GRADE XII

NETWORKING
 NETWORKING
Q.1. What is Computer Network?
Ans. A network consists of two or more
computers that are linked together in order
to share resources (such as printers and
CDs) and information (exchange files, or
allow electronic communications).
Q.2. What is a Node or Workstation?
Ans. A computer/device which is a part of a network is known as Node or
Workstation. A computer becomes a node (also called a workstation) as soon as it is
attached to a network. Each user on a network works on a workstation. If there are
no nodes there would be no network.
Q.3. What are the advantages of Computer Networks?
Ans. Following are the advantages of computer networks:
i) Resource Sharing: Sharing various peripheral devices like printers, scanners
and copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
ii) Easy File Sharing: A network enables users to share data files with each other.
Files can be easily shared between users.
iii) Increased Reliability: Reliability implies backing up of information. If one
workstation crashes, data backup can be restored from other computers on
the network
iv) Cost Reduction: Sharing of resources help in cost reduction.
v) Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server)
that can be shared and made available to each and every user in an
organization.
Q.4. Write a short note on Evolution of
Networking. Ans.
ARPANET –In the 1960s Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) was a network established by the US Department of Defence to
connect the academic and research institutions located at different places for
scientific collaborations.The first message was communicated between the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute
(SRI).Slowly but gradually, more and more organisations joined the ARPANET,
and many independent smaller networks were formed.
NSFnet: In 1985, another agency, the National Science Foundation, created a new,
high capacity network called NSFnet, which was more capable than ARPANET.
It was the Inter Networking i.e the linking of these two and some other networks
that was named Internet.The original ARPANET was shutdown in 1990 and the
governement funding for NSFNet discountinued in 1995, but the commercial
internet service came into picture which are still running the internet.
Q.5. What is Interspace?
Ans. InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real – time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D
environments.
Q.6. What are the different ways of sending data across network?
Ans. Data can be sent in the form of voice calls, video call or messages etc.
Q.7. What is Network Switching? Discuss various switching techniques.
Ans. A network is made up of several interconnected nodes. Switching techniques
are used to transfer packets of data from one port of a node to another.
i) Circuit Switching: Circuit switching provides
end to end connection between two computers.
In circuit switching, before a communication
starts, a dedicated path is identified between the
sender and the receiver. All packets follow the
same path established during the connection. i.e
Telephone call system. It involves following steps:
a. A request signal is sent by sender to set up connection with receiver.
b. All intermediate nodes are identified. These nodes are called switching nodes.
c. Destination node sends back the acknowledgement of receiving a signal.
d. Data transmission begins & after it is complete, the call can be terminated.
Advantages:
a) The bandwidth used is fixed
b) With dedicated channel the quality of communication is increased.
c) It is preferred when the communication is long and continuous.
d) Once the circuit is established, data is transmitted without any delays.
Disadvantages:
a) Inefficient in terms of utilization of resources.
b) It is expensive because every connection uses a dedicated path.
ii) Packet Switching: In packet switching,
the entire data is divided into small
fragments called packets. Each packet is
of fixed size usually 128 bytes or 512
bytes. Each packet has a source as well
as destination address for being
transmitted. There is no direct
connection established between the
sender and the receiver, each packet follows different routes. Packets are
delivered in a random order at the destination address. TCP protocol then
arranges all received packets in a sequential order.
Advantages:
a) Failure in the links does not stop the delivery of the data as these packets can be
routed from other paths too.
b)Optimum utilization of resources as multiple users can use same link at same time.
c) No wastage of bandwidth as multiple sources can use same link for sending data.
Disadvantages: Installation costs of packet switching are expensive.
iii) Message Switching: In message switching,
data is sent to switching office first, which
store data in its buffer. It then checks the
available link and, if it is free, the data is
relayed to another switching office until it
reaches destination. It is also called store and
forward switching technique. No dedicated path is established between sender
and receiver.

Q.8. What is a Channel?

Ans. A channel is a communication path through which the data is transmitted from
the sender device to the receiver device.
Q.9. What do you understand by term “Baud”?
Ans. The number of changes in a signal per second is known as Baud. It is the
measuring unit of Data transfer rate. 1 baud represents only 1 signal change per
second and is equivalent to 1 bit per second.
Q.10. What is Bandwidth?
And. It is the data carrying capacity of a channel. The amount of data that can be
transferred along a communication channel in a given period of time (1 second) is
termed as Bandwidth. Higher the bandwidth, higher the Data transfer rate. Its
measuring unit is hertz(Hz).
1 KHz=1000Hz 1 MHz=1000 KHz=1000000 Hz
Q.11. What is Data Transfer Rate (DTR)?
Ans. The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of data that is transferred between
source and destination in a given time on a network. It is the number of bits
transmitted between source and destination in one second. It is also known as bit
rate. It is measured in terms of bits per second(bps), kilobits per second(kbps),
megabits per second(mbps), gigabits per second(gbps), terabits per second(tbps).
Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps 1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps
1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps 1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps
MBps stands for Megabyte per second whereas Mbps stands for Megabit per second.

