to teacher educators,
meaning that any person in a position higher than junior lecturer must have a doctoral degree and must

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 89

carry out research; (2) academic staff teaching subject content should have at least three years of teaching
experience; (3) academic staff who teach pedagogy-related subjects including didactics shall
teach/practice at least 100 hours every three years at education institutions outside of the university.

The two universities that offer teacher training both developed strong research groups that focus on key
aspects of the education system, such as child development, general competencies, professional
development for teachers, curriculum studies, learning analytics and educational technology. For
example, recent research from the University of Tartu’s Institute of Education addresses phases of
inquiry-based learning, students’ metacognition, and interconnection between teaching practices and
student achievement. The institute’s staff has participated in international development projects focusing
on web-based inquiry learning environments and learning analytics in e-assessment (e.g., Go-Lab, Ark of
Inquiry, WatchMe) (University of Tartu Institute of Education n.d.).

Tallinn University established the Center of Excellence in Educational Innovation to develop an

interdisciplinary research field focused on innovative and evidence-based teacher education, school
management and educational policy. A recently created international research group focuses on the next
generation of digital learning environments and resources and new ICT-based methods for promoting
learning analytics. The Center views educational innovation from a broader perspective. It addresses the
need to create a scientific base for the development of a new learning and teaching culture and to ensure
it is fully integrated into the Estonian education system (School Educational Sciences n.d.).

To develop practical applications of education research, both universities open Centers for Innovation in
Education (CIE). The priorities of the Center for Innovation at Tallinn University are to

• Create and support networks for cooperation between researchers, teachers and student teachers.
• Create, manage, and develop contemporary open-learning environments and interactive
classrooms.
• Launch and implement scientific and developmental projects related to lifelong learning.
• Develop and elaborate innovative curricula and modules (pre- and continuous teacher training).
• Develop and implement innovative teaching methods (including learning materials, technologies,
and forms of training).
• Consult with students, teachers, and lecturers in all fields, and develop training accordingly.
• Include foreign lecturers, scientists and doctoral students in the activities of the Center.
• Systematize the formation of teachers´ professional identity and contribute to creating a
recognizable and respected teachers’ professional identity within the field.
Source: Center for Innovation in Tallinn University n.d.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 90

Teachers’ Professional Standards Set High Expectations for Their Work Content

The relatively short teaching time in Estonia compared to other countries reflects the efficient use of time
spent in class. Students in primary and lower secondary school spend 6,431 teaching/learning hours in
class compared with the OECD average of 7,590 hours (Education at a Glance 2019). A full workload for
teachers is 35 hours per week, of which 18-24 hours are allocated for direct teaching. Estonian teachers
report that they spend about 86 percent of class time on teaching and learning (as opposed to classroom
management and discipline) compared to an OECD average of 78 percent. Estonia ranks second highest
of those countries participating in the Teaching and Learning International Survey on this measure
(OECD 2019b, OECD 2019e).

Estonia developed its first professional standards for teachers in 2005. The standards describe the
professional activities, skills, knowledge, attitudes and competencies required to be a successful
professional educator and require university teaching programs to be aligned with those standards
(Estonian Qualifications Authority 2019).

The Estonian Qualifications Authority defines professional qualification standards as providing:

• A basis for compiling curricula and training programs which meet the requirements of the labor
market.
• A basis for assessing competence.
• A tool to help employers recruit employees, write job descriptions, define employment
requirements, plan training, and decide on promotion.
• A tool to help employees assess their current skills and deficits, plan for their careers, and pursue
lifelong learning.
• A tool for trainers, learners, parents, advisors and other stakeholders to use to gather information
and intelligence on labor market trends.
• The basis for comparing occupational qualifications certificates internationally.

Source: Estonian Qualifications Authority (2019)

The teacher professional standards are used 1) to design initial and continuing teacher education
programs; 2) as a framework for teachers’ self-evaluation and feedback; 3) to plan content and funding for
teachers’ professional development at the school and state level.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 91

Since Estonia became an EU member in 2004, its education system has been increasingly influenced by
European frameworks and policies. For example, the EU’s vision of a European teaching profession,
outlined in the 2005 publication “The Common European Principles for Teacher Competencies and
Qualifications,” strongly influenced Estonian discussions about a teachers’ competency model. The
European document described the teacher as a reflective practitioner and lifelong learner and articulated
the need for standards to serve as a framework for teachers to pursue professional development and
improve their practice. The standards must also serve the external function of certification to guarantee
professional competence and quality. Close collaboration at the EU level influenced Estonia’s first version
of its teachers’ competence model. It focused on:

• Instructional competencies: planning and management of learning processes, creating the learning
environment, guiding learning processes, analysis and assessment of learners’ development;
• Interpersonal competencies: communication and cooperation skills to support learners’
motivation;
• Professional development and self-analysis.

The first competence model was used mainly to support new teachers enrolled in induction. In 2013, the
framework was revised to set out standards for three levels of teachers: teacher, senior teacher, and master
teacher. This was done to ensure that teacher competencies are developed gradually throughout a
teacher’s career.

Estonia launched its current teacher’s professional standard in 2019. It states that the main role of a
teacher is to empower the learner and to be his/her development partner so that meaningful learning can
take place. Taking into account the goals of the national curricula, teacher and student chart a learning
path to open up the learner’s potential. Teachers should systematically develop their professional skills
and stay informed about educational innovations (Occupational Qualification Standard 2019). The
standard highlights six compulsory areas of competency:

1. Supporting the learner – teacher is aware of the foundations and cultural specialties of the
physical, cognitive, emotional and social development of the learner, finds out the level of the
subject-related knowledge, study skills and learning motivation of the group and the learner and
takes these into account when setting (subject field, pedagogical and educational) study goals,
recognizes the learners’ need for support and their individual study needs, supports the
development of social and collaborative skills.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 92

 2. Planning of learning and teaching activities – teacher sets short- and long-term learning
goals based on learner(s), chooses content and plans activities, considering the curriculum, chooses
from learning materials the suitable one matching the learning goals and the level of learners and
group, shapes the physically, spiritually and emotionally secure collaborative study environment
supporting wellbeing.
3. Teaching – teacher notices and recognizes learners’ different interests, abilities, and needs;
creates consciously a caring, bullying-free and collaborative atmosphere, teaches following the
learner’s specific needs, sets goals, learning outcomes and cross-subject integration, supports the
development of core competencies and the formation of the self-managing learner, guides students
to apply digital technologies, systematically applies different methods, including digital
technologies, for feedback and evaluation which support learning.
4. Reflection and professional development – teacher reflects on his/her own work, including
analyzing the effects of teaching using different methods, participates in study communities and
includes colleagues in professional development aims, analyzes and interprets the results of
educational research and applies them in his/her work; conducts action research on class/group
level, follows, evaluates and values own physical, mental and emotional health.
5. Collaboration and supervision – teacher creates a trustworthy relationship with the learner
and parents, gives feedback about learner progress to learner and parents, acts as a team member
in a learning community.
6. Development, creative and research activities – teacher participates in learning
communities and collaboration networks in developing the knowledge of the study field;
participates in the development of the organization.

The updated model differs from previous ones by putting more emphasis on the teacher’s role in creating
a learning environment supporting students’ wellbeing; analyzing students’ individual needs; and working
with students of diverse abilities, including making adjustments for students with special needs.

The main benefit of teacher standards has been a shared set of expectations among different actors:
teachers, teacher educators, school heads, and parents. Shared expectations around teacher performance
have been especially important for entry into the profession and ongoing development of beginning
teachers (Pedaste et al, 2019). Teacher standards have also had a strong impact on the development and
evaluation of the teacher education curricula (Leijen and Pedaste, 2018) as universities continuously
improve teacher education programs according to renewed standards.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 93

Responsiveness of Teacher Professional Development to the Changes in the System and
Society

Teachers’ Professional Development Is a Part of Teachers’ Professionalism

The Estonian education system supports continuous professional development for teachers, consisting of
initial teacher education, induction year, and lifelong in-service education (see Figure 7, below).

Figure 7. Continuity in Teachers’ Professional Development – Three Phases in Teacher

Education

Source: Framework Guidelines for Teacher Education 2000

The Estonian induction model has two parts: 1) learning and development at schools with mentor
support, and 2) a two-day, quarterly peer meeting during the school breaks at the universities. This
approach is unique because of the integration of the two types of mentoring: one-to-one mentoring at
school and peer-group mentoring at the universities. The universities organized support seminars for
beginning teachers in order to 1) help teacher education institutions understand the problems beginning
teachers face and get feedback about the quality of initial education; 2) discuss problems with their mentor
that beginning teachers find uncomfortable to discuss at school; 3) support the development of teachers’
reflection skills; 4) allow beginning teachers to share their successes and failures at the group sessions and
seek solutions together (Eisenschmidt 2006). The university support seminars create a bridge and
continuity between initial education and continuing professional development.

Current regulation states that the aim of in-service teacher education is to create opportunities for
teachers’ self-reflection and professional development, and to develop an inspiring and innovative attitude
through which they can make the best use of the knowledge and skills acquired in their work to support
learner development. The basis for planning and conducting in-service teacher education is 1) the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 94

competence requirements described in the professional standards; 2) the teacher's self-reflection and
feedback on his or her work; 3) the needs of the teacher's own professional development and the
development aims of the educational institution and national educational priorities (Ministry of Education
and Science 2019b).

Teachers' professional development focuses on quality and content instead of a mandatory amount of
training hours or days. The foundation for systematic professional development began in 1998 when
Estonia began to regulate types of training programs (including quality indicators) as well as to register
approved providers of specific programs in the national databases. The new regulations allowed in-service
training providers to be universities, and/or other public and private institutions.

At the same time, Conditions and Regulations for the Certification of Educational Personnel (1998)
established four levels of professional qualifications for teachers: junior teacher, teacher, senior teacher
and teacher-methodologist. These titles corresponded to salary levels but the pay differences among them
were small. This act also stated that teachers should attend at least 160 hours of in-service training every
five years. Every school was to use 3 percent of its budget for teachers’ salaries to cover the costs of in-
service training.

In 2013, the four-level career ladder was replaced with three levels of professional standards: teacher,
senior teacher, and master teacher. The responsibility for improving practice and creating support
mechanisms and professional growth opportunities for teachers moved to the schools. There are no longer
requirements for teachers to complete a specific number of hours of training, and as teacher salaries are
no longer nationally regulated, it is up to the schools to determine their own salary system and bonus or
appraisal mechanisms.

Schools Determine Teacher Professional Learning Needs

In-service training is an essential component of school development. Most schools draft teacher training
plans as part of their overall school development plans. Such plans include collaborative in-school training
opportunities for teachers or groups of teachers. The trend is for schools to support collaboration and
teamwork, with groups of teachers observing each other’s teaching and providing feedback. However,
individual teachers are also offered opportunities to attend external courses based on their specific training
needs.

Although schools are free to determine the content and format of teachers’ in-service training, the
Ministry of Education and Research offers guidance at the national level, most recently through the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 95

national program, “Teachers and School Heads Training Program for 2015−2018” (Ministry of
Education and Research, 2014a). Under this program, teachers establish continuing education goals
during a development interview with the principal. The principal then determines what types of in-service
training the school will offer. Most courses are financed from the school budget, with some important
exceptions funded by the government. For example, to meet Estonia’s strategic goal of improving
teachers' digital skills, around 3,000 teachers each year participate in in-service training organized and
paid for by the Information Technology Foundation for Education. Since August 2020, these trainings
function under the Estonian Education and Youth Board (Harno).

In addition to training at the school and national level, bigger municipalities arrange courses on specific
topics and invite teachers from different schools to participate.

Universities Are the Main Providers of In-Service Training for Teachers

In-service training is a free market, and many private and non-profit organizations offer courses.
However, universities are the main providers, offering continuity from initial education to career-long
learning. Educational innovation centers have been Established at universities, where ongoing research
informs in-service courses for teachers and school development programs. Universities also offer programs
designed to support teacher networks, where educators can learn from each other and share materials.

For example, Tallinn University’s goal for in-service education is to implement collaborative, evidence-
based programs to develop schools and school teams as learning communities. The university’s in-service
training initiative, “Teacher Innovation Lab,” organizes learning sessions at the university. During these
sessions, teachers develop teaching practices in subject/topic-based learning communities, pilot new
solutions in their classrooms, and then analyze and share their experiences with the teacher innovation lab
learning community. University researchers support the implementation of evidence-based practices. The
Lab systematically collects data to understand the impact of this approach and to plan evidence-based
improvements in the program.

One of the most important focuses for in-service education currently is how to assess and diagnose student
learning, differentiate learning according to each student’s needs, and support students with specific
learning difficulties. Another current focus is how to develop general competencies such as learning to
learn, social-emotional competencies, and digital competencies. Teachers get introductory training and
materials to use for planning lessons. As they implement these lessons, teachers attend workshops where
they share questions and reflect on the experiences.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 96

Teachers’ Autonomy in Their Work

Autonomy to Decide How to Teach

Within the context of Estonia’s national framework curriculum, teachers design their own course content
and choose their own teaching and assessment methods. This is not to say teachers must start from
scratch; tools and learning materials developed at the national level are readily available (see more on this
in chapter 4).

Teachers in basic school meet as a group to agree on the school curriculum and determine how the
school’s course of study should be organized. The integration of studies is a major focus of the national
curriculum for basic education. Teachers can approach this goal collaboratively through common
thematic emphases on subjects, school projects and cross-curricular topics, and study assignments and
methods. As a group, they can also specify competencies, set learning objectives and determine common
problems and terminology for various subjects (Riigi Teataja 2011a).

At the upper-secondary level, teachers may organize learning in different ways: all subjects may be
learned throughout the academic year, or certain subjects may be taught at certain times; they may
organize studies by theme or topic rather than as conventional subject lessons. This flexibility allows
schools to develop their own practices and create innovative approaches.

