Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions

Added Material: AP Summary of Rules for Means and Variances

Objectives: Students will be able to:
Compute the Expected value of a random variable
Compute the variance and standard deviation of a random variable
Understand how transformations affect the mean and variance

Vocabulary:
Random variable – a numerical measure of the outcome of a probability experiment, so its value is determine by chance.
Expected value –the mean of a random variable, E(x)
Variance of random variable – weighted average of the squared deviations from the mean

Key Concepts: Summary of Rules for Means and Variances

For any random variables X and Y:

For independent random variables X and Y:

► so and

► so and

► so

Note that

Homework: correct chapter 5 tests

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Section 6.1: Discrete Random Variables
Objectives: Students will be able to:
Distinguish between discrete and continuous random variables
Identify discrete probability distributions
Construct probability histograms
Compute and interpret the mean of a discrete random variable
Interpret the mean of a discrete random variable as an expected value
Compute the variance and standard deviation of a discrete random variable

Vocabulary:
Random variable – a numerical measure of the outcome of a probability experiment, so its value is determine by chance.
Discrete random variable – has finite or countable number of values
Continuous random variable – has infinitely many values
Probability distribution of a discrete random variable – provides all possible values of the random variable and their
corresponding probabilities (can be in the form of a table or graph – or a mathematical formula)
Probability histogram – histogram with y values being probability and x axis being the random variable (similar to
relative frequency histogram)
Expected value –the mean of a random variable, E(x)
Variance of a discrete random variable – weighted average of the squared deviations where the probabilities are the
weights

Key Concepts:

Rules for a Discrete Probability Distribution:

Let P(x) denote the probability that the random variable X equals x, then
1) The sum of all probabilities of all outcomes must equal 1 ∑ P(x) = 1
2) The probability of any value x, P(x), must between 0 and 1 0≤ P(x) ≤ 1

Mean value of a Discrete Random Variable:

The mean of a discrete random variable is given by the formula
μx = ∑ [x ∙P(x)]
where x is the value of the random variable and P(x) is the probability of observing x

Interpretation of the Mean of a Discrete Random Variable:

If we run an experiment over and over again, the law of large numbers helps us conclude that the difference
between x‾ and ux gets closer to 0 as n (number of repetitions) increases

Variance and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable:

The variance of a discrete random variable is given by:

σ2x = ∑ [(x – μx)2 ∙ P(x)] = ∑[x2 ∙ P(x)] – μ2x and standard deviation is √σ2

Note: round the mean, variance and standard deviation to one more decimal place than the values of the random variable
 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Example 1: You have a fair 10-sided die with the number 1 to 10 on each of the faces. Determine the mean and standard
deviation.

Example 2: Below is a distribution for number of visits to a dentist in one year.

x 0 1 2 3 4 X = # of visits to a dentist
P(x) .1 .3 .4 .15 .05

Determine the expected value, variance and standard deviation.

Example 3: What is the average size of an American family? Here is the distribution of family size according to the 1990
Census:

# in family 2 3 4 5 6 7
Probability .413 .236 .211 .090 .032 .018

Example 4: A car owner cannot decide whether to take out a $250 deductible which will cost him $90 per year. Records
show that for his community the average cost of repair is $900. Records also show that 10% of the drivers have an accident
during the year. If this driver has sufficient assets so that he will not be financially handicapped if he were to pay out the
$900 or more for repairs, should he buy the policy?

Homework: pg : 323-327; 7, 10 – 15, 18, 19, 23, 31, 35

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Section 6.2: Binomial Probability Distribution
Objectives: Students will be able to:
Determine whether a probability experiment is a binomial experiment
Compute probabilities of binomial experiments
Compute the mean and standard deviation of a binomial random variable
Construct binomial probability histograms

Vocabulary:
Trial – each repetition of an experiment
Success – one assigned result of a binomial experiment
Failure – the other result of a binomial experiment
PDF – probability distribution function
CDF – cumulative (probability) distribution function, computes probabilities less than or equal to a specified value

Key Concepts:
Criteria for a Binomial Probability Experiment:
An experiment is said to be a binomial experiment provided:
1) The experiment is performed a fixed number of times. Each repetition is called a trial.
2) The trials are independent
3) For each trial there are two mutually exclusive (disjoint) outcomes: success or failure
4) The probability of success is the same for each trial of the experiment

Binomial Notation:
There are n independent trials of the experiment
Let p denote the probability of success and then 1 – p is the probability of failure
Let X denote the number of successes in n independent trials of the experiment. So 0 ≤ x ≤ n