Q.12. A user wants to upload a text document at the rate of 10 pages per 20
second. What will be the required data rate of the channel? (Assume that
1 page contains 1600 characters and each character is of 8 bits).
Ans.

Q.13. What are the different types of

Networks? Ans. Following are the various types
of Networks:
i. PAN (Personal Area Network):
 It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like
computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart phones, printers etc.
 Devices in PAN are connected within a range of 10 meters.
 These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences.
 A personal area network may be wired or wireless. For example, a mobile
phone connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN while two
smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth technology
form a wireless PAN or WPAN
ii. LAN (Local Area Network):
 Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within
a single building or campus (school, university) of up to a few kilometres in size.
 Devices in PAN are connected typically within a range of 1 km.
 Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps to 1000
Mbps.
 WLAN(Wireless Local Area Network) refers to the immediate wireless network,
also in your home or office, in practical terms it is basically the same thing as
WiFi.
iii. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a
larger geographical area like a city or a town.
 A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of
a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities.
 This is a network which spans a physical area (in the range of 5 and 50 km
diameter) that is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
iv. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
 A Wide area network connects the computers across long distances, for
example different cities, countries or a continent.
 Computers in WAN are connected through telephone lines.
 The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers,
smartphones and millions of LANs from different continents.
Q.14. What are Network devices? Discuss the various network devices.
Ans. Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines
and other electronic devices to a network are called network devices.
Following are the various commonly used Network devices:
i) Modem: Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data
over telephone or cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas
a telephone line or cable wire can transmit only analog data. The main function
of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa.
Modem is a combination of two devices - modulator and demodulator:
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent
by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data
when it is being received by the computer.
 There are 2 types of Modem:
a) Internal Modem: An internal modem is a modem that fits inside of a
computer on PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Slot of Motherboard.
b) External Modem: An external modem sits outside the computer. The
modem typically connects to the computer via a serial or USB cable, and is
usually powered by an external source, rather than the computer.

ii) Ethernet Card: Ethernet card, also known

as network interface card (NIC) or LAN card,
is a hardware component used by computers to
connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate
with other devices on the LAN.
Ethernet cards can support data transfer
between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps).
Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in
uniquely identifying the computer on the network.
The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.
iii) RJ45: RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin
connector that is used exclusively with Ethernet
cables for networking.
The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair
ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends.
RJ45 is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45 jacks
of the Ethernet cards present in various computing
devices.
It has four pair of wires, two for incoming and two for outgoing data.
a. Orange White Orange: Incoming c. Blue White Green: Outgoing
b. Green White Blue: Incoming d. Brown White Brown: Outgoing
iv) WiFi Card: Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi
technology is used to achieve wireless connection to any
network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the
local network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which
provides internet access through Wi-Fi is
called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots
themselves are connected to the network
through wires.
v) Hub: An Ethernet hub is a network device
used to connect different devices through
wires. They are generally used to connect
computers in a LAN.
 A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the
network is plugged in to one of these ports.

When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without
considering whether it is destined for a particular destination or not.
A Hub is not an intelligent device. It does not maintain any address table for
connected devices.
It has single collision domain. The limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices
come at the same time, they will collide. It has 4, 8, 16 or 32 ports.