In 2013, the Ministry of Education and Research established the "Huvitav Kool" (Interesting School)
initiative, which encourages schools, NGOs, and other educational institutions to share their approaches
and build networks to disseminate best practices. The initiative has four key priorities:

• Community involvement – how schools work with communities and use resources and involve
other institutions in the teaching process,
• Professional teachers – how schools organize teachers’ learning and foster collaboration,
• Optimal curricula – how schools develop their curriculum and integrate subjects to reduce
students’ workload, and
• Supportive external evaluation processes – how schools analyze and evaluate students’ learning
progress.

Source: Ministry of Education and Research, see: www.huvitavkool.ee

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 97

During the current period (2020-2025), the initiative is focused on the integration of formal and informal
learning, parental education and responsibility for child development, the transition from kindergarten to
school, and development of supportive school culture.

Autonomy to Design and Choose Learning Materials

Estonian teachers choose their own teaching materials, often making collective decisions about the most
appropriate materials for particular subjects. The learning materials (e.g. textbooks, workbooks, exercise-
books and worksheets) required for completion of the curriculum (Riigi Teataja 2010a) are free for all
students. Teachers are also free to choose or create additional materials. Some secondary school elective
courses do not have coursebooks at all. In those cases, teachers compile course materials using online and
other learning resources.

In general, education publishers in Estonia meet a high standard for their materials. They hire
experienced teachers and university lecturers to create learning materials, many of whom are active
members of their subject associations and contributors to the national curriculum. Publication of learning
materials is self-regulated by a free market in Estonia, although it is limited to only a few major publishers
due to limited demand for Estonian language materials. In order to assure quality and curricular
alignment, new materials are reviewed by two experts: a teacher with at least five years of teaching
experience (including three years at school level for which the study materials are designed) and a
university lecturer or researcher in a relevant field.

Publishers market their materials directly to teachers, offering in-service training free of charge or sending
free copies of coursebooks to schools to be tested. The competition between publishing houses has been
fierce since Estonia regained its independence at the beginning of the nineties. However, recently the
situation has become more stable, and now there are a few publishing houses that offer study materials for
all general education subjects (e.g., Avita, since 1988, and Koolibri, since 1991), as well as those which
specialize in certain subjects or school levels (e.g., Skriibus, for preschool and primary levels, Maurus,
Studium, which offers additional study materials for students with special educational needs, and Argo,
primarily for vocational schools). It is common for schools to use materials provided by different
publishing houses.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 98

Digital Materials

The Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 (Ministry of Education and Research, Estonian
Cooperation Assembly, Estonian Education Forum 2014) defined the availability of Bring-Your-Own-
Device (BYOD)-compliant open educational resources as a key indicator of the move to digital programs
in primary and secondary education. There are several platforms which offer electronic learning materials
for teachers. The earliest, established in 2001, was the educational portal School Life (Koolielu n.d.,
available only in Estonian). The portal targeted teachers and lecturers at all levels of education and over
the years became a very popular place for teachers to gather and search for information. Due to other
new developments discussed below, the portal stopped being updated as of 2021.

Opiq (see https://www.opiq.ee/) is one of the recent private sector platforms for hosting interactive,
online digital textbooks. Opiq was developed by Avita, Estonia’s largest textbook publisher. Opiq also
hosts digital textbooks from other publishers, totaling 251 textbooks for grades from 1 to 12. In 2019, the
Ministry purchased the exclusive rights for all educational institutions at the basic school level to access
digital textbooks on the Opiq and Foxacademy platforms. The Ministry initially planned to provide this
open access for two years, with the aim to promote the use of digital materials among students and
teachers. During the first wave of COVID in spring 2020, open access was extended to upper-secondary
level materials. Students can access Opiq materials, and teachers can assign automatically scored
multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, drag-and-drop tasks as well as open-ended reflection tasks to their
students (with deadlines) and assess the results.

The main repository for general education is e-Schoolbag (in Estonian “e-Koolikott”), launched in 2016
by the Ministry of Education and Research. Currently the repository contains more than 18,700 learning
resources. These include open educational resources, resources without an open license, and some
commercial content from textbook publishers. Teachers can create collections of material which include
existing resources in the repository as well as content of their own creation. The collections can be shared
with students and other users of e-Koolikott. The opportunity to create collections encourages teachers to
upload their own resources to the repository (Laanpere and Põldoja 2020).

The availability of digital learning materials made the transition to distance learning easier during the
2020 pandemic. Statistics collected at the national level showed a notable increase in the use of e-
Schoolbag materials.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 99

Monitoring and Improvement of Teachers’ Policies

Teacher Education Programs Are Regularly Externally Evaluated and Updated Based on
Research Results and Lessons from Other Systems Around the Globe

Universities, schools and policy makers collaborate to improve the teaching process. Research carried out
by universities is used to inform teachers’ professional standards and education programs, as well as to
allocate resources for school improvement schemes.

All Estonian higher education institutes have accepted a competence/outcome-based approach to

curriculum development based on the Bologna process. The Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and
Vocational Education organizes external evaluation of higher and vocational education.

Until 2019, every five years university teacher education programs had to pass an external quality
Assessment of their Study Program Groups (similar to external accreditation). These assessments provided
recommendations, not mandates. Quality assessment looks at how well programs conform to national and
international standards, with the goal of improving the program and supporting internal evaluation and
self-development of the institution of higher education. For example, external experts noted the following
about the program groups in education at Tallinn University:

• The study programs suit the needs of the labor market and have a good reputation with their
stakeholders.
• There is a high awareness of current education debates. Members of the teaching staff have a good
overview of the latest trends and challenges in teacher training and educational sciences and
implement this knowledge in practice.
• Good opportunities have been created for interdisciplinary teaching. Tallinn University has very
good relationships with schools, which are also reflected in a good balance between theory and
practice in the study programs.
• The study programs support the educational innovation goals set for the University as a whole,
such as student-centeredness, digital learning and self-regulated deep learning.

Source: Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education

Universities tend to adopt the external recommendations for improvement when developing their
programs, e.g., provide students with more flexible models that allow them to combine school practice

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 100

and theoretical courses, reduce the teaching workload on teacher educators to allow them to focus more
on research, etc.

Since 2019, all institutional evaluation of universities has been implemented and all study programs are
part of this wider institutional evaluation, because the quality of curricula is seen as part of the university's
other processes (Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education, n.d.).

National Strategies Are Planned to Support Systematic Teachers’ Professional

Development

In Estonia, the national education strategy is designed to create shared goals for different parties: teachers,
school principals, teacher educators, and government representatives.

In the Estonian Teacher Training Strategy for 2009-2013 the following goals were set:

• Teacher training is based on a solid theoretical foundation and supports the development of the
teaching skills described in the professional standards.
• Teacher training employs flexible models that consider the needs of the education system and the
individuality of pupils.
• Teachers’ professional development and related support are systematic and consistent.
• Teachers are active community members who promote their subject through work with colleagues
and participation in specialized and professional organizations.
• Management and development of teacher training is based on proven methods and is consistent
and linked to the overall development of the education system.
• The profession of teacher is attractive and enjoys a high social status.

The Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 (Ministry of Education and Research, Estonian Cooperation
Assembly, Estonian Education Forum 2014) highlighted the following components of teacher
performance evaluation:

• A user-friendly self-reflection platform will be created, in which teachers will have the opportunity
to test their skills. The self-analysis platform will be based on competencies outlined in the
professional standards for teachers.
• There will be regular development discussions at educational institutions, which will be focused on
the implementation of the new approach to learning. The head of the school will motivate the

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 101

 teachers to approach each student individually and to participate in the development work of the
school and in various forms of teacher training.
• To avoid significant differences in the evaluation of teachers’ effectiveness and compensation
across the state, the school leaders’ associations (heads of vocational and general education schools)
will develop models to assess the contributions and effectiveness of teachers and they will
implement these models based on the specific nature of their school.
• Higher education institutions will work together to develop the principles for assessing the results
of their teaching staff. In assessing the work of the teaching staff in universities (including during
the process of recruitment), the quality of teaching work will be taken into account, including its
international aspect. This includes work and teaching experience in foreign universities,
participation in international development programs, development of curricula in a foreign
language, teacher effectiveness and student feedback, the teacher’s self-development, etc. This also
includes the results of academic research carried out by the staff.

A key strategic goal of the Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy has been implementing what it calls “a
new approach to learning.” Experts from two universities as well as a set of diverse schools and
municipalities agreed that learning must incorporate an explicit understanding of its own goals, the ways
that learning takes place and the relationships among participants in the learning process. The learning
approach must be purposeful in implementing this shared understanding.

A school’s approach to learning is part of the way it defines and develops its culture (see Figure 8, next
page).

Estonia regularly revises its teaching standards to remain aligned with its renewed aims and approach to
learning. The Estonian Qualifications Authority oversees these revisions, in cooperation with stakeholder
groups. These include teacher educators from the two main teacher education institutions; teachers from
the Estonian Teachers’ Association and Estonian Teachers’ Union; kindergarten teachers from the
Association of Kindergarten teachers; special needs educators from the Association of Special Needs
Education; school leaders from the School Leaders’ Association; representatives from the School Owners’
Association (municipalities); and national policy makers from the Ministry of Education and Research.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 102

 Figure 8. New Approach to Learning: Changing Demands for Education, Changing
School Culture, New Learning Objectives and Broader Goals of the New Approach

Source: Ministry of Education and Research

The importance of digital competence as a teaching standard has steadily increased in Estonia. Since
2019, some schools have used a digital platform to monitor their teachers’ compliance with this standard.
The platform provides a common way to analyze digital competence in the context of teaching and
learning and gives teachers the opportunity for self-assessment.

Estonia has also made a commitment to forecasting and analyzing the future of teaching. For example, in
2018 education experts and other stakeholders produced the OSKA survey projecting what education
and research will require in 10 years. It envisioned teachers as tutors who guide students' development by
teaching and providing links between different subjects. According to OSKA, future teachers are expected
to excel in communication, leadership and cooperation skills, show profound understanding of cultural
differences, and master the use of digital tools. Teachers must also demonstrate knowledge of inclusive
education and educational and developmental psychology in their daily work, in order to recognize and
support the specific needs of each student.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 103

Complementary Resources to Improve Teaching

Third Party and the Private Sector Contribute Resources

The active contribution of the independent sector to education began in the 1990s, when an independent
Estonian education system evolved. The Association of Unique Schools (Omanäoline Kool) was
established in 1993 with support from the Open Estonia Foundation. The Open Mind Institute (AMI)
began its activities in 1997 as an association of teacher educators at the Unique School and launched
several in-service training programs for teachers (Open Mind Institute, n.d.).

Currently, the most prominent actor in the private sector is The Good Deed Education Fund, a
philanthropic fund founded by a new generation of Estonian entrepreneurs. The fund supports initiatives
that solve acute problems in the education sector. The main goals of the Education Fund are as follow:

• To attract more young people to the profession, as the average age of teachers is constantly
increasing
• To strengthen the quality of school leadership (recruitment, leadership, culture and goalsetting,
empowering the parent board)
• To reduce the youth drop-out rate after the mandatory level (9 years)
• To increase awareness of STEAM education among young people (Good Deed Education Fund)

In recent years, several programs have targeted the teacher shortage. In 2006, Teach for Estonia (Noored
Kooli) was launched. Participants in the two-year program work as schoolteachers; admission is quite
competitive and the program is well-regarded by schools and the public. With the support of the Good
Deed Education Fund, Noored Kooli increases its admissions each year, with up to 50 participants enrolled
by 2021. In addition to teacher training, the program provides training in education advocacy, policy
work, and school and system-level development. Alumni of Noored Kooli work across the educational
system, including in university teacher education units and educational NGOs.

Another non-governmental initiative, the substitute teachers’ program (ASÕP), is a web-based service that
provides substitute teachers when needed. School leaders don't have another easy way to secure high-
quality teachers to act as substitutes, so ASÕP provides a much-needed service. The recently developed
web-based system should help ASÕP grow and be able to provide substitutes for at least 1,250 lessons per
month all over Estonia.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 104

Some non-governmental organizations offer special kinds of educational programs for schools:
Kiusamisvaba kool offers programs to prevent bullying (Bullying Free School, n.d.), Vaikuseminutid offers
programs that develop self-awareness and self-regulation skills (Minutes of Silence, n.d.), and Ettevõtlik
kool (Enterprising School, n.d.) supports the integration of enterprising learning into the school
curriculum. These programs, which offer training for teachers as well as study materials, are partly
subsidized by the government.

Both Government and the Private Sector Support Digitalization of Learning

After Estonia regained its independence in 1991, it started the aggressive modernization of its educational
system, using information technology for the benefit of social development. Estonia launched the Tiger
Leap Program in 1996, followed by the Tiger Leap Foundation in 1997 (Information Technology
Foundation for Education, n.d.). The program was built on three pillars: 1) computers and the Internet, 2)
basic teacher training and, 3) native-language electronic courseware for general education institutions.

The first step was to provide all schools with computers and internet access. Estonia reached these goals in
2000 and 2001, respectively. Local governments then received matching funds from Tiger Leap to
provide and improve school computer systems. In 1997, nearly 4,000 teachers participated in Tiger
Leap’s 40-hour basic computer training course, followed by thousands more in subsequent years. In 1999,
Tiger Leap introduced new courses for teachers in electronic courseware, online information searches and
preparation of educational materials.

In 2012, Estonia launched the ProgeTiger program, through which students can enroll in a class on
programming and web application development. In the first stage, the Tiger Leap Foundation piloted the
program in limited schools; later the program opened to all general education schools. ProgeTiger also
supports schools through the development and updating of teaching and sample materials (including
translation and adaptation); training and program networking activities; information and promotion
activities; the purchase of technological equipment; and access to a network of regional ambassadors who
support teachers in the smart use of technology. By the end of 2020, close to 100 percent of schools and
kindergartens had participated in the program.