Binomial Probability Distribution Function:

The probability of obtaining x successes in n independent trials of a binomial experiment, where the probability
of success is p, is given by:

P(x) = nCx px (1 – p)n-x, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n

Mean (or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Binomial Random Variable:
A binomial experiment with n independent trials and probability of success p has
(Mean) μx = np (Standard Deviation) σx = √¯n¯p(¯1¯¯-¯p¯)¯¯

Law of large numbers and a Binomial Random Variable:

As the number of trials n in a binomial experiment increases, the probability distribution of the random variable
X becomes bell shaped. As a rule of thumb, if np(1-p) ≥ 10, the probability distribution will be approximately bell shaped.
(which means the Empirical Rule can be used!!)

Note:
Math Symbol Phrases
≥ At least No less than Greater than or equal to
> More than Greater than
< Fewer than Less than
≤ No more than At most Less than or equal to
= Exactly Equals Is
 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Example 1: In the “Pepsi Challenge” a random sample of 20 subjects are asked to try two unmarked cups of pop (Pepsi and
Coke) and choose which one they prefer. If preference is based solely on chance what is the probability that:

a) 6 will prefer Pepsi?

b) 12 will prefer Coke?

c) at least 15 will prefer Pepsi?

d) at most 8 will prefer Coke?

Example 2: A certain medical test is known to detect 90% of the people who are afflicted with disease Y. If 15 people with
the disease are administered the test what is the probability that the test will show that:

a) all 15 have the disease?

b) at least 13 people have the disease?

c) 8 have the disease?

Example 3: A university claims that 80% of its basketball players get their degree. An investigation examines the fates of a
random sample of 20 players who entered the program over a period of several years. Of these players, 10 graduated and 10
are no longer in school. If the university's claim is true, what is the probability that exactly 10 out of 20 graduate? Can you
conclude anything about the university's claim?

Homework: pg 340-343: 11, 12, 17 – 20, 30 – 32, 41, 46

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Section 6.2 extended: Other Probability Distributions
Objectives: Students will be able to:
Determine whether a probability experiment is a geometric, hypergeometric or negative binomial experiment
Compute probabilities of geometric, hypergeometric and negative binomial experiments
Compute the mean and standard deviation of a geometric, hypergeometric and negative binomial random variable
Construct geometric, hypergeometric and negative binomial probability histograms

Vocabulary:
Trial – each repetition of an experiment
Success – one assigned result of a binomial experiment
Failure – the other result of a binomial experiment
PDF – probability distribution function
CDF – cumulative (probability) distribution function, computes probabilities less than or equal to a specified value

Key Concepts:
Criteria for a Geometric Probability Experiment:
An experiment is said to be a geometric experiment provided:
1) Each repetition is called a trial.
2) The trials are independent
3) For each trial there are two mutually exclusive (disjoint) outcomes: success or failure
4) The probability of success is the same for each trial of the experiment

Geometric Probability Distribution Function:

When we studied the Binomial distribution, we were only interested in the probability for a success or a failure
to happen. The geometric distribution addresses the number of trials necessary before the first success. If the trials are
repeated k times until the first success, we will have had k – 1 failures. If p is the probability for a success and q the
probability for a failure, the probability for the first success to occur at the kth trial will be (where x = k)

P(x) = p(1 – p)x-1, x = 1, 2, 3, …

The probability that more than n trials are needed before the first success will be
P(k > n) = qn

Mean (or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Geometric Random Variable:
A geometric experiment with probability of success p has
(Mean) μx = 1/p
(Standard Deviation) σx = (√¯1¯¯-¯p¯¯)/p

Geometric Probability Example 1

The probability for finding an error by an auditor in a production line is 0.01. What is the probability that the first
error is found at the 70 th part audited?
Solution
p = 0.01, 1-p = 0.99

P(x=70) = (0.01) (0.99)70-1 = 0.004998 or about 0.5%

The probability that the first error is found at the 70th part audited will be 0.004998

Geometric Probability Example 2

What is the probability that more than 50 parts need to be audited before the first error is found?
Solution
p = 0.01, 1-p = 0.99

P(x>70) = (0.99)50 = 0.605 or about 60.5%

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Examples of Geometric Probability Distribution:

• First car arriving at a service station that needs brake work

• Flipping a coin until the first tail is observed
• First plane arriving at an airport that needs repair
• Number of house showings before a sale is concluded
• Length of time(in days) between sales of a large computer system

Example 1: The drilling records for an oil company suggest that the probability the company will hit oil in productive
quantities at a certain offshore location is 0.2. Suppose the company plans to drill a series of wells.

a) What is the probability that the 4th well drilled will be productive (or the first success by the 4th)?

b) What is the probability that the 7th well drilled is productive (or the first success by the 7th)?

c) Is it likely that x could be as large as 15(or the first success by the 15th)?

d) Find the mean and standard deviation of the number of wells that must be drilled before the company hits its first
productive well.