vi) Switch: A Switch is a network device used to connect different devices through
wires in a Local Area Network.
It is called an intelligent device. Switch maintains a switching table that contains the
MAC address of device and the switch port on which each device is configured.
When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet
and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet. It sends signals to only
selected devices instead of sending to all.
Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel occurs in both
the directions at the same time. Due to this, collisions do not occur.
Switches can perform some error checking before forwarding data to the destined
port.
It is supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many) and broadcast (one-to-
all) communications.
The number of ports is higher – 24/48, so many devices can be connected to a single
switch.
vii) Router: Hubs or swiches are used to
exchange data within a local area network.
Router is a network device that can receive the
data, analyse it and transmit it to other
networks.
Router is a device that routes or forward data
from one network to another based on their IP
address. When a data packet is received,
Router inspects the data’s IP address and determines if a packet was meant for
its own network or if it is meant for another network. If the router determines
that the data packet is meant for its own network it receives it, but if it is not
meant for its own network it sends it off to another network. It acts as a gateway
to the network.
A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide
Area Networks).
 It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it uses IP
address mentioned in the destination field of the IP packet
Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according to the
changes in the network.
viii) Repeater: Data is carried in the form of
signals over the cable. These signals can
travel a specified distance (usually about
100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond
this limit and become weak. In such
conditions, original signals need to be
regenerated.
Repeaters are also known as signal boosters
that amplify or regenerate an incoming
signal before retransmitting it.
ix) Gateway: A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two
networks. It may be a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic
to flow in and out of the network. Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of
a network, as all data coming in or going out of a network must first pass
through the gateway in order to use routing paths.
Q.15. What do you understand by Network topology?
Ans. The arrangement of network devices
along with communication channel is known
as Network structure or Network topology.
Topology defines the structure of the network
of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. The way in which devices are
interconnected to form a network is called
network topology.
Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring,
Bus, Star and Tree.
Q.16. Discuss the various Network topologies in detail.
Ans. Various Network topologies are Bus, Star, Link, Mesh, and Tree.
i. BUS: A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all
the nodes are connected to a single cable. The cable to which the nodes
connect is called a "backbone" or “bus”. Each node is either connected to the
backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to the
length of the bus in both directions.
That means, data can be
received by any of the
nodes connected to the bus.
 ADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY
 Length of cable required is less than a star topology.
 It works very well when there is a small network.
 Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology.
DISADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
 If a main cable is damaged, whole network fails or splits into two.

ii. STAR TOPLOGY: In star topology each device is

connected to a central node, which is a
networking device like a hub or a switch.
The central computer is known as a server, and the
peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
ADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY
 Efficient Troubleshooting: In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the
single station to troubleshoot the problem.
 Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
 Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the
open ports on the hub.
 Cost effectiveHigh data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
DISADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY
A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
iii. TREE/HYBRID TOPOLOGY:
In computer networks, a tree topology is
also known as a star bus topology. It
incorporates elements of both a bus
topology and a star topology. In this
diagram the central nodes of two star
networks are connected to one another
through a Bus.
iv. RING TOPOLOGY: In ring topology
each node is connected to two other devices, one
each on either side, as shown in Figure. The nodes
connected with each other thus forms a ring. The
link in a ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, data
can be transmitted in one direction only (clockwise
 or counter clockwise). In this packets travels from from one device to another
until they reach the desired destination. In this data travels in unidirectional
forms means in only one direction but it can also do bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
ADVANTAGES
 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet collision
 In this topology additional workstations can be added after without impacting
performance of the network.
 It is cheap to install and expand.
 Easy to manage.
DISADVANTAGES
 Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through
all the nodes.
 It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology
 It is Expensive.
 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
 If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes
down entire network goes down.
v. MESH TOPOLOGY: Mesh topology is a type of
network topology in which each node is
connected to every other node fully through
dedicated link in the network. In mesh topology,
connections are in the way that for n nodes, n(n-
1)/2 number of links are needed. Mesh topology is
very expensive because of the high cabling cost.
ADVANTAGES
 Messages can be received more quickly if the route to the intended recipient
is short.
 Messages should always get through as they have many possible routes on
which to travel
 Multiple connections mean that no node should be isolated & each node can
transmit to and receive from more than one node at the same time
 New nodes can be added without interruption or interfering with other nodes
DISADVANTAGES:
 Full mesh networks can be impractical to set up because of the high number of
connections needed
 Many connections require a lot of maintenance.
Q.17. What are Network Protocols? Name various network protocols.
Ans. Network protocols are the set of rules that the communicating parties - the
sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow for successful
and reliable communication over internet (between client and server). Various
network protocols are: TCP/IP, FTP, PPP, HTTP, HTTPS, SMTP, POP3, TELNET,
GSM, GPRS & WLL.
Q.18. Why do we need Network protocols?
Ans. Network protocols are required for:
a) Flow Control: Flow control is required when the sender and receiver have
different speeds of sending and receiving the data. Suppose Computer A is
sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps and computer B is receiving data at the
speed of 512 Mbps. In this case, Computer B must be able to inform computer
A about the speed mismatch so that Computer A can adjust its data
transmission rate. Otherwise some data will be loss.
b) Access Control: Access control is required to decide which nodes in a
communication channel will access the link shared among them at a particular
instant of time. Otherwise, the transmitted data packets will collide if computers
are sending data simultaneously through the same link resulting in the loss or
corruption of data.
c) Protocols also define how computers identify one another on a network.
d) Protocols define the form to which the data should be converted for transit.
e) Protocol helps to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be
forwarded to another node.
f) Protocols also helps ensuring that all the data have reached the destination
without any loss.
g) Protocols also rearrange the packets and process them at the destination.