In 2013, Estonia merged the Tiger Leap Foundation, the Estonian Information Technology Foundation
and The Estonian Education and Research Network EENet to form the Information Technology
Foundation for Education (Information Technology Foundation for Education, n.d.). The goal of the
merger was to reduce fragmentation and create a forward-looking center that would be a strong partner

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 105

for the state, contributing to the development of education policy and the application of modern
technologies in education. In cooperation with IT companies from the Estonian Association of
Information Technology and Telecommunications, the role of the Foundation was to ensure that
graduates at all levels possess the digital skills necessary for the development of the economy and society.
The Foundation also served as a support center for educational institutions to integrate resources offered
by ICT into teaching and learning. It initiated and guided innovation and development in the area of
educational technology and introduced best practices (Information Technology Foundation for
Education, n.d.).

In the summer of 2020, as part of the state reform carried out by the Estonian Government, the
Information Technology Foundation for Education was merged with other agencies funded by the
Ministry of Education and Research into the Estonian Education and Youth Board (Harno). Support
activities for educational institutions in the fields of educational technology, e-services and ICT studies are
now continued within a division of the new board. The new agency continues to have high aims in the
field of education and information technology. One of the agency’s main priorities is building and
launching personal learning path infrastructure based on interoperable solutions. The aim is to provide
learners with different opportunities to choose among for building their own learning path within a system
that offers opportunities at different educational levels, types and learning methods, etc. Currently the
focus is on building system infrastructure using machine-readable data generated from curricula, tests and
learning activities. The infrastructure is designed to be open to many participants, governed by
interoperability rules. Estonia launched a pilot project for the general education sector in 2021.

Software and Services for Schools

Almost all Estonian primary and secondary schools use one of two commercial School Information
Systems (SIS), either eKool or Stuudium. The eKool system is older, established through private-public
partnership in 2001, while Stuudium was developed in 2012 and gradually increased its market share to
30 percent by 2020. Although the use of SIS is not compulsory, parents and local municipalities have
pressured schools to do so. The main functionalities of the SIS are compiling student records, recording
student grades and absences, posting homework assignments, grouping students in classes, organizing class
schedules and messaging between school and parents (see Figure 9, next page).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 106

Figure 9. Functions of eKool

Source: eSchool, n.d.

Every teacher, student and parent has access to their school’s SIS using a national ID-card (MobileID or
HarID, single sign-on service to all educational information systems provided by the Ministry).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 107

 1
6
Equality and Equity in the Learning System

This chapter provides an overview of Estonia’s efforts to foster equal access to education for all children.
Creating a level playing field in education has been a priority of both social and educational policies for
decades.

Main Messages

• Social policies support children from an early age to become lifelong learners and
shape their own lives. These policies aim to support low-income families or families facing
financial, social or health challenges that can hinder child development.
• Early childhood education is available to all children from the age of 18 months to
seven years. Most preschools are operated by local municipalities. Preschools are financed
mainly through state and local government budgets. Disadvantaged families are supported. High
rates of preschool attendance make it possible to diagnose special educational needs and intervene
early.
• A comprehensive school system means common standards for all. There is a national
preschool curriculum, a common National Basic School Curriculum for all students in grades 1–9
and a National Upper Secondary School Curriculum. Students only choose different programs in
upper secondary school, at the age of 16 or 17.
• Equal access to education and an equitable learning environment is guaranteed for
all students. Both public and private educational institutions must meet the same requirements.
The financing of education aims to ensure equitable opportunities for all students. All students are
provided free learning materials, a school lunch, free transport to and from school, free health care
and support to enable participation in extracurricular activities. Students unable to live at home
can live in supervised dormitories.
• Support systems at the state and school level have been set up to accommodate
children with special needs. The state provides support for students with special educational

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 108

 needs. In order to enable high-quality support, special counselling centers have been set up to help
both students and the adults (teachers, parents) who teach/raise them. Each school has a specific
person who coordinates work with students with special needs. Many preschools and schools have
support specialists like speech therapists, special education teachers or social pedagogues (special
education teachers who focus on social skill development).
• Students of different ethnic backgrounds are provided with a supportive learning
environment. Students in Russian-language schools are supported in learning the state language.
Voluntary language immersion programs designed to foster bilingualism are widely available.
Schools that enroll new immigrants and internationally protected students receive additional
support.
• The learning system is characterized by a high level of quality across the country.
Students are admitted to basic comprehensive schools according to their place of residence. Basic
schools all share a common curriculum, irrespective of geographical location. This policy and
others similarly focused on educational equity contribute to a common level of high-quality
teaching and learning across the country.
• The implementation of equal access education and social policies has been largely
successful. In Estonia, students have largely equal access to high quality education. A weak link
exists between socio-economic background and student performance and the difference in learning
outcomes among schools is small.

Social Policies to Support Children from an Early Age

Early childhood development is highly dependent on the environment in which a child is raised. A safe
and loving home with guardians who engage with their children creates preconditions for learning and
development.

The Estonian social system includes family policies that support equitable conditions for child
development. These policies aim to support low-income families or families facing other challenges that
can hinder a child’s development.

Family-friendly policies have been under development since 2008. In 2011, The Strategy of Children and
Families 2012 to 2020 was introduced. It is aimed at all families and their children living in Estonia,
irrespective of gender, nationality, race, language, religion, beliefs, social origin, income level, place of
residence or family type. The strategy’s primary objective is to guarantee the rights of children and

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 109

develop a child protection system that values “each child and the kind of safe environment that supports
the development and well-being of children” (Ministry of Social Affairs 2011a, p. 7).

Based on the Strategy of Children and Families 2012−2020, Estonia reformed its child allowance system in
2013, with the aim to reduce child poverty. Estonia now uses a universal family benefit scheme, which
means that every child is entitled to state support regardless of parental income. Additional payments are
made to families at greater risk of poverty (single parent families, families with three or more children,
etc.).

Parental support begins before the child is born. A pregnant woman has the right to receive maternity
benefits for 140 calendar days. A one-time payment (320 euros in 2020) is provided to one parent when a
child is born. In the case of triplets, the payment is 1,000 euros per child, totaling 3,000 euros. A monthly
child benefit is also provided. As of 2020, this is 60 euros per month each for the first and second child,
and 100 euros per month for the third and each subsequent child. Parents are entitled to the child benefit
until the child reaches the age of 16, or, if the child remains in school, until the age of 19.

When the child is born the mother or father may take an additional 18 months of paid leave from work.
The payment is based on either parents’ average salary over the twelve months preceding the pregnancy.
In 2020, the upper limit of the payment was 3,548 euros per month. After the initial 18 months of paid
leave, either parent has the right to a further 18 months of unpaid leave. In addition, since July 1, 2020, a
father has been able to take 30 working days of paid paternity leave, tripling the 10 days previously
offered (Ministry of Social Affairs, n.d.).

All children and students have free healthcare, provided by the state. During the first year, an infant’s
health is examined once a month by the family doctor/nurse. After the age of one, children are examined
once a year. At the age of six or seven years, the child is taken to the family physician for a preschool
medical examination. The physician assesses the child’s development and readiness for school and tests
the child’s eyesight, hearing, and speech development. To be accepted into a school, an abstract of the
child’s health-card must be submitted, listing important information about previous vaccinations, allergies,
etc. All students are provided with school health care. The purpose of the provision of school health care
is to ensure the well-being of all students and to support their normal development and growth. Health
care provision for children is coordinated by school administrators (Ministry of Social Affairs 2010). The
school nurse assesses and monitors the health of students, deals with disease prevention and health
promotion, and provides first aid if necessary. For school-age children, the school nurse will perform a

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 110

check-up for children in the 1st, 3rd, 7th, and 11th grades. The family doctor should do a check-up while
the child is in grades 2, 5 and 9 (Ministry of Social Affairs 2011b).

School health care includes dental and general preventative health through referrals. In Estonia, dental
care is free for persons under the age of 19 and school health care services are available free of charge to
students until the age of 21. In 2019, approximately half (52.15 percent) of the prevention activities
financed by the Estonian Health Insurance Fund went to school health services (Estonian Health
Insurance Fund n.d.). The universal approach reduces the risk of disadvantaged families being less able to
access health care for their children.

Early Education for All Children

The positive impact of early childhood education on children's development, education equity and
reduction in poverty is widely supported by research (Fekonja‐Peklaj, Marjanovič‐Umek, and Kranjc
2010; Ainsaar and Tarum 2016). In Estonia, rural municipalities and city governments are obliged to
provide early childhood education to all children 18 months of age and older whose parents choose to
enroll them. Eighty-one percent of children under age three and 94.7 percent of three- to six-year-olds are
enrolled in early childhood education. This high level of participation exceeds the OECD average, except
for 5-year-olds. Only seven countries in the European Union guarantee access to education in the earliest
years of life.

Most preschools are run by local governments, with only 4.7 percent of children attending private sector
preschools (Education Eye n.d.). Local governments determine whether preschools operate during the
academic year or throughout the calendar year. The state is the primary funder of teacher salaries,
although local governments also contribute to the development and maintenance of preschools. Parents
are charged preschool tuition, but the parental contribution may not exceed 20 percent of the minimum
wage established by the Government of the Republic. Only minor additional payments are required if a
family has more than one child attending a preschool (see “Subsidies for preschool education,” below).
Almost all local governments completely or partially subsidize preschool tuition and meals for low-income
parents.

In 2011, as some local governments were struggling to provide enough preschool places, the government
decided to allow private childcare services for children under three. Private childcare providers constitute
less than 5 percent of all preschools in Estonia and must obtain a license in order to receive state funds
(Social Welfare Act 2015). The licensing of private childcare inadvertently led to a reduction in access to

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 111

high quality care, however. Private childcare providers were more likely to offer a “babysitting” service as
opposed to high-quality preschool education. The draft of the new Preschool Childcare Institutions Act
places stricter educational demands on childcare providers to ensure that they deliver high-quality
education or cease operating in the future.

Comprehensive School System and Common Standards for All

The national preschool curriculum framework, which applies to all preschools, establishes a unified
approach to supporting the development of children (Ministry of Education 2008). Preschool teachers
must hold a bachelor’s degree as well as teaching qualifications. In 2020, 86 percent of preschool teachers
met those qualification requirements. The adult-child ratio in preschools is 1:12. Each preschool group is
taught by a teacher along with a teaching assistant (Stein, Veisson, Õun 2018).

For decades, the general education system in Estonia has been based on the principle that all students
attend and graduate from a unified nine-year comprehensive school. The primary standards for basic
compulsory education are embodied in the national curricula. There is a strong emphasis on individual
needs and ensuring equal opportunities for all students no matter their socio-economic background,
ethnicity or gender.

As schools have considerable autonomy in interpreting the national curriculum, teachers are encouraged
to differentiate the learning process to ensure that all students, including gifted students and students with
special needs, meet its detailed learning outcomes.

In principle, no streaming takes place at the basic school level (grades 1–9). After graduation from basic
school (grade 9), usually at the age of 16 (or in some cases 17), students are streamed based on competitive
admission or self-selected into upper secondary or vocational schools. In upper secondary schools,
particularly in large urban centers, students choose or are streamed into their preferred schools and
programs (e.g., languages, mathematics, and science).

In order to meet the needs of their student body or of individual students, vocational education institutions
can adapt study time, content, organization, and the learning environment. Institutions can, based on the
school curriculum, create an individual curriculum for a student with special needs so long as the learning
outcomes of the individual curriculum align with those described in the school curriculum (Vocational
Education Act 2013).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 112

Equal Access to Education and Learning Resources

In order to ensure a safe and developmentally supportive environment for all children in public and
private preschools or schools, the state has established a uniform set of requirements regarding buildings,
premises, furnishings, indoor climate, maintenance, catering, cleaning standards, daily schedule, etc.

Schools must also follow regulations pertaining to the weight of backpacks or book bags used for school,
length of the school day, and distance from home to school. For example, if a compulsory school student’s
walk to school exceeds 3 km (or 1.8 miles), the local government must provide transport for the child
(Riigi Teataja 2001).

Subsidies for Preschool Education

Although preschools charge tuition, costs are kept low and subsidies are widely available. The parental
contribution may not exceed 20 percent of the minimum wage established by the Government of the
Republic (in 2019 it was EUR 470). The average monthly wage in 2019 was 1,407 euros. Families with
one child pay on average 32 euros per month (6 percent of the minimum wage); families with two
kindergarten children pay on average 54 euros (10 percent of the minimum wage) for both children; and
families with three kindergarten children pay on average 56 euros. Sixty-eight percent of local
governments fully subsidize preschool for families with high economic need, while 28 percent provide
partial subsidies (Kalma 2019). Some local governments also subsidize tuition in private preschools.

Preschool meal costs are covered by parents. These costs are decided by the preschool’s board of trustees
and approved by the preschool director (Preschool Childcare Institutions Act 1999). Two thirds of local
governments partially or completely exempt low-income families from paying for preschool meals.
Sometimes the exemptions include private preschools.

Subsidies for General Education

A high-quality learning environment for students in basic and upper secondary schools (grades 1–12)
depends on a two-tiered principle: per capita student funding supplemented by needs-based funding. This
means each Estonian student is funded at the same level except when equal funding is considered
inequitable, such as when a student’s school is located in a deprived area or far from an urban center. The
European Commission calls this approach “progressive universalism” (Fraser and Marlier 2014).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 113

Local governments also receive additional financing from the state to support student participation in
extracurricular activities. Financing is based on the total number of young people aged seven–19 on the
local government’s territory, the number of young people with disabilities and other special needs, and the
local government’s tax base, among other factors (Youth Work Act, Private School Act and Hobby School
Act Amendment Act 2017).

All basic and upper secondary students are provided with free textbooks, free school meals, free transport
to school, free health care and support for participating in extracurricular education. Making these
supports universal helps to avoid stigmatizing poor students.

For students who live too far from school or whose families are unable to support their child’s schooling
the state provides supervised dormitories. In 2020, Estonia allocated a total of 880,000 euros for financing
school dormitories. The cost of one dormitory place is 2,000 euros per student per year (Ministry of
Education and Research 2019a).

