Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon-containing
compounds. These compounds can range from simple molecules like methane to complex
macromolecules like DNA and proteins. Unlike inorganic chemistry, which focuses on metal-
containing
and mineral compounds, organic chemistry primarily examines the structure, properties,
composition,
reactions, and synthesis of carbon-based compounds.

Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry focused on the study of carbon-containing compounds.

These compounds vary from simple molecules, such as methane (CH₄), to highly complex
macromolecules like DNA and proteins. Unlike inorganic chemistry, which primarily deals with metal-
containing and mineral compounds, organic chemistry emphasizes understanding the structure,
properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of carbon-based compounds.

• Organic compounds are compounds of

carbon that usually contain hydrogen

• And that may also contain other elements

such as

oxygen
nitrogen
sulfur
phosphorus or
halogen (F, Cl, Br, or I)\\\\\\The Bonding of Carbon

• C (6)→1s22s22p2

• Carbon is in Group IVA of the periodic table, it has

four valence electrons

• To fill its octet, it requires four additional electrons,

which can be obtained through the formation of
four covalent bonds

• Carbon forms single, double, and triple bonds to

achieve a completed octet...The possible bonding combinations for carbon

A unique feature of carbon

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 1/13
 Its ability to bond with other carbon
atoms to form chains and rings of

various lengths

polyethylene molecules have

chains with thousands of
carbon atoms

Hydrocarbon
Derivative of Hydrocarbon

Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are compounds of carbon that typically contain hydrogen.

They may also include other elements such as:
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)
Sulfur (S)
Phosphorus (P)
Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, or Iodine).

Bonding of Carbon

Carbon has the atomic number 6 with an electronic configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p².
It is located in Group IVA of the periodic table, having four valence electrons.
To complete its octet, carbon requires four additional electrons, which it achieves by forming:
Four covalent bonds.

Types of Carbon Bonds

Carbon forms the following bonds to complete its octet:

1. Single bonds (e.g., in alkanes: C-C).
2. Double bonds (e.g., in alkenes: C=C).
3. Triple bonds (e.g., in alkynes: C≡C).

Unique Feature of Carbon

Self-bonding ability: Carbon atoms can bond with each other to form long chains or rings of
various lengths.
Examples:
Polyethylene molecules consist of chains with thousands of carbon atoms.

Types of Organic Compounds

1. Hydrocarbons: Compounds made of only carbon and hydrogen.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 2/13
 2. Derivatives of Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons that also contain other elements, such as oxygen,
nitrogen, etc.

Hydrocarbons come in many forms, it can be:

Gases: such as propane or methane.
Liquids: including benzene or hexane.
Waxes or Low-Melting Solids: such as naphthalene and paraffin wax.
Polymers: including polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyethylene. A polymer is a
macromolecule, i.e., a large molecule, comprising several repeated sub-units.
Hydrocarbon families
We group hydrocarbon into homologous series or families. There are five main homologous
groups.

Forms of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons exist in various forms depending on their structure and physical state:

1. Gases:
Examples: Propane (C₃H₈), Methane (CH₄).
2. Liquids:
Examples: Benzene (C₆H₆), Hexane (C₆H₁₄).
3. Waxes or Low-Melting Solids:
Examples: Naphthalene, Paraffin wax.
4. Polymers:
Examples:
Polystyrene (used in packaging materials).
Polypropylene (used in plastics and textiles).
Polyethylene (used in plastic bags and containers).
A polymer is a macromolecule made up of repeated sub-units (monomers).

Hydrocarbon Families

Hydrocarbons are grouped into homologous series or families based on their structure and chemical
properties.
The five main hydrocarbon families are:

1. Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds (e.g., methane, ethane).

2. Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds (e.g., ethene, propene).
3. Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds (e.g., ethyne, propyne).
4. Aromatic hydrocarbons: Contain a benzene ring or similar structure (e.g., benzene, toluene).
5. Cycloalkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons arranged in a ring structure (e.g., cyclopentane,
cyclohexane).