Q.19. Discuss the various Network Protocols?

Ans.
i. HTTP: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for
transferring files (text, graphic images, sound, video, and other multimedia
files) on the World Wide Web. Communication between client computers
and web servers is done by sending HTTP Requests and receiving HTTP
Responses. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989
in collaboration with Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
HTTP is a Stateless protocol as each request is executed independently,
without any knowledge of the requests that were executed before it, which
means once the transaction ends the connection between the browser and the
server is also lost.
HTTP Request / Response
Communication between clients and servers is done by requests and responses
 A client (a browser) sends an HTTP request to the web
 An web server receives the request
 The server process the request
 The server returns an HTTP response (output) to the browser
 The client (the browser) receives the response
NOTE: Http is not secure. With HTTP protocol, the text/information is
transferred between server and browser directly without any
encryption, which means it, can be easily stolen.
 ii. HTTPS: HTTPS protocol encrypts the data before transmitting & ensures
the security of the text/information being transferred over WWW.
HTTP HTTPS
URL begins with “http://” URL begins with “https://”
Unsecured Secured
No Encryption Encryption is present
No Certification Required SSL(Secure Sockets
Layer) /TLS(Transport
User Port Number 80 Uses Port Number 443
http://www.topperscorner. https://www.google.com

iii. FTP: File transfer protocol is used to transfer (upload-download) the files
between client (local machine) and server (remote machine).
•Two computers are involved in an FTP transfer
•FTP Server: It’s a computer on which FTP server software is installed.
It listens to the request of client.
•FTP Client: It’s a computer on which FTP Client software is running. It
initiates the connection. Once connected, user can upload and download files
between local machine and server.
Before transferring files, the users need to authenticate using user id and
password. However, some servers provide FTP logins without authentication
for accessing files.
Various FTP Client softwares are: Filezilla, Free FTP, WinSCP
Note: FTP is a stateful protocol
iv. SFTP: SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol): FTP is not a secure protocol.
File/Data sent over FTP is not protected and can be easily stolen. To protect our
data SFTP protocol is used. In SFTP all data is encrypted before sent across the
network.
v. Point to Point Protocol (PPP): PPP is a communication protocol which
establishes a dedicated and direct connection between two communicating
devices. This protocol defines how two devices will authenticate each other and
establish a direct link between them to exchange data. For example, two routers
with direct connection communicate using PPP. The Internet users who connect
their home computers to the server of an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
through a modem also use PPP.
vi. TCP/IP Protocol: TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol. It controls and manages the data transmission over the Internet. TCP
is a connection-oriented protocol.
TCP/IP consists of two layers, higher layer and lower layer. TCP is called higher
layer, while IP is called lower layer.
• Higher Layers (TCP) breaks message or file into smaller packets that are
transmitted over the Internet. At the receiver end it again reassembles the packets
into the original message. In TCP, a connection must be built using a handshake
process before information is sent or received. A handshake process means
establishing a direct connection between sender and receiver with start signal and
acknowledgement signal.
• Lower Layer (IP) assigns unique address to each packet so that it can be
transmitted to the right destination. IP is a connectionless protocol.

vii. UDP Protocol: It stands for user datagram protocol.UDP is a connectionless

protocol. It allow information to be sent without using handshake process.
Key TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) Protocol)
Design TCP is a connection oriented UDP is a connection less
protocol. protocol.
Reliable As TCP provides error checking While on other hand UDP does
support and also guarantees provided only basic error
delivery of data to the destination checking support using
router this make it more reliable checksum so the delivery of data
as compared to UDP. to the destination cannot be
guaranteed in UDP as compared
to that in case of TCP.
Performance TCP is slower and less efficient On other hand UDP is faster and
in performance as compared to more efficient than TCP.
UDP. Also TCP is heavy-weight
as compared to UDP.
Retransmission Retransmission of data packets is On other hand retransmission of
possible in TCP in case packet packets is not possible
get lost or need to resend.
 MAILING PROTOCOLS
viii. SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used for sending
e-mail over the internet. It is used to push (send) mail messages to the
mail server.
Working of SMTP: Each email header contains email addresses of recipients.
The email containing header and body are entered into a queue of outgoing
mails.The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and
transmits them to the destination(s). When the SMTP sender successfully
delivers a particular mail to one or more destinations, it removes the
corresponding receiver’s email address from the mail’s destination list. When
that mail is delivered to all the recipients, it is removed from the outgoing
queue.
ix. POP: It stands for Post Office Protocol 3. It is used for receiving e-mail over the
internet. POP is used to pulls messages from the mail server. POP downloads all
the messages onto the client computer. No message remains on server. If we open
the e-mail client software with same email address from two different computers,
then the computer that first access the mailing server will get the message,
Second computer will not receive any message.
x. IMAP: It stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It is used for receiving e-
mail over the internet. IMAP downloads only the copy of the original
message onto the client computer. The original message remains on the
server. Multiple devices can access the email message.