Subsidies for Vocational Education

Vocational schools are not funded on a per capita formula. Vocational education institutions receive core
funding to cover organizational (including infrastructure) costs and administrative costs, as well as the
provision of support services to students. This funding is meant to ensure the availability of vocational
training for all those who want it (Eurydice 2020).

There are significantly fewer vocational education institutions than upper secondary schools in Estonia,
which is why graduates of basic schools in rural areas who wish to study vocational subjects often have to
continue their studies away from home. In order to increase the attractiveness and accessibility of
vocational education to all students, and to compensate for additional study-related expenses, vocational
students in Estonia receive financial benefits (Cedefop 2017).

National and local governments have set up dormitories at some VET institutions for students who live far
away or whose families do not provide support. The dormitories are primarily financed by the school.
Parents are expected to pay a fee but may apply for a grant to cover the costs if needed.

Students living in a dormitory or rental apartment are reimbursed the cost of travel to and from their
permanent (family) home twice a month. Trips over public holidays and school holidays are also covered.
Students not living in a dormitory who commute to school are reimbursed for one return-trip per day
(Ministry of Education and Research 2015).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 114

Since 2005, the state has been providing free school lunches for full-time vocational students up to the age
of 20. Books and other learning materials are provided free of charge.

Any full-time vocational education student who is an Estonian citizen or a permanent resident can apply
for an allowance, which is only provided for the intended duration of study (e.g., a three-year program).
Students must have a passing grade to qualify. In 2018, the allowance was 60 euros a month. Students
who feel that they cannot for economic reasons continue their studies can apply to their school for an
additional special grant. Grants are financed by the government. An Estonian citizen or permanent
resident who has graduated from upper secondary education and whose program of study (per their
curriculum) is at least six calendar months in length is eligible for a student loan. The maximum student
loan is 2,000 euros per study year (Ministry of Education and Research 2019a). Figure 10 summarizes the
range of supports for vocational education students.

Figure 10. Supporting the Learner in a Vocational School

Source: Ministry of Education and Research https://www.hm.ee/et/kutseharidus-oppija-toetamine

Support for Children with Special Needs

Support in Early Childhood

Supporting the development of preschool children with special needs, including gifted children, is a
collaborative effort. The head of the preschool creates teams of teachers and support specialists, such as

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 115

speech therapists, special education instructors and social pedagogues. Often these specialists already work
on-site. Fifty-nine percent of preschools have a speech therapist on staff and 30 percent employ a social
worker (https://www.haridussilm.ee/ee). Preschools that do not have special education teachers on staff
may seek support from a national network of state-financed counselling centers, called Pathfinder centers
(Harno Rajaleidja n.d.) which are located in each county.

If a child is deemed to need special support, then an individual learning plan is developed by the teacher
in cooperation with specialists and the parent(s). In such cases, an evaluation of the individual
development plan, the suitability of the learning environment and the child’s future needs is undertaken at
least once a year. Access to specialists and other support services is provided free of charge.

In larger kindergartens where the number of children with special needs is higher, a special group can be
created. Children are admitted to these groups based on the recommendation of an external panel of
experts. The number of children in a special group is determined by need. For example, there may be up
to 12 children in a group of children with physical disabilities, and up to four children in a group with
more complex developmental disorders (Preschool Childcare Institutions Act 1999).

Although the principles for supporting students are similar in kindergartens and basic and upper
secondary schools, there are some differences. In Estonia, students are not grouped by risk factors. They
are instead grouped by the type of the support required, be that general, enhanced or special support.

Support During the General Education Period

As with preschools and kindergartens, basic and upper secondary schools are expected to adapt to meet
the needs of their students. Three tiers of support are available to students with special needs. The first is
general support, which schools provide to students from their own budgets. Once a teacher has identified
a student as having special needs, the school’s special needs coordinator organizes a team of internal and
external experts, including speech therapists, special education teachers, social pedagogues, and
psychologists. In the case of very serious health problems, the local government appoints a full-time
support person for the student.

If the above measures are insufficient, the school can apply for enhanced support from Pathfinder centers
where an expert advisory panel consults with the school and the parent(s) and makes recommendations on
how to support the student. The state covers the cost of additional support, which is available to students
with ongoing learning difficulties or psychological or behavioral disorders or other health conditions or

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 116

disabilities. In these cases, a support specialist might accompany the student at all times, either in
mainstream or special classes, or several specialists might offer support over a certain period of time.

The highest tier of support is special support, which is provided to students with severe conditions or
multiple disabilities. This special learning support is financed by the state and delivered in coordination
with social or health services.

Once a year the school must reevaluate the impact of any special education measures it has applied.
When possible, students who have been taken out of the regular classroom for one on one or small group
support are reintegrated (Pihlak 2019).

The Ministry of Education and Research keeps data on recommendations made by Pathfinder expert
panels and the measures implemented to support students with special needs. The most common special
educational needs are literacy, numeracy, and temporary learning difficulties. About half of SEN students
participate in a speech therapy group and a third in a study support group focused on learning difficulties.
Pathfinder centers mostly aid smaller schools that are less likely to have specialists on staff. Larger schools
have more resources to hire support professionals, but, especially in rural areas, staffing shortages limit the
provision of services (Räis, Kallaste, Sandre 2016). The shortage of speech therapists for Russian-medium
schools is also quite complicated, as the specialists are not trained in Estonia. Although most teachers
support the principle of inclusive education, many feel they need more professional development to
adequately support these students.

In Estonia, gifted students fall into the category of special needs. Students are identified as gifted if they
are academically outstanding in one or more subject areas. Indicators might include participation in
national and/or international Olympiads and/or research competitions; pursuing a subject area in depth
at another educational or research institution (e.g. university); and following an individualized curriculum
designed for high intellectual capacity (Serbak 2019). Schools design these curricula, incorporating
additional instruction by subject teachers or outside specialists. The main universities have special
academies for gifted students from general education, which are supported by the state (see also in
Chapter 3). Nonetheless, it is estimated that about half of all gifted and talented children go unnoticed or
underdeveloped in Estonian schools because teachers tend to focus their attention on weaker students who
need help with their studies (Sepp 2010).

Vocational schools also provide support services for students with special needs, including career services,
study assistance, social pedagogical and psychological services. Schools may also prepare an individual
curriculum and an individual transition plan for effective graduation. Specialists might also work with

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 117

small groups of four-12 special needs students. Additional Estonian language learning can be provided for
those students whose lack of proficiency is a barrier to academic and professional success (Devrimci,
Heinmets, Jürivete, Kongi, Teesalu 2014).

Students of Different Ethnic Backgrounds

Estonia has one official language: Estonian. Ethnic Estonians constitute approximately 61 percent of the
population, ethnic Russians 25 percent, ethnic Ukrainians 2 percent and Belarusians 1 percent (Statistics
Estonia 2020). These three largest ethnic minorities are primarily Russian speaking. Minorities can be
categorized into two groups: those who have been living in Estonia for decades and new arrivals.

As a legacy of the Soviet occupation, a network of Russian-language preschools and schools exists
alongside Estonian-language preschools and schools. Since 1991, all preschools and schools operate based
on a common core curriculum. To ensure that graduates of Russian-language schools can successfully
integrate into the economic, political and social life of the country, Estonia has dedicated considerable
resources to building Estonian-language fluency while continuing to develop students’ capacity to
communicate in their first language.

All Russian-language preschools teach Estonian, with more than half offering a voluntary Estonian-
language immersion program. Since their initiation in 2003, a key obstacle to the expansion of language
immersion programs has been the lack of qualified teachers (Valk, Selliov 2018).

In Russian-language basic schools (grade 1–9), students take Estonian as a second language beginning in
first grade. A language immersion program was launched in 2000. Students may enter immersion early or
late in their course of study but usually pursue half of their academic program in Estonian and half in
Russian. In addition, immersion schools teach at least one foreign language such as English. Based on
current demand, more schools are likely to adopt the immersion approach provided they can hire
qualified teachers.

Since 2007, Russian-language upper secondary schools have been required to teach 60 percent of the
curriculum in Estonian and may teach up to 40 percent in Russian. Estonian literature, Estonian history,
social studies, music and geography must be taught in Estonian. Several schools have found it a challenge
to fully meet this requirement.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 118

Students in Russian-language vocational schools also receive instruction in Estonian. The aim is to help
them achieve functional proficiency so they can compete in the labor market and integrate into Estonian
social and political life.

A core concern of the Estonian education system is a gap in student performance between Russian-
language and Estonian-language schools. In 2015 and 2018, students in Russian-language schools had
lower PISA scores in reading, mathematics and science. For example, in 2018, the gap between Estonian
and Russian-language schools stood at 42 points in reading, 29 points in mathematics and 44 points in
science (Tire, Henno, Soobard, Puksand, Lepmann, Jukk, Lindemann, Täht 2019). In addition, Estonian
Grade 9 and 12 final examination results show that students in Russian-language schools are on average
achieving significantly lower scores than students in Estonian-language schools. There are other areas of
concern as well. According to school climate indicators (sense of belonging, bullying at school, school
absences, valuing cooperation at school, teachers’ support, and teachers’ enthusiasm) students in Russian-
language schools report feeling less connected to their school, less valued at school, and experience higher
rates of bullying (Tire, et al. 2019).

In addition, a smaller percentage of basic compulsory school graduates from Russian-language schools
continue on to upper secondary schools where instruction is in Estonian. Instead, these students are more
likely to pursue vocational education. Estonia has publicly recognized this challenge and plans to increase
stakeholder dialogue to seek solutions, with a particular focus on targeted professional development for
teachers and principals in Russian-language schools.

New arrivals constitute less than one percent of Estonia’s school population. In 2020, there were around
420 newly arrived children in Estonian schools (of whom between 15 and 20 were refugees). Although
recent immigrant children are generally integrated into mainstream classrooms, most have individual
learning plans, often including extra instruction in Estonian or catch-up lessons in some content areas.
These students are also entitled to 2 hours per week of instruction in their native language, provided there
are at least 10 children from the same language group in a given school. If a student has lived in Estonia
for fewer than three years, the requirement to learn a third language can be waived at the student’s
request and the number of Estonian language lessons increased (Riigi Teataja 2011a). Schools with new
arrivals receive an additional 400 euros per student per year.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 119

The Learning System Is Characterized by Little Stratification

Differentiating students based on socio-economic background or abilities can increase social stratification.
There is no streaming in Estonian preschools and little to no streaming in basic comprehensive schools.

The age of entry into preschool (and preschool attendance overall) has been shown to affect long-term
learning outcomes. In Estonia, most children enter preschool at the age of two or three. According to the
OECD, among Estonian students who took the 2018 PISA tests, 86.3 percent of those from socio-
economically deprived backgrounds reported attending preschool during childhood. In recent years,
preschool attendance has risen substantially (see “Early education for all children,” above).

A focus on retention also helps reduce differences in learning outcomes for poor and affluent students. In
Estonia, only 2.6 percent of students repeat a grade, versus the OECD average of 11 percent. According
to PISA 2018, Estonian students from rural areas repeat grades slightly more often than in urban areas
(3.2 percent versus 2.2 percent) and boys repeat more often than girls (3.4 percent versus 1.8 percent
(Kitsing and Täht 2020).

All Estonian children are required to attend school from the age of seven until they graduate basic school
(grade 9) or until they reach age 17. As a rule, basic comprehensive education is acquired for nine years,
and students usually graduate at age 16. At this point, students have the choice of continuing their studies
at a gymnasium (upper secondary school) or a vocational school (see more in Chapter 2). In Estonia,
students are admitted to municipal schools for acquiring basic compulsory education based on their place
of residence. The vast majority of students study in a municipal school (Education Eye n.d.).

In the last decade, the general education drop-out rate in Estonia has fallen to a relatively low level, 0.3
percent in basic schools and one percent in upper secondary schools. By contrast, the 23.4 percent drop-
out rate for vocational schools presents a serious problem (Ministry of Education and Research, 2019).
Students cite choosing the wrong field of study as the main reason for dropping out. However, learning
and financial difficulties also likely play a part.

Most schools in Estonia do not stream students. According to PISA 2018, 43 percent of students in
OECD countries attended schools where students were selected for different classes according to their
abilities; in Estonia, the corresponding share is 1.4 percent (OECD 2020b). Partly this is due to the small
size of Estonian primary schools, which usually have only one class in each grade. Some schools do
perform in-grade selection, which is more common in urban and private schools than in rural and
municipal schools.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 120

Estonia’s policy of Recognition of Prior Learning provides an additional pathway into formal education,
particularly for students entering vocational schools. Students can request to have their professional
experiences or independent study recognized as credit toward admissions requirements (Government of
the Republic 2013).

In order to foster inclusive education policies and in view of the shrinking student population, Estonia has
reduced the number of special education schools over the last decade. This has led to more special needs
students attending mainstream schools, which has increased the need for support staff and tested the
willingness of teachers to work with students who are at diverse stages in their development.

Effectiveness of Equity-Seeking Education and Social Policies

The 2018 OECD study on the development and well-being of five-year-old children, IELS, revealed that
in Estonia the relationship between a family's socio-economic background and the child’s cognitive and
socio-emotional development outcomes is weak (OECD 2019d). Since 2006, PISA studies have shown a
weak correlation overall between Estonian students’ performance and their socio-economic background.
According to PISA 2018, Estonia was one of six countries where both advantaged and disadvantaged
students’ performance improved significantly. Estonia was also among 11 countries and economic regions
where the average performance was higher than the OECD average while the relationship between socio-
economic status and reading performance was weaker than the OECD average (OECD 2019d).

The most recent percentage of variability in the reading results of Estonian students that can be explained
by socio-economic background is 6.2 percent. Only Hong Kong (5.1 percent) and Macau (1.7 percent)
showed smaller differences. The OECD average is 12 percent (Tire el al., 2019). These figures are
trending in the right direction in Estonia: on the 2015 PISA, socio-economic background explained 9
percent of the variability in reading results (OECD 2016a).

