Women

Questions:
Q. Women played a significant role in peasant, tribal and environmental movements which
enabled them to raise the women's issues. Discuss.
Q. Women played a significant role in politics in the contemporary India especially in raising
the women's issues. Elucidate.

Women's Movements in the Colonial Period:

Two main strands: The women’s movements in the colonial period are mainly of two
different concerns: (1) social reform movements and (2) nationalist movements.

● Social Reform Movements:

○ Emerged in 19th century due to:
■ Colonial economic and social transformations.
■ Establishment of Western education.
■ Rise of educated Indian intelligentsia.
■ Need to address social evils to counter colonial criticism.
○ Influenced by:
■ Hegemonic colonial ideology.
■ Emerging bourgeois society and values.
■ Western ideas of rationalism and liberalism.
○ Aim:
■ Resist colonial cultural dominance through "cultural defense."[K.N.
Pannikar's concept of "cultural defense" as a key response to colonial
influence.]
■ Create a modern, yet rooted in tradition, Indian society.
■ Address social evils like sati, child marriage, illiteracy etc.
■ Improve women's status through legislation, education, and political
action.
○ Inspiration: First wave feminism of the West.
○ Focus: Basic rights for women.

Limitations of Social Reform:

● Limited Scope: The reform movement did not radically challenge the patriarchal
structure or question gender relations. It focused mainly on issues criticized by the
British, neglecting deeper systemic issues.
● Women's Agency Restricted: Even women's institutions and organizations seemed
to lack an independent viewpoint. Their voices often echoed male perspectives and
parameters.
● Passive Beneficiaries: Women were seen as passive recipients of reforms initiated
by the Western-educated elite men. The focus was on reforming women, not the
social conditions oppressing them.
 ● No Power Shift: No attempts were made to alter the power dynamics or
men-women relationships within society.
● Confined Transformation: Change for women was sought within the existing
patriarchal system. The goal was to create a "new Indian woman" who was both
traditional and modern, but ultimately suited to the emerging society.
● Limited Education: Education for girls aimed to make them good housewives, not
independent or professionally skilled individuals.

Nationalist Movement Participation:

● Limited Roles: Women participated in the anti-colonial struggle, often encouraged

by leaders like Gandhi. However, their roles were largelyextensions of their domestic
work.
● Gender Segregation: Few women were allowed to participate alongside men in the
front lines. Those who did faced isolation and marginalization.

Colonial Backlash:

● Traditionalization: As a counterpoint to new colonial ideas, there was a push to

confine women to more traditional roles and lifestyles.

Limited Scope, Yet Significant

Despite its limitations, the social reform movement played a crucial role in raising awareness
about women's issues and paving the way for future progress.

● Focus Areas: The movement addressed various social evils like sati, female
infanticide, polygamy, child marriage, purdah, and lack of education for women.
● Two Main Groups: The movement comprised two groups: Liberal Reformers
(advocating for equal rights based on reason and logic) and Revivalists (seeking to
revive Vedic ideals in modern society).
● Prominent Leaders: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Iswar Chandra
Vidyasagar, Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu, M. G. Ranade, Swami Vivekananda,
and Swami Dayanand Saraswati were key figures who led various initiatives.

Achievements:

○ Abolition of Sati: Roy's efforts led to the outlawing of sati in 1829.