REMOTE LOGIN PROTOCOL

xi. TELNET (Remote Access/Login Protocol):
Telnet is the internet protocol for creating a connection with a remote machine.
It allows you to connect to remote computers (called remote hosts) over a
TCP/IP network (such as the Internet). Once your telnet client establishes a
connection to the remote host, your client becomes a virtual terminal,
allowing you to communicate with the remote host from your computer with
whatever privileges you may have been granted to the specific application and
data on that host computer. To use telnet clients, go to command lines and then
enter:telnet host where host is the name on the remote computer to which you
wish to connect.
xii. RDC: Remote Desktop Connection Protocol is used to create a connection with
the remote machine over the network.
 CHAT AND VIDEO CONFERENCING PROTOCOLS
xiii. Video Conferencing: A video conference is a telecommunication technology,
which permits two or more people in different locations to interact via
audio/visual transmission simultaneously. Each user or group of users who is
participating in a video conference typically must have a computer, a camera, a
microphone and speakers. It allows us to conduct online meeting or trainings.
The most popular software used for Video conferencing is:
a) Zoom b) Skype c) Microsoft Team d) TCP Cam
xiv. IRC: It stands for Internet Relay Chat. IRC protocol is used for chatting. It
provides chatting between a group or between two individuals. It was
developed by JarkkoOikarinen in Finland in the late 1980s. The IRC
client sends and receives messages to and from an IRC server. The IRC server
transports the message from one client to another.
xv. VOIP: VOIP stands for voice over internet protocol. It is used to transfer void
packets. It allows us to make voice calls using a broadband Internet connection
instead of a regular (or analog) phone line. Protocols used for VOIP are: SIP
(Session Initiation protocol), H.323, RTP (Real time transport protocol), RTCP
(Real time transport control protocol).
Three different methods of VoIP service are:
a) ATA: ATA stands for analog-to-digital converted. It is used to connect the
telephone device to the computer. It takes the analog signals from the phone
and converts them to digital signals. These digital signals can now be
transmitted over the internet.
b) IP Phones: IP phones appear much like an ordinary telephone
or cordless phone. They are directly connected to the router or
the LAN. They have all the hardware and software necessary
right onboard to handle the IP call. IP Phones are sometimes
calledVoIP telephones, SIP phones or Soft phones.
c) Computer-to-computer: It is the most easy and simplest way to
use VoIP. It requires a computer, internet, speaker and
Microphone. The only cost involved with computer - to- computer VoIP is the
monthly ISP fee.
Q.20. What is an IP Address?
Ans. IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address
that can be used to uniquely identify each node in a network. The IP addresses are
assigned to each node in a network that uses thevInternet Protocol for
communication. Thus, if we know a computer’s IP address, we can communicate
with that computer from anywhere in the world.
The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short), is a 32 bit numeric address,
written as four numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal
(base-10) representation for an 8-bit binary (base-2) number and each can take any
value from 0 - 255. A sample IPV4 address looks like:
192:168:0:178

With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, Thus, a 128 bits IP
address, called IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address
is represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by
colons. A sample IPV6 address looks like:
2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652

INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES

Q.21. What is a web page? What are static and dynamic webpages?
Ans. Webpage is an electronic document that contains some information such
as text, graphics, images, videos & audios etc. It is written using Html Language.
There are two types of web pages
a) Static Web Pages: Data do not changes until someone changes it manually.
Such pages has .html or .htm extensions.
b) Dynamic Web Pages: In dynamic web pages, the Content of pages is different
for different visitors. Such a page generally has php,
.asp," or .jsp as extension.
Q.22. What is a Website?
Ans. Website is the collection of related webpages. The first website was built at
CERN by Tim Berners-Lee on August 6, 1991. Various types of websites are:
• E-Commerce (Snapdeal,Flipkart,Amazon,Paytm)
• Social Media /Social Networking Websites (Facebook ,LinkedIn,Instagram)
• Blogs/Personal (Twitter), Business Directories(JustDial).
• Government: www.cbse.nic.in
Q.23. What is World Wide Web (www)?
Ans. WWW is the collection of millions of websites. World Wide Web was
designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN (European Council for Nuclear
Research) in Geneva. The internet is a huge network of computers all connected
together. The worldwideweb (‘www’or‘web’forshort) is a collection of webpages
found on this network of computers.
Q.24. What is a Web browser?
Ans. A Web browser is software that allow user to open webpages and other
web resources such as audios, videos, images and links etc. Internet works on
client - server model. A web browser is a client which requests the information
from the web server.
There are two types of web browsers:
a) Graphical Browser: Graphical browsers display multimedia content such as
audios, videos, graphics etc. E.g. Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
chrome, Apple Safari, Opera
b) Text Only Browsers: Text Browsers displays only text. They are useful
when internet speed is slow. E.g Lynx, WebIE, Elinks.