In Estonia, 90 percent of 25 to 64-year-olds have at least completed their upper secondary education,
compared to an OECD average of 75 percent. In addition, 47 percent of Estonian women aged 25–64
have completed tertiary education, compared to 35 percent overall in the OECD. According to the
OECD Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), the knowledge of
Estonian adults in both reading and mathematics is higher than the OECD average. The share of low
performers was small (13 percent). Estonia ranked 7th out of 23 countries. Based on these results, it is
possible to conclude that in Estonia not only is access to education ensured, but access to quality
education is ensured (Santiago et al. 2016b).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 121

According to PISA 2018, Estonia is one of the few countries where learning resources are funded equally
across the country. There are no significant differences in student performance between socio-
economically advantaged and disadvantaged schools or between private and public schools. Estonia ranks
between 9th and 12th (as there was no significant difference among these four countries) in its number of
computers per student to comparable to Canada, Hong Kong and Sweden. Of the nine countries for
which data is available, only in Estonia, Iceland and Canada are rural schools better equipped than those
in urban areas (OECD 2020b).

In sum, most students in Estonia have relatively equal access to education and a good level of knowledge
and skills. There is a weak link between socio-economic background and student performance, and a
rather narrow gap in the knowledge and skills of students in advantaged versus disadvantaged schools.
Still, the country faces some challenges in meeting its equity targets. For instance, reading results for boys
are significantly lower than for girls. While the reasons for this have not been thoroughly examined, one
explanation may be the lack of consideration given to boys’ preferences for reading material and
learning/teaching styles. There is also a disparity between Estonian- and Russian-language schools.
According to PISA 2018, the reading and science scores of students in Russian-language schools indicate
that they are approximately one academic year behind students in Estonian-language schools. Also,
according to PISA 2018, Estonia must do more to reduce bullying, increase students’ sense of belonging,
and help students feel more supported at school. Nonetheless, all in all, Estonia has reduced the barriers to
learning created by poverty more effectively than most other countries.

Despite Estonia’s progressive social and educational policies, the creation of a truly equitable education
system remains a challenge. Poverty remains a major concern. In 2018, 17.1 percent of children under the
age of 18 lived in relative poverty, while 1.6 percent lived in absolute poverty (Statistics Estonia 2019). In
2019, relative poverty among 16 to 24-year-olds was 20.9 percent. While the overall percentage of
Estonians living in poverty is in decline, the percentage of children in poverty has increased, creating a
clear demand for more effective policy measures.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 122

 1
7
Current Changes and Future Perspectives

Despite having one of the top performing education systems in the world, Estonia is continually looking
for ways to respond to changes in society and the labor market. In this chapter, we will look at some
current reforms in the Estonian learning system as well as discuss future directions of reform, proposed by
the national strategies and development plans.

Current Changes

We will focus on six key changes planned for the Estonian learning system over the coming decades:

• Reorganization of the school network and the creation of regional education centers for upper
secondary education;
• Efforts to increase the attractiveness of the teaching profession and prepare a new generation of
teachers;
• Digitalization of the learning system;
• Changes in curriculum and shifts towards more personalized learning;
• Developing new models for education of minority populations; and
• Efforts to support students’ and teachers’ well-being at school.

Reorganization of the School Network

A shift towards regional upper secondary schools: Due to demographic shifts, particularly the
drastic decrease in the number of students in rural areas, reorganization of the Estonian school network
has become an important and emotionally charged issue in Estonia. In recent years, Estonia has closed or
merged several small rural schools and consolidated upper-secondary education into larger regional
centers. The shift toward regional centers, which has enabled schools to offer students a sufficient variety

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 123

of coursework and choice of electives, has been accompanied by a shift from municipality to state
governance.

Estonia launched its program to establish a network of regional gymnasiums and upper secondary schools
in 2011. The main aim of the program was to reorganize the whole school network in response to
demographic changes. The program is based on two principles:

1. All young people should have access to high-quality and choice-rich upper secondary education at
least in their county.
2. Basic schools should be located close to students' homes, and schools need to provide safe and
modern learning environments.

Adhering to both of these principals has not been an easy task. Parents and local communities often
oppose changes, particularly the closure of small rural schools and the reorganization of schools with long-
standing traditions. Responsibility for basic and upper-secondary education has historically fallen to local
municipalities, with their close ties to the interests and needs of the community. The shift to newly
established state-upper-secondary schools means local municipalities have less input concerning school
management and development.

Establishing or renovating state-governed upper secondary schools has required a significant investment
of state funds, as has repurposing closed lower-secondary schools in rural areas (another aim of the
program). In some cases, a new public use — such as a kindergarten or library — can be found for the
closed or unused part of the school buildings. The current status of the state-gymnasiums program is quite
promising: by 2023, a total of 24 state-gymnasiums will have opened since 2012, including at least one in
each county. (In 2013/2014, by comparison, there were 202 upper secondary schools in Estonia).

The school network development program for basic and upper secondary schools aims to create energy-
efficient school buildings and design innovative learning environments to accommodate the needs of the
new generation of students. The new schools have more space for group projects, individual work,
laboratories, etc., and include welcoming spaces for children with mild special needs and students with
mobility, hearing and visual impairments.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 124

 Box 9. Example of State Gymnasium Learning Environment: Viljandi Gymnasium

Viljandi Gymnasium was the first state upper-secondary school (grades 10-12) opened
within the framework of the reform of state gymnasiums. In the construction of the
building modern requirements were taken into account, including energy efficiency. For
example, there is a small weather station on the roof that adjusts the window blinds to
the right angle so that there is appropriate daylight in the room. All classrooms have a
SMART whiteboard, a data projector, a teacher’s desktop computer, a document
camera and a sound system. Ergonomic and multifunctional furniture was chosen for
the classrooms. Great attention was paid to acoustics, etc. The design of the rooms
allows teachers to take into account the individual needs of the learners.

Source: Viljandi State Gymnasium, n.d.

Gymnasiums are encouraged to develop their own learning approach and curriculum, to consider
students' individual interests and capacities and offer greater flexibility in the learning process.
Gymnasium students should have at least four academic pathways to choose from (e.g. natural science
and environment, social sciences, art, theatre, languages, entrepreneurship, etc.) and a set of electives
developed in collaboration with other institutions and stakeholders in the region.

Box 10. Example of State Gymnasium Study Fields: Viimsi Gymnasium

Viimsi Gymnasium has developed study branches: 1) Foreign Languages and Culture; 2)
Music, Media, Drama and Arts; 3) IT, Technology, and Sciences; 4) Nature, Lifestyle
and Safety. During their studies, students can take 15 elective courses in addition to the
required ones. Students can also take part in extracurricular activities such as university
courses, courses in music and art schools, sports and participation in students’ board
activities..

Source: Viimsi Gymnasium, n.d.

The approach to teaching and learning of Viimsi Gymnasium (see box above) starts with the main
outcomes of the learning process. They address students’ general competencies like critical thinking and

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 125

problem solving, communication and collaboration skills, creativity, entrepreneurship and self-direction.
Students have compulsory courses, several electives and extracurricular school activities, all of which serve
learning purposes.

Integration of upper secondary and vocational education. Along with the creation of a state-
owned upper-secondary school network, Estonia is considering how to integrate academic upper-
secondary education and vocational education. It could benefit both academic and vocational students to
take electives at both types of schools, based on their personal preferences. Regional education centers
would be well-situated to provide this cross-use of resources. This potential “boundary crossing” is part of
the wider trend of vocational learning “expansion,” where vocational training takes place in various
settings, including gymnasiums, work environments, and as part of volunteer opportunities (Loogma
2020).

Estonia is planning for a future where there is less distinction between academic and vocational education.
At least three strategies will enable integration: 1) common entry requirements for upper-secondary school
and vocational school; 2) a “one-door policy,” which means that students enter one comprehensive
secondary school and make choices about whether to continue in academic or vocational education
within that school; 3) a modular vocational degree system, meaning students can choose smaller units of
study (as opposed to following an entire curriculum) and piece those smaller units together to achieve a
full vocational degree (Educational Development plan 2021-2035).

A More Attractive Teaching Profession

One of the most critical challenges for the Estonian education system relates to its teacher workforce.
Based on the TALIS survey (OECD 2019e), the average age of Estonian teachers is 49 years, the highest
among participating OECD countries, and 54 percent of teachers in Estonia are aged 50 and above,
compared to an OECD average of 34 percent. As a consequence, Estonia will need to replace more than
half its teachers over the next decade. Of further concern, 40 percent of Estonian teachers report that they
would like to leave teaching within the next five years, compared to an OECD average of 25 percent.
Several efforts are ongoing to secure the future of the teaching profession.

Governmental initiatives The government is addressing both the shortage of teachers and the sense
that the prestige of the profession is diminishing. The parliament agreed to an annual salary increase of
almost 46 percent over four years, (OECD 2020b). However, the average salary for Estonian teachers at
all levels (primary, general lower secondary, general upper secondary) is only about USD 28,000,

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 126

compared to OECD averages between US$43,942 and US$49,778. Teachers’ salaries are also lower than
those of comparably educated professionals within Estonia.

More than ten years ago, Estonia instituted a “beginner’s allowance” to encourage new teachers to work
outside bigger cities such as Tallinn and Tartu (Riigi Teataja 2010a). The allowance pays up to 12,000
euros over three years in addition to salary. Since 2019, Estonia has also supported specialists such as
speech therapists, school psychologists, and social workers with a beginner’s allowance.

Estonia has also created programs such as "Yes! To become a Teacher!" for adults who are considering a
career change and Future Makers in Education for BA candidates who might consider a teaching career.
In addition, Estonia has developed a series of projects to promote teaching, including a six-episode
national TV series called "I, Teacher," a slogan, "Teachers create tomorrow's Estonia," a Facebook page
and a webpage (www.õpetaja.eu), and program called "Teacher- spokesperson of education" to help
current teachers inspire others to join the profession.

Together, these efforts have shown some success. According to TALIS surveys between 2013 and 2018,
the percentage of Estonian teachers reporting that the teaching profession is “valued in society” has
increased by 13 percentage points. Teachers younger than 30 perceive teaching as valued in society at
higher rates than their older colleagues. In 2013, only 12 percent of Estonian school leaders perceived
teaching as valued in society; by 2018, this number had grown to 40 percent (OECD 2019e).

Changes in teachers’ work As the role of teachers evolves, teacher education also needs to change,
with more emphasis on teaching teachers to guide their students’ choices and activities, give constructive
feedback, develop learners’ self-regulation skills, and create an empowering and integrative learning
environment (Teacher Occupational Standard n.d).

In a technology-rich environment, the learning process focuses more on developing a student's personal
learning path, and teachers are expected to use more data to monitor student progress, provide personal
feedback, and guide further learning. Collaboration is another important contemporary feature of
teaching: teachers work less often in isolation and may rely on colleagues' support and expertise in
challenging situations (as in many other professions). Also, due to Estonia’s highly autonomous school
system, a teacher’s own initiative, or agency, plays a crucial role in influencing school development
(Leijen, et al. 2019). Hopefully, these new areas of focus in teaching, along with the message that teachers
are empowered to direct their own work as well as school development more broadly, will attract a new
generation to the profession.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 127

Opening up the profession The educational strategy for 2035 aims to make teaching more diverse,
with workers from other areas of the labor market bringing new skills and professional experience to the
education system.

In addition to Teach for Estonia (see Chapter 5), the government has introduced several other initiatives,
including support and encouragement for part-time teaching. For upper secondary level elective courses
in particular, part-time teachers who also work in other professions can provide students with an
important link to “real life,” including experience working on-site for businesses, etc.

Box 11. Example of a Program Providing Guest Lessons for Schools

Initiative Back to School is a non-profit organization that operates on donations. Back to

School’s strategic partner is Swedbank Estonia. The development of the association is
supported by the Civil Society Foundation and the Education and Youth Board. Back to
School aims to help 1st to 12th grade students learn 21st century skills or “life skills,”
including career, digital, information processing, communication, financial and
collaboration skills as well as skills in entrepreneurship, technology and cultural, civic,
media, environmental and health awareness. To teach life skills, Back to School provides
teachers with a web-based environment for arranging both physical and online guest
lessons, study visits and job shadowing. Since 2012, about 3,500 guest lessons and more
than 190 e-guest lessons for tens of thousands of students have been conducted through
Back to School.

Source: Tagasi Kooli n.d.

Universities have opened up alternative paths to teaching. For example, one potential direction for initial
teacher education is a “learn as you go” workplace-based model, where new teachers plunge into teaching
right away and learn by reflecting on their experiences. For such models to succeed, it is important for
universities to collaborate closely with schools and other organizations, such as NGOs offering alternative
programs, to ensure the programs are pedagogically sound and that workplace learning is continuous
(Eisenschmidt, Ruus, and Poom-Valickis 2015).

School as a better workplace for teachers If teaching is to become a more desirable career choice
for young people, schools must become more attractive workplaces. Efforts to design more teacher-

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 128

friendly schools include the Future School program at Tallinn University (Eisenschmidt, Vanari, and
Tammets, 2020). In this program for school teams, distributed leadership, dialogue and meaningful goal
setting are used to create a sense of school ownership among teachers and other parties, which in turn
motivates them to contribute to school improvement. Teams of teachers set common goals and work
together to co-create new practices and improve teaching and learning across the school (Oppi,
Eisenschmidt, and Stingu 2020).

Forselius School, a participant in the Future School program, stands out as an example of how teachers
helped students develop self-regulation (that is, their capacity to engage in learning, set goals, plan
activities, and monitor and reflect on their progress) in all grades throughout a year-long team project.
First, teachers learned together about self-regulation and then designed “learning-to-learn” materials for
students in all grades, following the concept of Zimmerman's (2000) self-regulated learning described in
Figure 11.

Figure 11. Developing Students’ Self-Regulation Skills in Forselius School

Source: Forselius School: https://tfk.tartu.ee.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 129

Digitalization of the Learning System

The digitalization of Estonian schools started in the 1990s with the Tiger Leap program. From 2015-
2020, the Ministry of Education and Research launched the Digital Turn program to support education
institutions in the meaningful application of modern digital technology to learning and teaching.
Currently, a new generation of digital infrastructures (personal digital devices, school digital
infrastructures, interoperable information systems, web services, cloud solutions, open data, etc.) and the
methodologies for their use are under preparation and testing.