○ Widow Remarriage: Vidyasagar and others played a crucial role in legalizing
widow remarriage in 1856.
○ Age of Marriage: The campaign against child marriage resulted in raising the
age of consent to 10 in 1860 and later to 12 in 1891.
○ Female Education: The movement championed female education, with
leaders like Roy establishing schools for girls and homes for widows.
○ Property Rights: Efforts like the Special Marriage Act of 1872 and the
Married Women's Property Act of 1874 granted women greater control over
their property.
● Muslim Women: Progress for Muslim women was limited due to factors like purdah
and lack of access to education. However, the Tyabji family in Bombay stands out for
their contributions in education and social work for Muslim girls.
Nationalist Movements
● Women's Participation: The 19th century social reform movement paved the way
for women's education and their entry into political life. This marked the second
phase of the women's movement, characterized by active participation in the
nationalist struggle.
● Shift from Elite to Mass Movement: Initially confined to the urban upper class, the
movement gained momentum with Gandhi's emphasis on mass mobilization,
attracting women from diverse backgrounds.
● Early Forms of Participation:
○ Swadeshi Movement: Women contributed through boycotts, wearing khadi,
and fundraising.
○ Revolutionary Activities: Women like Shyamji Krishna Varma and Madam
Bhikaji Rustum played crucial roles.
○ Formation of Women's Organizations: Bharat Stri Maha Mandal and
Kanchi Mahila Parishad emerged to address women's issues and national
concerns.
● Landmark Developments:
○ Annie Besant as Congress President: This marked a significant step
towards women's leadership in the national movement.
○ Women's Suffrage: The struggle for voting rights gained momentum through
organizations like Women's Indian Association.
○ Expansion of Women's Organizations: National bodies like All India
Women's Conference and Federation of University Women in India emerged,
focusing on social reforms and civic participation.
● Gandhian Era and Mass Mobilization: Mahatma Gandhi's emphasis on mass
participation in the nationalist movement led to greater involvement of women in
various activities like Satyagraha and marches.
● Women's Participation in Major Movements:
○ Non-cooperation Movement (1920-1922): Women participated in protests,
picketing, and courted imprisonment.
○ Dandi March (1930): Sarojini Naidu and other women actively participated in
the march and salt satyagraha.
○ Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Kamala Devi Chattopadhyaya
and others played key roles in organizing and leading protests.
○ Quit India Movement (1942): Women led demonstrations, organized training
camps, and even participated in underground activities.
○ Formation of Indian National Army (INA): The Rani Jhansi Regiment of the
INA comprised women trained in nursing, social work, and armed combat.
● Establishment of National Women's Organizations: Organizations like All India
Women's Conference and National Council of Women in India aimed to address
social, economic, cultural, and political issues affecting women on a national scale.
● Challenges and Achievements:
○ Limited Leadership Opportunities: Male leaders often sidelined women,
leading to dependence on their absence for leadership roles.
○ Women's Power and Potential: Despite these limitations, women's courage,
organizational skills, and mass participation played a crucial role in the
 freedom struggle and ultimately earned them voting rights and constitutional
equality.
○ Persistent Gap: The gap between theoretical rights and lived realities for
women remains a challenge that requires ongoing efforts.

Women's Movements in Post-Colonial India:

● Post-Independence Challenges: India's independence in 1947 brought freedom but
also faced issues like colonial economic disruption, resource depletion, and women's
struggles to adapt to the new social order.
● Social Reforms and Legal Protection: Social reform movements
post-independence focused on constitutional and legal provisions to protect women
from discrimination and ensure equality for all citizens, regardless of gender or other
factors.
● Prominent Movements:
○ Telangana Movement: A peasant uprising in the 1940s-50s, where women
actively participated in land redistribution efforts and challenged feudalism.
○ Chipko Movement: An environmental activism movement in the 1970s,
where women played a crucial role in hugging trees to prevent deforestation.
○ Anti-Arrack Movement: A movement in the 1990s and beyond, where
women led campaigns against alcohol abuse and its detrimental impact on
families and communities.

Telangana Movement:
Key Points:

● Period: 1946-1951
● Nature: Peasant uprising against oppression by Nizam, Patils, and Jagirdars in
Hyderabad State
● Causes:
○ Oppressive Land System: Bonded labor, illegal taxes, forced labor, and land
grabbing by landlords.
○ Social Evils: Vetti system (forced labor), sexual exploitation by landlords,
child marriage, widowhood, lack of education for women.
○ Cultural Dominance: Muslim feudal rule kept women marginalized.
● Women's Role in the Movement:
○ Large-scale participation: Women from diverse backgrounds, including
agricultural laborers, tobacco leaf pickers, and urban middle class, actively
participated in the struggle.
○ Motivations: Poverty, slavery, and sexual exploitation were key factors
motivating women to fight for land, better wages, and social reforms.
○ Women's Organizations and Activism: The Communist Party formed a
women's organization, Andhra Vanitha, to address women's issues and
mobilize support. They campaigned against child marriage, widow
remarriage, and for education and opportunities for women.
○ Communist Party's Role:
 ■ Social Reforms: Advocated for widow remarriage, prohibition of child
marriage, education for women, and greater opportunities.
■ Leadership Identification: Recognized and empowered women with
leadership potential to strengthen the movement.
○ Notable Women Participants: Dubala Salamma, Ch. Kamalamma, Regulla
Achamma, and many others played crucial roles in leading and strengthening
the movement.
● Impact of the Movement:
○ Some immediate changes: Forced labor was abolished, village councils
became active, and people resisted the return of the old Jagirdari system.
○ Long-term influence: The movement sparked a revolutionary tradition
among Telugu people and paved the way for the later demand for a separate
Telangana state.
● Challenges and Limitations:
○ Indian Army's intervention: The entry of the Indian Army in 1948 led to the
suppression of the movement and the banning of the Communist Party.
○ Withdrawal of support: The rich peasantry withdrew their support after the
Nizam's surrender, weakening the movement's base.