Q.25. What is a HTML?

Ans. HTML stands for Hyper Text Mark-up Language. HTML is used to create web
pages. This language tells the browsers how to display text, pictures and link on the
screen. It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1990 at CERN. A HTML document
has the extension .htm or .html. Hypertext is a text which is linked to another
document.Various HTML Writing Tools are: Notepad, Notepad++.
Q.26. What is a XML?
Ans. XML is a markup language like HTML. It is designed to carry or store data. In
contrast to HTML, it is not designed to display data. XML form a tree structure:
<root>
<child>
<subchild>.....</subchild>
</child>
</root>
Q.27. Differentiate between HTML and XML?
HTML stands for Hyper Text XML stands for eXtensible Markup
Markup Language. Language.
HTML tags are used for displaying XML tags are used for describing the data not
the data. for displaying. It is used to transport data.
HTML can ignore small errors. XML does not allow errors.
HTML is not Case sensitive. XML is Case sensitive.
HTML tags are predefined tags. XML tags are user defined tags.
There are limited number of tags XML tags are extensible.
in HTML.
It does not preserve white spaces. White space can be preserved in XML.
Closing tags are not necessary. In XML, closing tags are necessary.

Q.28. What is scripting language? Discuss Server side and Client side scripting
languages.
Ans. A scripting language is a programming language which can be embedded or
integrated with other languages. E.g. JavaScript, VBScript, PHP, Perl, Python,Ruby,
and ASP. They have been used extensively to create dynamic web pages.
Dynamic web pages support two types of scripting:
a) Client Side Scripting: A client side scripting language uses client resources
for processing. VB Script and Java Script are examples of client-side
scripting languages. Its code is viewable at client end.
b) Server -Side Scripting: In client side scripting, all requests are processed by
server. Web page display the current time and date, forums, submission forms,
shopping carts etc., use server-side scripting. ASP, JSP, PHP are examples of
server-side scripting languages.
Q.29. What is DNS?
Ans. The Domain Name System,
translates human readable domain
names (e.g www.pathseekers.com) to
machine readable IP addresses (e.g,182.156.84.26). DNS servers translate requests
for names into IP addresses.
Q.30. What is Domain Name?
Ans. A domain name is the name of a website. e.g. pathseekers.education
Q.31. What is URL?
Ans. A uniform resource locator
(URL) is the address of a resource
(web page, website, photo, video etc. )
on the Internet. Web address of the web page written on the address bar of the
browser is known as the uniform resource locator (URL).
The URL text string consists of three parts:
a) Network Protocol b) Host name or Domain Name c) File/Resource location
Common TLD (top level domains) are: .com, .gov, .edu, .mil, .org, .net, .tv, .nic
(national informatics center)
Q.32. Name any two government websites?
Ans. Write any domain name that ends with .gov. e.g www.india.gov, www.usa.gov
Q.33. What is a web server?
Ans. A Web server is a computer or a group of computers that stores web pages on
the internet.
 It works on client/server model. It delivers the requested web page to
client(web browser). Web servers use special programs such as Apache ,IIS or
GWS to deliver web pages over the http protocol.
A Web Server is a program that:
• Receive the request from client,
• Process that request and
• Send the requested data back to the client. E.g. Apache, IIS, GWS etc.
Q.34. What is a web client?
Ans. • Webclient is the software that requests some data from the server.
• Web browser is an example of a web client i.e firefox, chrome, safari etc.
• Web Client and Server communicate using special protocol called HTTP.
Q.35. What is URL Resource Location?
Ans. The file or resource location substring contains a path to one specific network
resource on the host/server. Resources are normally located in a host directory or
folder. For example:www.school.com/syllabus/preprimary/nursery.htm is the
location of this Web page including two subdirectories and the file name.
Q.36. Write short note on web 2.0.
Ans. The term web 2.0 was given by O'Reilly Media in 2004. Web 2.0 refers to new
generation of dynamic and interactive websites. Web 2.0 websites uses a new
programming language called AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML). In
AJAX technology only the part of the webpage which is updated is reloaded. The
entire page doesnot get reloaded each time.
Applications supported by web 2.0 are as follow:
a) Blogging b) Social Bookmarking c) RSS Feeds
b) Advanced Gaming e) Social Media websites
Q.37. What is web hosting? Discuss various types of web hostings?
Ans. Web hosting is the process of uploading/saving the web content on a web
server to make it available on WWW. Webhosting is the place where all the files of
your website are stored.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA (Wired /Wireless Communication)

Q.38. What is transmission medium?