From 2017-2019, Tallinn University and University of Tartu, in cooperation with other stakeholders and
the leadership of Information Technology Foundation for Education (HITSA), prepared new informatics
subject curricula for the national curricula for basic and upper secondary school. The new curriculum
teaches both computer and design thinking. Students are put in a real-life situation where they must fulfil
an individual role as well as work together as a team to develop a digital solution. In preparation, students
can take electives courses such as programming, prototyping and design, software analyzes and testing
and information services. Developing a digital project requires close cooperation with the private sector,
as teachers often lack experience in this area. As part of development, the team created new learning
materials for relevant elective courses and piloted them in collaboration with upper secondary and VET
schools, as well as with entrepreneurs who acted as guides and role models for students.

Some schools developed digitalization further in their curriculum, focusing on infrastructure (e.g.,
network, BYOD) and the integration of digital technologies into the learning process (see example from
Pelgulinna Gymnasium in Box 12, next page).

In order to understand and map technological trends in education, Estonia launched the Technology
Compass in 2018. The Compass maps key technological trends that impact education and keeps
educators informed about the technology developments and related teaching methods across the globe
(see https://kompass.harno.ee). The Compass produces an annual monitoring report focusing on a set of
topics selected for the year, describes the current state of Estonian schools in these areas, identifies new
topics that will prepare students for the future labor market, and finds opportunities for the application of
new technologies in teaching. The reports address topics like artificial intelligence, gamification in
education, personalized learning, learning analytics and big data, privacy, smart technology, use of virtual
and augmented reality in the learning process, etc.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 130

 Box 12. Example of Integrating Digital Technologies into the Learning Process:
Pelgulinna Gymnasium

Our school’s pedagogical approach:

• Innovation and use of digital tools, including digital safety, coding, drones, etc.
• Descriptive evaluation, less grading (numbers)
• Combining subjects into STEAM - physical and social sciences, incorporation of
technology, principles of engineering and design, English language arts, application of
mathematics
• International cooperation
• Art projects and creativity

Technology usage:

• Computer lessons for every class: mobile-smart lessons, robotics, 3D printing, web
development, computer graphics, animation, developing mobile apps
• BringYourOwnDevice (BYOD), free WiFi, LanParty, SmartCircus, E-school, cloud
services and apps, Moodle

Digitalization:

• Every class has a computer and a projector and WiFi.

• Teachers and students can use tablets and laptops (BYOD).
• Every teacher is responsible for their use of technology (according to curriculum
agreements).
• Curriculum is divided into digital competencies in ordinary lessons and informatics
lessons. Informatics lessons are taught by special teachers from 2nd to 11th grades.

Source: Tallinn. n.d.

Another strategic focus of the Digital Turn program is funding the creation of new learning materials. In
2015, the Ministry of Education and Research established a platform called e-Schoolbag that allows
teachers and students to collect and use digital learning materials in one environment (see also Chapter 5).
Through the portal, teachers can use learning materials located on different websites to combine videos,

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 131

games, worksheets and other materials and create learning kits of materials that are then easily accessible
to students and colleagues. Interactive learning materials are independent learning objects, similar to Lego
blocks, which teachers and students can reuse one by one, add to a new collection on the e-Schoolbag
platform, as well as change and supplement. E-schoolbag is constantly updated and expanded in order to
popularize its use among teachers and improve the quality of the user experience. Due to COVID-19, the
use of the e-Schoolbag increased six-fold in 2020 compared to the previous year (Information Technology
Foundation for Education 2020). Similarly, use of other e-services multiplied during the pandemic,
especially the use of e-tests and the Moodle learning environment.

In order to increase the effectiveness of learning and teaching, and to support the personalization of
teaching, interoperable tools and services are created that support descriptive, predictive and prescriptive
learning analytics for different target groups involved in teaching. The aim is to build an ecosystem of
interoperable online services for schools in line with the following requirements (Küngas 2020):

• All educational online services have a Single Sign-On (HarID) function.

• The data and metadata stored in various educational information systems are accessible both in
human- and machine-readable forms.
• Every digital object (including learning object) has a unique identifier.
• Information systems and e-services exchange data on their usage and interactions.
• All learning interactions across multiple services and platforms are recorded in a standardized
format.
• An xAPI compatible learning record store (LRS) is the heart of the xAPI ecosystem, receiving,
storing and returning data about learning experiences, achievements and job performance. An
LRS is needed in order to do anything with xAPI. Every other tool which sends or retrieves
learning activity data will interact with the LRS as the central store; interaction logs can be
analyzed in combination with “slow data” drawn from the official registries, based on the needs of
various parties.
• The outputs of analytic models are accessible/usable by humans and AI agents.
• Users may grant access to their data to various interoperable services.

The goal of the new ecosystem of interoperable online services for schools is to make education data from
different sources available for building analytics dashboards and enabling predictive analytics for different
actors. For example, Schoolaby is a Distance Learning System for delivering online education, including
both subject content and a structure or process for content delivery, that uses data mining and
recommender features. In the future Schoolaby will also offer learning path analysis, with some AI

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 132

elements (https://schoolaby.com). Schoolaby is not unique; there are so many start-ups, NGOs, and
companies designing solutions for schools and kindergartens that Estonia established the umbrella
organization EdTech Estonia (https://www.edtechestonia.org/home).

Looking to the future, Timo Tobias Ley, a professor of learning analytics and educational innovation at
Tallinn University, outlined three key trends:

1. Enlarging the sources of data: Traditional AI systems are built on limited data which includes
mainly answer patterns. There is a trend — referred to as Multimodal Learning Analytics — to
enlarge the number of sources from which data are collected, including expanding the classroom’s
usefulness as a source of data. This necessitates bottom-up oriented data processing strategies such
as machine learning.
2. AI in the service of human decision making: There is a trend to understand AI as hybrid systems
in which intelligent technology and human decision making together optimize the learning
experience. This means that human stakeholders (teachers, school leaders) need to be involved in
creating the systems, and AI needs to be comprehensible, transparent and support decision making
("explainable AI"). This leads to creating dashboards and other technology to support the teacher
in the classroom.
3. Theory-based AI: There is a trend to integrate theoretical models of learning into the design of AI
systems. For example, "cognitive learning analytics" integrates cognitive computational models
into the design of personalization technology.

These future perspectives of education technology are key to keep in mind when developing the education
cloud system. The aim is to develop the educational cloud environment, which provides access to
educational databases and e-services like Estonian Education Information System (EHIS), Examination
Information System (EIS), Estonian School Information System (EKIS), study information systems, e-
diaries, e-guides, study material repositories and various language learning environments. The cloud
information system would provide teachers, students and parents a good overview of the existing digital
learning resources and the opportunity to use them conveniently.

Curriculum Shifts Towards Personalized Learning

Estonia’s traditional national curriculum is also adapting to better meet societal expectations and future
needs. The curriculum will change in four key ways: 1) better reflect labor market needs; 2) shift towards

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 133

deep learning and better reflect an understanding of child development and the processes of learning; 3)
shift towards more personalized learning; 4) pay more attention to general skills.

Considering Labor Market Trends—OSKA Program. The Estonian Qualifications Authority

launched OKSA in 2014 to better connect the education system with the expectations of the Estonian
labor market. The program projects labor needs over the next 10 years, with the aim “to learn and teach
the future skills” for Estonia’s economic development.

Each year, OKSA issues recommendations for training requirements for five to six economic or business
sectors. For instance, in 2019, OSKA conducted an analysis of the following sectors:

• Film and Video, Art and Design, Journalism, Content Creation, and Language, Marketing and
Communications and Printing
• Performing Arts, Music, Libraries, Museology, Crafts, and Sport
• Real Estate Services and Facility Maintenance
• Security and Law
• Water, Waste and Environmental Management
• The Coordination Council, OKSA’s governing body, decides which sectors will be analyzed each
year, with all economic sectors analyzed once every five or six years. In the intervening years, expert
panels for each sector keep an eye on how recommendations from the most recent analysis are being
implemented.
• The Coordination Council approves the list of sectoral expert panels and approves sectoral reports
and proposals. All reports are publicly available, and educational institutions try to follow the
recommendations of the OSKA expert panels. The Coordination Council consists of representatives
from the Ministry of Education and Research, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications,
Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of the Interior, the Bank of Estonia, the
Estonian Employers’ Confederation, the Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Estonian
Service Unions’ Confederation, the Estonian Trade Union Confederation and the Estonian
Unemployment Insurance Fund.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 134

 Box 13. Example of OSKA Suggestion Package

An example of OSKA “suggestion package” concerning the Estonian Education Sector:

• According to our calculations the Estonian Education Sector needs 850 new
employees each year, including over 650 kindergarten, school and vocational teachers
and university lecturers, over 70 support specialists and over 130 educational workers.
Taking into consideration Estonia's goal that 60% of the young should be involved in
youth work, the need for new youth workers grows (in 2017, 54% of the youth were
involved in youth work). In 2018, about 740 people graduated after studying curricula
related to education and less than 700 of them made it to the job market. We can
conclude that in the near future the need for a work force in education will exceed
training offers. The need for a work force and training offers are relatively in balance
among classroom teachers and kindergarten teachers but the need for subject teachers
and support specialists greatly exceeds the training offers for them.

Source: Mets, Viia, 2018

Departing from such a “diagnosis,” OSKA presents several suggestions, for example:

• Innove, in cooperation with the University of Tartu and Tallinn University, will
encourage the flexible retraining of teachers at general education schools and
vocational schools to become natural sciences or mathematics teachers.
• Smart Specialising Committee, in cooperation with partners (Ministry of Economic
Affairs and Communications, Ministry of Education and Research, University of
Tartu, Tallinn University) will add all BA level mathematics and natural sciences
curricula into the Smart Specialising growth fields special allowance recipients list.
• University of Tartu and Tallinn University, in cooperation with partners (Estonian
Teacher's Union, Estonian Class Teachers Union, Estonian School Leaders
Association), will find ways to motivate BA mathematics and natural sciences
graduates to continue studying the subject teachers’ curriculum. They will add
didactics and practice to the BA curriculum and develop a special program, the
"Young Nature and Engineering Scientists go to School."

Source: Estonian Qualifications Authority, 2018

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 135

Updating Curricula to Focus on Developmental Stages of the Learner Recent proposals for
updating the basic school curricula have included the expansion of the traditional subject- and
competency-based curriculum to include a dimension based on the developmental stages of thinking
(Toomela 2020). This perspective suggests that a curriculum cannot simply focus on knowledge and skills;
it must also teach the student to develop different kinds of thinking. This is based on an understanding of
the stages of human cognitive development, distinguishing between everyday thinking, logical thinking,
and systemic thinking. At the everyday thinking stage, learning takes place through external activities and
is based on the real activities of the learner. At the logical thinking stage, learning becomes language
based. Initially, language-based learning is expressed through speech: describing one's own and others'
activities, or sharing one’s conclusions, generalizations and reasoning with others. As logical thinking
develops, the focus shifts to internal reasoning, or “inner speech,” while external speech becomes the
vehicle for thought. At the systemic stage of thinking, which typically starts at the end of basic school, the
learner becomes adept at using different cognitive skills for different tasks or activities.

This perspective suggests that systemic thinking is a prerequisite for acquiring general competencies and
meeting the individual and global challenges of today's world. The authors of this approach argue that
more purposeful support for the development of thinking skills in both national and individual school
curricula is the most effective way to help people succeed amid uncertainty. They suggest that the
traditional curriculum "with more and more knowledge and skills" is inadequate preparation for our
rapidly changing world.

Shifts Towards More Personalized Learning During the last decade, Estonia has tried to shift to
more personalized teaching and learning (Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020, Education Strategy
2021-2035). One of the first steps toward this goal is the creation of flexible learning paths supported by
modern technology. The Education and Youth Authority (Harno) is coordinating the development of
programs that would allow teachers and learners to share feedback on the learning process, and—taking
things a step further— show what the learner has done, why he/she did so and what the gaps in his/her
knowledge or skills might be. The data collected through the Examination Information System (EIS),
which include results of grade level work and examinations and tests of learning and communication
competencies, allow the teacher to follow the learner's progress through different levels of education, to
notice phases of development and to recommend suitable studies. Another aim of this personal learning
infrastructure is to give schools feedback on the impact of new ways of learning and teaching on student
progress (Tammets n.d.).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 136

In a recent initiative, Estonia created digital learning resources to cover the whole national curriculum in
four fields at the upper secondary level: mathematics, natural science, arts and social science. Learning
materials are open source so that teachers can modify them for use in different platforms (eSchoolbag,
Moodle, etc.). Under this initiative, e-Textbooks are reconceptualized as aggregations of both
professionally developed and user-contributed content accessible through a wide range of devices. The
following principles are followed during the creation process:

• Learning resources are dynamic in nature.

• Teachers may select resources and integrate content, for example, history + arts = arts history,
economy + geography = economic geography.
• The teacher is a creator who chooses, re-uses and remixes materials.
• The student is a creator of and contributor to his/her own textbook.

The project also uses learning analytics to collect data to monitor students' progress. The next phase will
include more automatization and data analytics regarding learning materials. Ideally, the infrastructure
should support personalization without additional burden on teachers. Data-driven services, backed up
with modern AI technologies, support evidence-based decision-making with minimal delay. The
infrastructure provides insights and diagnostics for each individual student in real time. Learning analytics
dashboards provide visualizations, which help users interpret students' learning behavior: how they learn,
what motivates them and what are their “blockers.” Teachers can intervene whenever needed, not after
failures at national exams or high-impact tests.