Chipko Movement:
Key Points:

● Origin: 1972, Advani village, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand (then Uttar Pradesh)
● Leaders: Primarily illiterate Adivasi women, later under the guidance of Sri Sunderlal
Bahuguna
● Focus: Protecting forests and the environment, emphasizing their role in maintaining
soil, water, and air quality.
● Methods: Non-violent protests, including hugging trees (Chipko means "embrace")
to prevent felling.
● Slogan: "Five F's" - food, fodder, fuel, fiber, and fertilizer for self-sufficient
communities.
● Gender Perspective:
○ Women and children heavily relied on forests for resources like fuelwood and
food, making them key stakeholders.
○ The movement's focus on ecological conservation indirectly benefited women
by potentially reducing their workload and improving the environment.
○ Women's activism challenged traditional gender roles and empowered them
to take leadership positions
● Impact:
○ International recognition as a successful grassroots environmental
movement.
○ Increased awareness about the importance of forests for ecological balance
and community well-being.
○ Shift in forest management policies towards sustainability and local
participation.
○ Empowerment of women as environmental activists and leaders.
Anti-Arrack Movement:
Key Points:

● Origin: Dubagunta village, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, 1990s.

● Focus: Opposing the sale and consumption of alcohol (arrack) due to its detrimental
impact on families and communities.
● Initiation:
○ Women in Dubagunta village, empowered by a literacy program, successfully
closed a local arrack shop.
○ This success story inspired similar actions in other villages, leading to a
broader movement.
● Reasons for Opposition:
○ Alcohol consumption damaging family well-being and children's lives.
○ Prioritization of arrack shops over basic amenities like drinking water and
schools.
○ Recognition of the link between domestic violence and alcohol abuse.
● Methods: Protests, marches, closing arrack shops, forming women's committees,
resisting pressure and attacks.
● Impact:
○ Ban on arrack sale: The movement achieved its main goal of banning the
sale of distilled liquor in Andhra Pradesh.
○ Empowerment of women: The movement gave women confidence, a sense
of power, and awareness of their ability to bring about change.
○ Public discourse: The movement raised awareness about domestic violence
and family issues, connecting them to broader societal concerns.
○ Social change: The movement contributed to a shift in attitudes towards
alcohol consumption and its impact on families and communities.

Women's Movements in India since the 1970s:

Key Points:

Pre-1970s:

● Focus on overall economic growth and poverty alleviation.

● Gender issues subsumed within poverty concerns.
● Women's participation in movements like law and famine relief, but no specific focus
on their oppression.

1970s and 1980s:

● Emergence of NGOs and grassroots organizations emphasizing women's

development and collective action.
● Shift from welfare approach to empowerment and participation.
● "Towards Equality Report (1974)" highlighted persistent gender inequalities despite
legal guarantees.
 ● Key issues addressed: dowry, women's work, price rise, land rights, political
participation, Dalit women's rights, fundamentalism, media representation.

Characteristics of the Post-Independence Era Women's Movement (1970s-1985):

● Transition from passivity to activism, influenced by socio-economic conditions and

economic crisis of the 1960s.
● Rise of autonomous women's groups and organizations fighting for liberation.

Impact of Government and Political Parties:

● Indian Constitution guaranteed equal rights but pre-independence discriminatory

laws persisted.
● Early legislation included Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Dowry
Prohibition Act, and Equal Remuneration Act.
● Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) promoted welfare and development for women
and children.
● Left parties mobilized women in economic struggles (rising prices, landlessness) but
did not prioritize gender issues.
● National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) formed by the Communist Party of
India.

International Women's Decade (1975-1985):

● Increased focus on women's issues through government initiatives like the

Committee on the Status of Indian Women (CSIW).
● Emergence of autonomous women's movements,
● Characteristics of Autonomous Women's Movement:
○ Independent leadership: Women organized and led the movements.
○ Diverse focus: Addressing various forms of oppression, exploitation,
injustice, and discrimination.
○ Types of organizations: Agitation groups, grassroots organizations, service
providers, professional organizations, political party wings, and research
groups.
○ Mobilization strategies: Pamphlets, signatures, protests, street plays,
songs, posters, feminist magazines.