Ans. A transmission medium (plural media) is one which carries a signal from one
computer to another. It is also known as communication channel.
Q.39. What are the two types of transmission
mediums? Ans. There are two types of transmission
mediums.
i) Wired/Guided Transmission Medium
ii) Wireless/Unguided Transmission Medium
Q.40. What is Guided Transmission Medium?
Ans. The wired or guided transmission media physically connects the two
computers. It means transmission of data through wires such as telephone
network, cable television etc.
A) TWISTED PAIR CABLES: Twisted pair cables are made of two insulated
copper wires, about 1 mm thick, that are twisted around one another in spiral
pattern (double helix). It is generally used for Telephone communications in
offices and also in modern Ethernet(LAN) networks.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1) Cheaper than other 1) They break easily
2) Easy to install & 2) Less data carrying capacity
maintain 3) Not suitable for long distance transmission(signal
3) Lighter in weight loss over long distances without the use of
repeaters)
There are basically two types of the twisted pair cable, which are:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) consists of
four pairs of thin, copper wires covered in color-coded plastic insulation that are
twisted together. The wire pairs are then covered with a plastic outer jacket. UTP
cables are of small diameter and it doesn’t need grounding.

The unshielded twisted pair cable is available in five categories i.e CAT1,
CAT2, CAT3, CAT4, CAT5, CAT5a, CAT6, CAT6a.
Note: CAT1 cable is used for Voice-grade communications only. No data
transmission. CAT1 is typically used for telephone wire. This type of wire is not
capable of supporting computer network trafficShielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Cable
The shielded twisted pair (STP) cables
comes with shielding of the individual
pairs of wires, which further protects it
from external interference. Shielded
twisted pair cables support a maximum
distance of 100 Meters without signal
distortion.

Note: UTP does not require grounding but STP requires grounding. The main
purpose of drain wire in STP is to carry away unwanted interference noise to
ground.
 The connector used on a twisted cable is called as RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45)
connector.

Advantage of STP over UTP Cable

The advantage of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) over Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) is that it offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to
shielding. But shielded twisted pair cable is heavier and costlier than unshielded
twisted pair cable and requires proper grounding at both the ends.
B) COAXIAL CABLES (COAX) : Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an
inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, surrounded by a conductive
shielding.
Advantages of Coaxial Cables Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
 It is easy to install  It is expensive as compared to
 It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps) twisted pair cables
 Less loss of signal
Coaxial cable has following components:

i) Center Conductor: The centre conductor is

responsible for transmitting the cable's signal.
It is made of either pure copper or copper-
coated steel or aluminium.
ii) Insulator: It acts as an insulator between the
centre conductors and the outer braided / foil
shielding. It helps physically hold the centre conductor in the centre of the cable.
This is important, as signal loss can occur if the centre conductor strays too close
to the outer area of the cable. Various materials are commonly used for the
dielectric are (from best to worst):
1) Foamed Polyethylene (FPE) 2) Teflon 3) Polyethylene (PE)
1) Polypropylene (PP) 5) Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
iii) Braided Shield & Foil Shield: They protect the cable from the outside
interference. Foil shields are almost always made out of aluminium foil, and
simply wrap around the inner parts of the cable.
iv) Outer Jacket: The outer jacket is generally made out of either PVC or
polyethylene (PE) is available to protect the core during installation and for the
installed life of the cable.
Types of coaxial cables:
The two most common types of cables are Thicknet and Thinnet. Whereas thicknet
is thicker and its cable segments can be up to 500 metres long , the thinnet on the
other hand is thinner and it can have a maximum segment length of 185 metres.

C) OPTICAL CABLES: Optical Cables or

Fibre Optics can carry large amount of
information over long distance. These cables
transmit light signals rather than electrical
signals. The optical fiber cable carries data
as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of
glass. The light sources used are either light
emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes
(LDs).The data to be transmitted is
modulated onto a light beam using frequency
modulation techniques. At the receiver's end, the signals are demodulated.
The Optical fibre consists of three layers:
i) Core:glass or plastic through which the light travels.
ii) Cladding - covering of the core that reflects the light back to the core
iii) Outer Jacket: protects the fibre cable from hostile environments and is made up
of PVC or Teflon.
Advantages:
1) It can be used for long distance transmission upto 50km without regeneration.
2) Faster Speed
3) High bandwidth than other wires.They can carry large amount of data.
4)They are thinner and lighter in weight.
5)It guarantees secure transmission.
Disadvantages:
1) Expensive than other communication media
2) It’s not easy to install fibre optic cable as it is made of glass, it can easily break.
3)A highly skilled labour is required for its installation and maintenance.
4)As light travels in a straight line, two fibres are needed for
bidirectional communication.