Professor of educational technology Margus Pedaste from the University of Tartu put it this way in
conversation with this study’s authors:

The main technological challenge for the future is how to support self-regulated collaborative problem
solving in online settings in a personalized way. We already have tools for this—

Open Learner Models that make the data about the learning process visible to the learner allowing
combining automatic model-based personalization but also adaptation to learners’ self-directed process.
However, in order to feed Open Learner Models with high quality meaningful data and to make good
adaptive models based on the analysis and prediction models, we also need innovation in learning
analytics, educational data mining and artificial intelligence.

The big challenges for future technology are how to collect data in real time about cognitive,
metacognitive, motivational and emotional processes. A lot of this information is not visible or consciously

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 137

expressed by learners and must be obtained by mining existing datasets for its digital traces and
determining what is meaningful.

Emphasizing General Competencies Estonian national curricula have always emphasized general
skills and competencies (social skills, learning to learn skills, self-regulation, digital competence, and others
as discussed in Chapter 3).

Box 14. Example of One Teacher’s Perspective

I would begin with expressing my opinion that mistakes are not just unavoidable in the
learning process but even expected. I have discussed with my students why making
mistakes is useful in learning and how making mistakes, which is of course followed by
analyzing the mistakes and that whole puzzle and effort, helps to develop their long-
term memory. My students choose their favorite color writing instrument for correcting
their mistakes, which helps embed in them that mistakes have a positive effect on
learning outcomes and learning process.

In addition we analyze the importance of activities that contribute to forming long-term

memory contents—remembering, formulating and passing on the study material orally
or in writing. The children are used to performing small memory content activating
remembering tasks that teach them to find necessary information from their memory.

I want my students to understand how to study so that they can remember what they
learned tomorrow and in the far future. I support this through different lesson activities
and methods. For example, reading a new text multiple times is not an effective study
method—it only makes the students excellent readers but it is more important that the
students have the skills to process new information through correct learning strategies.

In conclusion, it is a process where constant discussion and analyzing of learning and

thinking takes place, where the emphasis is not on right or wrong, but on explaining the
answer.
Source: Kadri, 3rd grade teacher, Personal conversation

The most fundamental general competence is learning to learn. Learning to learn can be understood as
regulating and managing the process of deep learning (Kikas and Soodla, 2019). Learning to learn

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 138

requires knowledge of the learning process, motivational beliefs, cognitive and academic skills, awareness
of one’s needs and available opportunities, and the ability to overcome obstacles in order to learn
successfully. Metacognitive knowledge and skills are a vital dimension of learning to learn (Kikas 2020).

Learning to learn has been recognized as an important basis for learning since the launch of the first
national curriculum in 1996. To evaluate learning to learn skills, a national competition for 6th grade
students on learning competencies has been held annually since 2002. The competition is financed by the
government but organized by universities (University of Tartu Science School n.d.).

Students who enter the competition must demonstrate practical observation and presentation skills, as
well as aural comprehension and memorization skills by listening to and analyzing texts. All tasks are
solved by teams, which means that teamwork, planning and allocating tasks are important skills also.

Estonia’s focus on general skills has required national standard-determining tests to assess general
competencies. Currently the Education and Youth Authority (Harno) prepares and mediates these tests for
teachers to use in their classrooms (based on teachers’ own initiative and interest) developed in
cooperation with university researchers. They include the following:

• Learning, communication and self-determination competence tests for the 1st and 2nd stages of
study
• Reading and mathematics competence tests for the 1st and 2nd stages of study
• Digital competence test for the 3rd stage of study and upper secondary school

Teachers get the feedback report of test results, which characterizes the sub-competencies of tested
students. The data a teacher receives on her class are analyzed, with students assigned to one of three
groups: low, medium and high. For example, according to the results of a learning competence test on
learning-related beliefs and motivation (see Figure 12, next page), most students belong to the medium
group in the growth mindset category, while in the interest category, more than half of the students are in
the low group. Learning motivation is more external and competitiveness is high, as almost half of the
students report that it is important to be better than others.

According to the results of a learning competence test focused on thinking and attention, students’ level of
scientific conceptual thinking and flexibility of thinking is high (see Figure 13, next page). Their choice of
learning strategies is mixed, but most students don’t choose the “easiest first” strategy, suggesting they are
making meaningful choices in planning their learning.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 139

 Figure 12. Sample Class Feedback Report of the Learning Competence Test
for Beliefs and Motivation

Source: 2020 School monitoring survey by Tallinn University

Figure 13. Sample Class Feedback Report of the Learning Competence Test
for Thinking and Attention

Source: 2020 School monitoring survey by Tallinn University

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 140

Special training for teachers on how to use general competence tests to support student development is
offered as a part of university continuing education courses (Kikas, Soodla 2018).

Identifying Models for Education of Minority Groups

About a quarter of the Estonian population speaks Russian as their mother tongue. In addition,
immigration to Estonia has increased, especially following Estonia's accession to the European Union in
2004. The large Russian-speaking minority and the growing new immigrant community are a challenge
for Estonian education.

After World War II, two separate school systems emerged in Estonia: Estonian-language and Russian-
language schools. During the last ten years, the number of students in Estonian-language schools has
increased 12 percent while the number in Russian-language schools has decreased 17 percent. That said,
Russian-language schools (in which all instruction occurs in Russian) remain a substantial part of the
Estonian learning system.

The future of Russian-language schools has been a “hot” topic of political discussion in Estonian
education. The question is whether Estonia still needs separate schools or whether it is possible to teach
young people together in Estonian-language schools. Proponents of co-teaching argue that linguistically
segregated schools result in a segregated labor market. By studying together, without physical segregation,
it is likely that a more unified social network will develop, which will support people throughout their
work lives.

The need for early language learning has become a prominent issue in recent public debate. The results of
a 2017 public survey on the integration of Estonian society show that the majority of Estonian people
(including 77 percent of native Estonians and 79 percent of people of other nationalities) believe that
Estonian-language instruction should start in kindergarten. An early start ensures better language skills
development, readiness to enter the Estonian language education space and a more equal footing in
academic and professional life. Native Estonians and immigrants of other nationalities have become more
open to multicultural educational institutions.

The share of parents of non-Estonian-speaking children who chose to send their child to a school with
Estonian as the language of instruction is increasing. In the 2019-2020 academic year, 2.3 percent of
students who spoke Russian at home studied in basic schools where instruction was delivered in Estonian.
Three years ago the share was 1.9 percent. To take one school as an example, at Kuristiku Gymnasium in

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 141

Tallinn the share of Russian first graders has increased to 50 percent, up from 30 percent three years
prior.

In the last decade, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), which is used in both Estonian-
and Russian-language schools, has become a dominant approach. CLIL is an umbrella concept that
covers various learning solutions and methods (for example, immersion, family exchange, project learning,
outdoor learning, etc.). The key feature of CLIL is the synthesis of knowledge and skills in different fields,
with a particular focus on the acquisition of language, subject and learning skills (Mehisto, et al. 2010).
Use of CLIL is growing among both Estonian- and Russian-language schools and preschools.

Looking to the future, several other school models are under discussion, including 1) Co-learning school
(2016); 2) Human Rights Education Concept (2017); and 3) Unified Estonian school (2018).

The concept of Estonian co-learning schools emerged from the theory and framework of multicultural
education by James A. Banks, developed for the United States. Co-learning is focused on quality
requirements for schools where many students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds study
together. Language learning is central to this concept, but training and counselling to raise cultural and
integration awareness are also important.

According to the concept of human rights education, schools should pay special attention to the learner's
ethnic, ideological, cultural, gender and religious background. Although the teaching and learning of
human rights is a part of Estonia’s national curricula, the key is to follow the principles of human rights
systematically in the teaching process.

The aim of the unified Estonian school is to integrate national minorities and immigrants into Estonian
society. The idea is that schools are multicultural by nature, so the school's educational work should adapt
to the needs of a multicultural society (Kivistik, et al. 2019). Tallinn Open school is testing this model (see
Box 15, next page).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 142

 Box 15. Example Tallinn Open School Trilingual Immersion Program

In 2017 the Open School, located in Tallinn, implemented a trilingual immersion

program for the first time in Estonia. In a trilingual immersion program students with
three different native tongues (Estonian, Russian, English) are in the same study group.
This allows students with different backgrounds to learn different languages in a
meaningful context, both in everyday communication and in relation to subject
knowledge. In early stages subjects are taught in at least two languages (Estonian and
Russian) and there is always one teacher who speaks the students’ native tongue present.
The Open School curriculum is characterized by integration – multilingual learning is
integrated with the exact sciences through project learning and globally recognized
evidence-based learning with social and emotional learning programs (Social and
Emotional Learning Programs). Project training takes place both in the student’s native
tongue and in foreign languages, and external experts are involved in the projects if
necessary. The school’s extracurricular activities tend to be in science but there are also
hobby groups where children can develop their thinking, language and art skills, and
sports.

Source: The Open School webpage

The Well-being of Students and Teachers

In recent years, some education stakeholders have begun to question whether the Estonian work hard and
aim high mentality should remain the dominant model for schooling, especially as it impacts the well-being
of students and teachers.

On the 2018 PISA, Estonian students’ “overall satisfaction with life” ranked 36th among 72 countries—a
middling result. However, when looking specifically at “school satisfaction or school happiness,” the situation
is more concerning. According to a 2020 survey by Tallinn University of primary school and gymnasium
students (4,850 participants from 6th to 12th grade), the share of students who said they “like to go to
school” and “like learning” was surprisingly low (Figure 14).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 143

 Figure 14. Student School Satisfaction Survey

Source: 2020 School monitoring survey by Tallinn University

Only one third of 6th to 8th graders agreed that they like school and feel comfortable during classes; among
10th to 12th graders, the share of students who like to go to school is about half.

The very concept of school happiness is quite complicated, as there are different degrees of “unhappiness” in
school, ranging from minor discomfort to burnout, depression and even suicidal feelings. A Tallinn
University school monitoring survey also measured burnout, depressive symptoms and sleep deficit.
Results indicate that about 20-25 percent of students may have some problems with their mental health
(Figure 15).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 144

 Figure 15. Survey of Student Mental Health

Source: 20 School monitoring survey by Tallinn University

There are several studies addressing mental health issues among Estonian schoolchildren, especially
teenagers. Grinberg indicates that about one-quarter of Estonian schoolchildren are experiencing school
burnout, and that the strongest predictor of burnout is schoolwork overload (Grinberg 2017). In Estonia,
13- to 15-year-old students usually spend seven hours a day at school plus two hours on homework, which
amounts to a longer day than their parents spend at work.

In Mark’s study (2018), 26 percent of students reported depressive feelings (i.e., for two or more weeks had
felt so sad every day that they had given up their usual activities). According to the WHO-5 score of well-
being, 19 percent of Estonian schoolchildren are distressed and 5 percent are severely distressed, with girls
(6 percent) somewhat worse off than boys (3 percent).

Among 13- to 15-year-olds, almost 13 percent had experienced suicidal ideation during the previous 12
months. Both suicidal ideation and depressive feelings were more common among girls than boys. Studies
indicate smoking, alcohol consumption, physical fighting and bullying as the main risk factors for suicidal
ideation. Also, communication difficulties with parents (especially with the mother) were associated with
increased odds of suicidal ideation (Mark 2018).

The mental health of students has gained more and more public attention during recent years. Many
believe that burnout-depression-suicidal thoughts result from a school system that is too competitive and
too results-oriented, at least for some students. While a majority of parents and teachers still have

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 145

confidence in the current system and believe school should be first and foremost a place for hard work,
Estonia has already taken some practical steps to improve the well-being of students. These include the
recent launch of a program to expand school psychologist services as well as improved access to
psychological counselling for students.

Low levels of well-being do not only affect students. In fact, low levels of teacher well-being are thought to
be among the reasons for declining interest in the profession. In surveys from 2016 and 2019 by Tallinn
University, teachers listed “less workload” as one of the most desired changes to their job. Figure 16
presents the other responses of Estonian teachers to the question “What are the most important changes
in your work you are looking for in coming years?”

Figure 16. Survey of Teachers’ Hopes for Changes in Their Work

Source: Tallinn University School Monitoring Surveys 2016, 2019

However, putting teacher workload into a wider context, the situation becomes more complex. Measured
in hours (contact lessons and hours spent preparing for contact lessons and on other work assignments),
the workload of Estonian teachers is only slightly higher than that of teachers in other OECD countries,
according to TALIS. When long school holidays are factored in, the sum of Estonian teachers' annual
work hours is comparable to other countries. The stress level of Estonian teachers is also comparable: 17.9
percent of Estonian teachers reported that they experience work related stress, similar to the OECD
average of 18 percent (Talis 2018).

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 146

Regardless, the well-being of students and teachers is an emerging issue in Estonian educational debate,
and it seems likely that both attitudes and practices will change in coming years. Estonia aims to balance
its traditional academically demanding approach with more attention to student well-being and
encouraging joy in learning.

Looking to the Future: Strategies and Development Plans

In the final part of the chapter, we move away from grassroots-level changes and look at the Estonian
learning system from the national perspective. Our goal is to analyze national development plans as a way
of understanding Estonia’s approach to learning in the context of its changing society.

A Vision for the Future

At the national level, the Strategy Unit of the Government Office of Estonia and the Foresight Center of
the Parliament are responsible for the analysis of the external environment and future trends, as well as
for drawing up the development strategies and scenarios arising from them. The National Development
Strategy Estonia 2035 sets strategic targets for the next 15 years and identifies the changes needed to
achieve them. The Foresight Center is a think tank within the Chancellery of the Parliament that analyzes
long-term development in society and the economy. The Center is an advisory body; its mission is to
contribute to forward-looking policymaking, to analyze long-term developments in society, and to
describe new trends and developments, as well as to propose alternative development scenarios.

Estonia 2035 outlines several powerful global trends: rapid changes in technology; growing migration and
urbanization; environmental degradation and continued climate change; ageing of the population,
especially in Europe; the weakening of international institutions and changes in transnational power
centers; new threats of conflict; changes to the nature of work; and new business models (World in 2035
2018). Building on this analysis of global change, Estonia 2035 offers five broad development goals for the
country: 1) intelligent, active and healthy people living in Estonia; 2) the Estonian society as caring,
cooperative and open; 3) Estonia as a country with a secure and high-quality living environment; 4) the
Estonian economy as strong, innovative and responsible; 5) Estonia as an innovative, reliable and human-
centered country (Estonia 2035 2020).