Example 2: An insurance company expects its salespersons to achieve minimum monthly sales of $50,000. Suppose that
the probability that a particular salesperson sells $50,000 of insurance in any given month is .84. If the sales in any one-
month period are independent of the sales in any other, what is the probability that exactly three months will elapse before the
salesperson reaches the acceptable minimum monthly goal?

Example 3: An automobile assembly plant produces sheet metal door panels. Each panel moves on an assembly line. As the
panel passes a robot, a mechanical arm will perform spot welding at different locations. Each location has a magnetic dot
painted where the weld is to be made. The robot is programmed to locate the dot and perform the weld. However,
experience shows that the robot is only 85% successful at locating the dot. If it cannot locate the dot, it is programmed to try
again. The robot will keep trying until it finds the dot or the panel moves out of range.

a) What is the probability that the robot's first success will be on attempts n = 1, 2, or 3?

b) The assembly line moves so fast that the robot only has a maximum of three chances before the door panel is out
of reach. What is the probability that the robot is successful in completing the weld before the panel is out of reach?
 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Criteria for a Hyper-geometric Probability Experiment:
An experiment is said to be a hyper-geometric experiment provided:
1) The experiment is performed a fixed number of times. Each repetition is called a trial.
2) The trials are dependent
3) For each trial there are two mutually exclusive (disjoint) outcomes: success or failure
One of the conditions of a binomial distribution was the independence of the trials and the probability of a success is the
same for every trial. If successive trials are done without replacement and the sample size or population is small, the
probability for each observation will vary.

If a sample has 10 stones, the probability of taking a particular stone out of the ten will be 1/10. If that stone is not replaced
into the sample, the probability of taking another one will be 1/9. But if the stones are replaced each time, the probability of
taking a particular one will remain the same, 1/10.

When the sampling is finite (relatively small and known) and the outcome changes from trial to trial, the Hyper-geometric
distribution is used instead of the Binomial distribution.

Hyper -Geometric Probability Distribution Function: The formula for the hyper-geometric distribution is:

NpCx N(1-p)Cn-x
P(x) = --------------------------- x = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n
NCn

Where N is the size of the population, p is the proportion of the population with a certain attribute (success), x is the number
of individuals from the population selected in the sample with the attribute and n is the number selected to be in the sample
(n-x is the number selected who do not have the attribute)

Mean (or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Hyper-Geometric Random Variable:
A hyper-geometric experiment with probability of success p has a
(Mean) μx = np
(Standard Deviation) σx = sqrt [np(1-p)(N-n)/N-1)]
Where N is the size of the population, p is the proportion of the population with a certain attribute (success), x is the
number of individuals from the population selected in the sample with the attribute and n is the number selected to be in the
sample
Examples of Hyper-Geometric Probability Density Function:
• Pulling the stings on a piñata
• Pulling numbers out of a hat (without replacing)
• Randomly assigning the lane assignments at a race
• Deal or no deal

Example 1: Suppose we randomly select 5 cards without replacement from an ordinary deck of playing cards. What is the
probability of getting exactly 2 red cards (i.e., hearts or diamonds)?

Example 2: Suppose we select 5 cards from an ordinary deck of playing cards. What is the probability of obtaining 2 or
fewer hearts?
 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Negative Binomial Probability Distribution Function: The formula for the negative binomial distribution is:

P(x) = x-1 Cr-1 pr(1 – p)x-r x = r, r+1, r+2, r+3, …

Where r number of successes is observed in x number of trials of a binomial experiment with success rate of p

Mean (or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Negative Binomial Random Variable:
(Mean) μx = r/p
(Standard Deviation) σx = sqrt [r(1-p)/p2)]
Where r number of successes is observed in x number of trials of a binomial experiment with success rate of p

Note that the geometric distribution is a special case of the negative binomial distribution with k = 1.