Q.41. What is Un Guided Transmission/Wireless Medium?

Ans.Wireless or unbounded or unguided media transport data without using a
physical conductor. It uses radio waves and/or microwaves for communication
between computers. In wireless communication technology, information travels in
the form of electromagnetic signals.

The signals are broadcasted through air or water and thus are available to anyone
that has a device capable of receiving them. Some of the wireless media are:

1) INFRARED WAVES : It is used for short range communication. Infrared waves

can travel from a few centimetres to several meters.(Approx.5m)
a. Infrared is the frequency of light that is not visible to human eye.
b.They are unidirectional and used for short distance point to point communication.
c. They do not pass through solid objects.
d.Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz.
e. It is generally used in remote controller for TV, Music Systems, AC etc.

Advantages
1. Since it is having short range of communication hence it is considered to be a
secure mode of transmission.
2. It is quite inexpensive transmission medium.
Disadvantages
1. It can only be used for short range communication
2. Infrared wave transmission cannot pass through obstructions like walls, building.

2) RADIO WAVES: . In case of radio wave transmission, certain radio

frequencies are allocated to private/government organizations for direct voice
communications. Each radio signal uses a different frequency and this
differentiates it from others.
a. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz
b. Omni-directional, these waves can move in all directions
c. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distance
d. Susceptible to interference
e. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate walls
f. These waves are used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones.

Advantages
1. It is easy to communicate through radio waves in difficult areas since there is no
need of digging and laying cables.
2. They can travel through long distances in all directions. They are Omni directional.
3. They can easily pass through obstacles like a building so they can be used for
both indoor and outdoor communication.
Disadvantages
1. It is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunderstorm etc.
2. Data transmitted through radio waves is not secure.

3) MICROWAVES: It is a form of radio transmission that uses Ultra high

frequencies. It is a point to point, rather than a broadcast, transmission
system. Additionally, each antenna must be within line of sight of the next
antenna.
a. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
b.Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
c. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or mountains.
d.Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna must be in the
direction of each other.
e. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as radar and
satellite.
f. Provide very large information-carrying capacity.
4) Satellite Communication: It is also a kind of line of sight transmission that is
used to transmit signals throughout the world. In satellite communication, an
earth station has a satellite dish, which functions as an antenna to transmit and
receive data from satellites.
Uplink: When data is transmitted from an earth station to a satellite, it is known
as uplink.
Downlink: When transmission takes place from a satellite to an earth station, it
is known as downlink
Advantages:
a) The area covered is quite large.
Disadvantages:
a) It is very expansive.
b) Installation is extremely complex
c) Signals sent to the stations can be interrupted by external interference.

Q.42. Discuss the various Wireless technologies in detail?

1) BLUETOOTH: Wireless signals transmitted through Bluetooth cover short

distance. Its range is up to 10 meters. They consume less power and are
inexpensive. The most common use of Bluetooth on mobile phone is to
enable communication between phone and wireless headsets/earphones.
Advantages:
1) It is Free to use 2) It is Wire Less

Disadvantages
a) Slow Speed: Bluetooth devices communicate at less than 1 Mbps.
 b) Short Range: Its range is up to 10 meters.
c) Battery drain: It used battery power of device on which it is running and
consume lot of battery power.

2) Wi-Fi: It stands for Wireless Fidelity. With Wi-Fi communication takes place
without wires. The users share the data with each other by connecting to the
broadband internet service without using cables. It is most popular communication
protocol for LAN. Private homes and offices use Wi-Fi to connect computer and
other wireless devices to each other. It is easy to install and inexpensive. Its range
is up to 50 meters. Its frequency ranges between 2.4GHz to 5GHz

3) Wi-Max (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): Wi-Max is a

wireless communication system that provides broadband internet accessibility up
to 30 miles. The data transmission takes place without wires.

Q.43. What is Server and Client?

1) Server: A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and hardware
resources on the network is known as the server. A network can have more
than one server also. Each server has a unique name by which it is identified
by all the nodes on the network. A Webserver receive the request from client,
process that request and send the requested data back to the client.
2) Clients: A client computer is a host computer that requests for some services
from the server. In other words, server computer serves the request of client
computers and send requested data back to client.