In order to move towards these broadly formulated goals, the strategy sets out 27 specific areas of reform.
These include increasing social cohesion and equal opportunities in education and in the labor market;
improving the quality of higher education and enhancing its funding; preparing for the work of the future;

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 147

and increasing the unity of governance and ensuring a smoothly operating state. In general, Estonia 2035
has avoided setting specific timelines for its targets and planned reforms.

Regarding education, the “Estonia 2035” strategy paper specifically outlines skills and labor market
expectations, focusing mainly on the needs of learners and the goal of making the education system more
flexible—that is, to ensure the abundance and availability of learning opportunities, as well as a smooth
and flexible movement between levels and types of education. In addition to proposing several changes,
such as the better integration of formal and non-formal education, general and vocational education, and
the optimization of the school network, the strategy highlights the need to teach both general
competencies and skills. It also emphasizes the importance of strengthening cooperation with employers
and promoting practical experience and skills as part of general education. Finally, the strategy stresses the
importance of non-cognitive skills, including them in the curricula for different levels and types of
education, although without specifying what the teaching of these skills would look like.

The strategy includes a list of indicators with targets set for 2035. In terms of education, an increase in the
overall level of education is expected by 2035. Among 30- to 34-year-olds, for example, the share of
people with higher education in Estonia should rise to 50% (from 47.3% in 2018). The strategy also
foresees an increase in the proportion of people with doctoral degrees; by 2035 this number should rise to
1.5% among 25- to 64-year-olds (from 0.85% in 2017) (Estonia 2035 2020, p. 48).

The current Estonian thinking about future trends and national-level development aims is characterized
by the following general attitudes:

• Stability is the underlying premise of the future. Although future development trends are
described in the national documents, their link with the national goals is weak. Estonian views of
the future assume that both the global and national environment will remain largely similar to
current conditions. Today's political context (especially EU and NATO) is expected to work in the
same way; we are expected to adapt ourselves to environmental challenges; we will continue to
embrace technological innovations, etc.
• Development planning has become more state centered. In Estonia, national
development plans are carried out by relevant state authorities. Although academia, civil society
organizations and experts are involved, the Strategy Unit of the Government Office of Estonia and
the Foresight Center of the Parliament prepares the final documents. This approach differs
significantly from previous practice, where the organizers of national level development planning
were mainly non-governmental organizations — the Development Fund, the Estonian

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 148

 Cooperation Assembly, etc. Perhaps for this reason, nationwide strategy papers increasingly
resemble the government's work plan, complete with relatively detailed technical goals and
activities.
• Vision is marred by lack of clear priorities and avoidance of challenging topics.
Estonia 2035 promotes balanced development across all sectors of society yet avoids independent
analysis or goalsetting around painful problems and bottlenecks. As a result, several issues that
cause tension and disagreement in Estonian society have not been addressed in the strategy papers,
presumably for political reasons. These include the gender pay gap (at which Estonia is the EU’s
worst offender), the future of Russian-language schools in Estonia and the opportunities and risks
facing Estonia in relation to the increasing (global) competition for talent and related immigration
issues. Although these issues are addressed through expert analysis (Elias-Taal 2018, p. 39; Terk
2019, p. 54), the Estonia 2035 strategy does not set clear goals related to such uneasy topics.

In creating its national plan for the future, Estonia has reached the stage where researchers in the field of
future studies describe “future visions” (characterized by broad strategic planning with strong ethical
dimensions) with more narrowly sectoral and often technical-style objectives and activities (Terk 2018, p.
228). The goals of Estonia’s strategy papers are predominantly a continuation and acceleration of current
developments, rather than a fundamental innovation or response to changes in the external environment.
As such, they form a contrast to the strategies adopted a decade or two ago, which called for the rapid
digitalization of society and a radical decrease in the number of local municipalities.

Future Strategies for the Learning System

The Estonian Ministry of Education and Research is responsible for proposing and elaborating
developmental strategies for the learning system. From 2014 until the end of 2020, the Estonian Lifelong
Learning Strategy 2020 guided Estonian educational policy (Ministry of Education and Research 2014b).
An interim evaluation of the Lifelong Learning Strategy, carried out in 2019, outlined several positive
changes to the learning system (Ministry of Education and Research 2020c):

• Teachers' salary has grown almost 70 percent in the last six years: The average gross salary
for general education teachers went from 930 euros per month in 2013 to 1,576 euros in 2019, or 112
percent of the average Estonian salary across all professions. The average salary for vocational
educators came close to that of general education teachers, at 1,513 euros per month.
• Students' access to computers and smart devices in schools has improved year to year:
Students like to use computers while studying. Secondary school graduates have good information

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 149

 and communication skills, with 83 percent of students scoring average or above average in national
tests.
• School culture is becoming more student-oriented and popularity of programs designed
to enhance student well-being has increased significantly: As of 2019, over 340 schools had
joined the Interesting School program run by the Ministry of Education and Research. The
program's aim is to make learning in Estonian schools more attractive by fostering the curiosity and
creativity of students.
• Adult (25+) participation in vocational education has grown rapidly: By 2019, adult learners
made up 41.7 percent of all vocational education students, an increase from 26.3 percent in 2013.
• The number of upper-secondary schools has decreased: From 2013 to 2019, about fifty
schools closed, decreasing the number from over 200 to 157. The current goal is a further reduction
to 100 upper-secondary schools. Schools have been closed due to the decrease in student population,
but also due to consolidation into bigger state gymnasiums designed to offer more choices for students
based on their individual needs.

The evaluation also outlined several challenging areas and bottlenecks:

• The state must provide a stable teaching staff in addition to raising salaries. There is a
shortage of teachers (particularly nature, science and mathematics teachers) and the retention of
younger teachers is a problem; a large portion of graduates will work as teachers for only a short time.
• There is a growing need to prevent school bullying, improve opportunities for physical
activities in school (including a flexible learning environment) and improve the content of the
curriculum to make it more relevant for students. These concerns are especially relevant for Russian-
language schools, where students experience more bullying and less support from the school staff.
• Support for special needs students should be improved. The number of students who need
support and better inclusion in school life is growing. Yet only about half of teachers believe that
support services provided by the schools are adequate, suggesting these services need to be expanded
or redesigned.
• Major gender gaps remain in education: more men than women are at a low education level,
and overall men are less motivated to study than women. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, considerably
fewer men enter higher education, with few signs this trend will change.

The Education Strategy for 2021–2035 is approved, setting the targets for Estonian education for the next
decade and beyond (Education Strategy 2021–2035, n.d). According to the 2035 strategy, the general
objective of Estonian education is “To equip the population of Estonia with the knowledge, skills and

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 150

attitudes that prepare people to fulfil their potential in personal, occupational and social life and
contribute to the promotion of quality of life in Estonia, as well as global sustainable development”
(Education Strategy 2021–2035).

To achieve this general objective, the 2035 strategy sets out three strategic goals:

1. Learning opportunities are diverse and accessible, and the education system will enable
smooth transitions between different levels and types of education.
2. Estonia has competent and motivated teachers and heads of schools, a diverse learning
environment and a learner-centered approach to learning and teaching.
3. Learning options remain responsive to the development needs of society and the labor
market.

For each goal, the 2035 strategy sets out action trajectories and describes the activities needed to ensure
their achievement, as well as the indicators that will be used to measure success.

The education strategy 2021–2035 highlights the role of education in developing good citizens and
responsible employees and emphasizes the wider significance of education in the development of culture
and society. Regarding urbanization and a shrinking and ageing population, Estonia plans to increase the
efficiency of the education system by reorganizing the school network; improving links between non-
formal and formal education as well as between general and vocational education; and defining more
clearly the roles of central and local authorities and the relationship between schools and guardians.

As far as the content of education, the strategy focuses not only on academic knowledge but also the
development of general and transversal competencies. Relying on recommendations from the OSKA
program, both changes to the nature of work and the transformation of organizations have important
implications for the future of learning and teaching. According to the strategy, the central challenge is the
need to combine deep knowledge and skills with general competencies:

The set of skills needed will change from a narrow specialization to become more cross-sectoral. This
means that the ideal employee of the future has the so-called “T-shaped” competence, i.e. with deep
knowledge in at least one area, with the skills to understand and link different disciplines and people
dealing with them. In addition to being competent in his or her profession, a future employee is expected
to be significantly better in “soft skills,” such as communication skills, perceptions of different cultures
and adaptation to them, etc. (Pärna 2016 p. 45)

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 151

As with Estonia’s broader national development plans, the new strategy for education stresses continuity.
The nation does not anticipate sharp turnarounds or fundamental reforms over the next 15 years. The
2014 strategy outlined five priority areas where deeper changes were needed; the 2035 document presents
several specific aims to be achieved but does not outline priorities or foresee deep reforms.

Still, digital solutions are presented as the key to diversifying and enhancing learning as well as making
learning more accessible for different target groups. The new strategy lists several ways to ensure greater
digitalization of the education system:

• Readiness of school teams to exploit technology and openness to educational innovations

• Valuing evidence-based principles in decision-making and taking advantage of the potential of big
data
• Wider use of smart learning tools and methodologies to help personalize learning
• Introduction of digital diaries to increase people's ownership of learning, as well as their ability to
analyze and plan their educational needs and careers

The strategy identifies as a special aim the digital inclusion of people with lower skills and education so
that they are better equipped to take advantage of the opportunities created by technology. The strategy
stipulates that these ambitious goals will require continued investment in the digital infrastructure of
educational institutions and a focus on increasing the interoperability and ease of use of information
systems.

Support for the further use of technology in education comes from other government initiatives as well.
The report of the Working Group on Artificial Intelligence (AI) (established in 2018 at the initiative of the
Republic of Estonia Government Office) considers the role of artificial intelligence in both the Estonian
public and private sectors. It presents proposals to ensure the clarity of the Estonian legal space around
AI; to coordinate supervision on matters related to AI; to prepare specialists in the AI field more widely;
and to better inform the public about new possibilities related to the field (Estonian artificial intelligence
2019).

Summary

Putting the Education Strategy 2021–2035 into the context of our previously outlined five “key qualities” of
Estonian education, we draw the following conclusions:

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 152

Aim high and work hard mindset is continuously emphasized as a principle, but often alongside an
emphasis on the well-being of students. The strategy states: “The application of the modern approach to
learning supports the acquisition of good knowledge of subjects and expertise, with the ability to apply
them in practice, as well as the development of learning, cooperation and self-management skills.
Subjective well-being related to better physical and mental health should be improved.”

Broad societal support for education will continue to play an important role. The development plan
states the goal of “… creating a comprehensive solution to take into account non-formal and informal
learning in formal studies, so that refresher training curricula can take greater account of what has been
learned in various environments (digital environment, workplace, museum, youth center and youth
program, hobby school, environmental education center, etc.).”

Autonomy of educators is not expected to change in any substantial way, despite the shift to more
centralized strategic planning. At the school level there are continuing calls to increase diversity, including
a greater “opening” of the teaching profession to people of different educational backgrounds. The aim of
the development plan is to “create new flexible opportunities for learning and/or taking up the office of a
vocational teacher, teacher or support specialist, including involving more people from outside the
education sector in order to teach practical skills and provide experience in the world of employment.”
Even the creation of the network of state-owned gymnasiums is presented not as a means of state control,
but an avenue toward better quality and a wider spectrum of choice for teachers and students.

Evidence-based and equity-promoting governance also continues to be strongly emphasized: “The

development of the education system is evidence-based, researchers in different fields are more involved in
the design of educational processes and policies.”

A diverse and responsive school network will require, according to the development plan,
“..specific (regional) solutions, taking into account regional cultural environments and development
background.” In addition, “… the concept of regional education centers with a focus on the integration of
vocational and general secondary education will be developed and implemented.” The aim is to support
the organizational culture of educational institutions so that they become “caring and collaborative,
supporting … the well-being of all actors, including better physical and mental health, constructive
resolution of disagreements and crises.”

Thus, one may conclude that the aim high and work hard mentality, in combination with multiple
contributors to education and autonomous schools, will continue to be the foundation of the Estonian
learning system. At the same time, some new challenges are emerging for the system, especially the issue

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 153

of student and teacher well-being. Placing our national goals beside wider trends of global politics,
economy and business, Heidmets and Eisenschmidt, professors from Tallinn University, outlined three
general challenges for the Estonian learning system in coming decades (Heidmets and Eisenschmidt 2020,
p. 313):

1. A shift towards a more comprehensive view of child development. Teaching and

learning should focus more on “whole person development.” In addition to professional
knowledge, aptitudes such as social and emotional maturity, self-regulation capacity, physical
fitness, and resilience in the face of a rapidly evolving technological world are increasingly in
demand. The school of the future should not merely be a workshop for producing professionals
with narrow skill sets but aim to support holistic individuals who cope well with the changing
world.
2. More emphasis on individual agency, or each person’s independent capacity to act.
Internal motivation and the ability to make independent choices and shape one’s own behavioral
strategies acquire more and more value in our increasingly complex and uncertain world. The role
of school is to support creativity as well as capacity for responsive and evidence-based decision
making.
3. Stronger promotion of wider identity and responsibility. In line with agency, students are
expected to have a broad understanding of their own communities and of the world and develop a
proportionate sense of responsibility. Schools should promote values and behavior which allow the
younger generation to see themselves as a part of wider social and environmental communities,
with a sense of responsibility expanding outward from the individual to the entire planet. The
young generation is expected to be “… amplified and responsible, placing cooperation above
competition and preferring sustainability to short-term benefit” (Schleicher 2018, p. 3).

The hope is that an increased emphasis on individual agency and global responsibility will not endanger
the high performance of Estonian students but support their long-standing position among the top
performers in the world.

Building a World-Class Learning System in Estonia 154

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