Negative Binomial Probability Density Function Examples:

• Number of cars arriving at a service station until the fourth one that needs brake work
• Flipping a coin until the fourth tail is observed
• Number of planes arriving at an airport until the second one that needs repairs
• Number of house showings before an agent gets her third sale
• Length of time (in days) until the second sale of a large computer system

Example 1: The drilling records for an oil company suggest that the probability the company will hit oil in productive
quantities at a certain offshore location is 0.3. Suppose the company plans to drill a series of wells looking for three
successful wells.

a) What is the probability that the third success will be achieved with the 8th well drilled?

b) What is the probability that the third success will be achieved with the 20th well drilled?

c) Find the mean and standard deviation of the number of wells that must be drilled before the company hits its
third productive well.

Example 2: A standard, fair die is thrown until 3 aces occur. Let Y denote the number of throws.

a) Find the mean of Y

a) Find the variance of Y

a) Find the probability that at least 20 throws will needed

Homework: pg 343: 54, 55, 56

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Section 6.3: The Poisson Probability Distribution
Objectives: Students will be able to:
Understand when a probability experiment follows a Poisson process
Compute probabilities of a Poisson random variable
Find the mean and standard deviation of a Poisson random variable

Vocabulary:
Poisson process – used to computer probabilities of experiments in which the random variable X counts the number of
occurrences (successes) of a particular event with in a specified interval (usually time or space)

Key Concepts:
If we examine the binomial distribution as the number of trials gets larger and larger while the probability of success π
gets smaller and smaller, we observe the Poisson Distribution (Simeon Denis Poisson). This distribution deals with the
probabilities of rare events that occur infrequently in space, time, distance, area, volume, and so forth.

Criteria for a Poisson Probability Experiment:

An experiment is said to be a Poisson experiment provided:
1) The probability of two or more successes in any sufficiently small subinterval* is 0
2) The probability of success is the same for any two intervals of equal length
3) The number of successes in any interval is independent of the number of successes in any other interval
provided the intervals are not overlapping

* - for example, the fixed interval might be any time between 0 and 5 minutes. A subinterval could be any time
between 1 and 2 minutes

Poisson Probability Distribution Function:

If X is the number of successes in an interval of fixed length t, the probability formula for X is

(λt)x
P(x) = --------- e-λt x = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
x!
where λ (the Greek letter lamda) represents the average number of occurrences of the event in some interval of length 1

If X is the number of successes in an interval of fixed length and X follows a Poisson process with mean μ, the
probability distribution function (PDF) for X is

μx
P(x) = --------- e-μ x = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
x!

Mean (or Expected Value) and Standard Deviation of a Poisson Random Variable:
A random variable X that follows a Poisson process with parameter λ has a mean (or expected value) and
standard deviation given by the formulas below:

(Mean) μx = λt (Standard Deviation) σx = √¯λ¯t = √¯μ¯x

where t is the length of the interval

Note: At least probabilities must be computed using the Complement rule for Poisson probabilities
 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Example 1: The number of accidents in an office building during a four week period is averages 2. What is the
probability that there will be one or fewer accidents in the next four-week period?

Example 2: Daily demand for a certain replacement part for a VCR averages 0.9.

a) What is the probability that no replacements parts will be needed on a particular day?

b) That no more than three will be needed?

Example 3: The number of calls to a police department between 8pm and 8:30pm on Friday averages 3.5.

a) What is the probability of no calls during this period?

b) Is it likely that the police will get 7 calls?

c) What is the mean and standard deviation of the number of calls?

Homework: pg 348 - 350: 3, 6, 9, 10, 14, 17

 Chapter 6: Discrete Probability Distributions
Chapter 6: Review
Objectives: Students will be able to:
Summarize the chapter
Define the vocabulary used
Complete all objectives
Successfully answer any of the review exercises
Use the technology to compute probabilities, means and standard deviations of Discrete PDFs

Vocabulary: None new

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE TI-83

USE 2nd VARS - DISTR

binompdf ( number trials, p , x) returns binomial value for p(x)

binompdf ( number trials , p , {x1, x2, x3 } ) returns binomial values for three different x values

binomcdf ( number trials, p, x ) returns the total for the binomial in the interval [0 ,x]

geometpdf ( p , x ) returns a geometric value for p(x) .

geometpdf ( p , { x1 , x2 , ...} ) returns geometric values for listed x values

geometcdf ( p , x ) returns the total for all values in the interval [1,x]

Homework: pg 352 - 355: 1, 4, 5, 9, 13, 19