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 3/13
 Classification of hydrocarbons-Acyclic/Open chain Cyclic/Closed chain

Classification of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons can be classified based on their structure into two main types:

1. Acyclic (Open-chain) Hydrocarbons

These hydrocarbons have linear or branched chains of carbon atoms.

They can be further divided into two categories:
1. Saturated Acyclic Hydrocarbons (Alkanes):
Contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.
Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆).
2. Unsaturated Acyclic Hydrocarbons:
Alkenes: Contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
Example: Ethene (C₂H₄).
Alkynes: Contain one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms.
Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂).

2. Cyclic (Closed-chain) Hydrocarbons

These hydrocarbons have carbon atoms arranged in closed rings. They can also be further
classified as:
1. Alicyclic Hydrocarbons:
These are non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbons.
They can be saturated (no double or triple bonds) or unsaturated (with one or more
double bonds).
Examples:
Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂) is a saturated alicyclic hydrocarbon.
Cyclohexene (C₆H₁₀) is an unsaturated alicyclic hydrocarbon.
2. Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
These hydrocarbons contain a benzene ring or similar aromatic ring structure.
They are characterized by delocalized electrons that provide extra stability.
Examples:
Benzene (C₆H₆), Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃).

In summary, hydrocarbons can be broadly classified into acyclic (open-chain) and cyclic (closed-chain)
categories, with subgroups based on the presence of single, double, or triple bonds, or the structure of
the ring.

Acyclic/Open chain-1.Saturated-Alkane 2.Unsaturated-Alkene,Alkyne

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 4/13
Acyclic (Open-chain) Hydrocarbons

Acyclic hydrocarbons

Acyclic/Open chain-1.Saturated-Alkane 2.Unsaturated-Alkene,Alkyne

Acyclic (Open-chain) Hydrocarbons

Acyclic hydrocarbons are compounds with linear or branched chains of carbon atoms. They can be
further classified into two main categories based on their bond types:

1. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.
They are saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms.
General formula: CnH2n+2
Examples:
Methane (CH₄)
Ethane (C₂H₆)
Propane (C₃H₈)

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double or triple bonds between carbon atoms, making them
reactive and less saturated with hydrogen atoms.

a. Alkenes

Alkenes contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

General formula: CnH2n
Examples:
Ethene (C₂H₄)
Propene (C₃H₆)

b. Alkynes

Alkynes contain at least one triple bond between carbon atoms.

General formula: CnH2n-2
Examples:
Ethyne (C₂H₂)
Propyne (C₃H₄)

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 5/13
Summary

Saturated: Alkanes (single bonds, full of hydrogen).

Unsaturated: Alkenes (double bonds) and Alkynes (triple bonds).

Cyclic/Closed chain- 1.Carbocyclic -Alicyclic,Aromatic 2.Heterocyclic-Hetero

Alicyclic,Hetero
Aromatic

Cyclic (Closed-chain) Hydrocarbons

Cyclic hydrocarbons are compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged in closed rings. They can be
classified into two main categories based on whether the ring contains only carbon atoms or also
contains other elements.

1. Carbocyclic Hydrocarbons

Carbocyclic hydrocarbons are cyclic compounds that contain only carbon atoms in the ring.

a. Alicyclic (Non-aromatic) Carbocyclic Hydrocarbons

Alicyclic hydrocarbons are cyclic compounds that are not aromatic. They may be saturated
(single bonds) or unsaturated (double bonds).
Examples:
Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂) - saturated carbocyclic hydrocarbon.
Cyclohexene (C₆H₁₀) - unsaturated carbocyclic hydrocarbon.

b. Aromatic Carbocyclic Hydrocarbons

Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic compounds that contain alternating single and double bonds
in a benzene-like structure (delocalized electrons provide extra stability).
Examples:
Benzene (C₆H₆)
Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃)

2. Heterocyclic Hydrocarbons

Heterocyclic hydrocarbons are cyclic compounds in which one or more atoms in the ring are not
carbon but are typically elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.

a. Heteroalicyclic Hydrocarbons

Heteroalicyclic hydrocarbons are non-aromatic cyclic compounds where one or more atoms in the
ring are not carbon.
Examples:

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 6/13
 Pyrrolidine (C₄H₉N) – a 5-membered ring with nitrogen.
Tetrahydrofuran (C₄H₈O) – a 5-membered ring with oxygen.

b. Heteroaromatic Hydrocarbons

Heteroaromatic hydrocarbons contain alternating single and double bonds in the ring, similar
to aromatic carbocyclic compounds, but with at least one heteroatom (such as nitrogen, oxygen,
or sulfur) replacing one of the carbon atoms in the ring.
Examples:
Pyridine (C₅H₅N) – a benzene ring with nitrogen.
Furan (C₄H₄O) – a 5-membered ring with oxygen.

Summary

Carbocyclic: Contain only carbon atoms in the ring.

Alicyclic: Non-aromatic (e.g., cyclohexane).
Aromatic: Contain a benzene ring (e.g., benzene, toluene).
Heterocyclic: Contain atoms other than carbon in the ring.
Heteroalicyclic: Non-aromatic (e.g., pyrrolidine, tetrahydrofuran).
Heteroaromatic: Aromatic (e.g., pyridine, furan).

Crude Oil-A complex mixture of lots of different hydrocarbon compounds of different sizes,• The
hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil consist of a carbon backbone in
a ring or chain structure with hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms
• It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found in porous rock (under the ground
and under the sea),Separation of compounds from Crude oil

Due to the difference in between the boiling points of the compounds present in

crude oil; those can be separated by fractional distillation technique

Crude Oil

Crude oil is a complex mixture of many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in size and
structure. The hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil typically consist of a carbon backbone arranged in
chains or rings, with hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms.

Appearance: Crude oil is a thick, sticky, black liquid.

Occurrence: It is found in porous rock formations, both underground and under the sea.

Separation of Compounds from Crude Oil

Crude oil contains a mixture of various hydrocarbons, each with a different boiling point. Because of
this, these compounds can be separated using a technique called fractional distillation.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 7/13
Fractional Distillation

Principle: The separation of compounds in crude oil is based on their different boiling points.
Process:
1. Heating: Crude oil is heated in a fractionating column.
2. Vaporization: As the oil is heated, its components vaporize at different temperatures.
3. Condensation: The vapor rises in the column, and as it cools, different components
condense at different levels of the column based on their boiling points.
4. Collection: The separated compounds (fractions) are collected at various levels, forming
groups of hydrocarbons with similar boiling points.

Fractions Collected During Distillation

Gases: Collected at the top (lowest boiling points), such as methane and propane.
Gasoline: Collected just below the gases, used in motor fuel.
Kerosene: Collected below gasoline, used in jet fuel.
Diesel: Heavier than kerosene, used in diesel engines.
Lubricating oils: Used for lubrication in engines.
Paraffin wax: Collected at the bottom, used in candles and coatings.
Bitumen: The heaviest fraction, used in road construction.

In summary, fractional distillation efficiently separates the various hydrocarbons in crude oil based on
their boiling points, allowing the extraction of valuable products for various industrial applications.

Carbon Cycle

Circulation of carbon in various forms through nature

• Carbon is an important element of life. Carbon cycle explains the movement of
carbon between the earth’s biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is taken up by the green plants and other
photosynthetic organisms and is converted into organic molecules that travel
through the food chain.
• Carbon atoms are then released as carbon dioxide when organisms respire.
• The formation of fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks contribute to the carbon
cycle for very long periods.

Why is the carbon cycle important?

Carbon Cycle is an important aspect of the survival of all life on earth.
• Environmental perspective: carbon provides insulation by trapping the sun’s
heat.
• Biological perspective: carbon is the building block of life and forms stable
bonds with other elements necessary for life.

Carbon Cycle

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 8/13
The carbon cycle describes the circulation of carbon in various forms through different parts of the
Earth. It plays a crucial role in maintaining life on Earth by regulating carbon levels and facilitating
essential processes. The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the Earth's biosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

Key Steps in the Carbon Cycle

1. Photosynthesis:
Green plants and other photosynthetic organisms take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the
atmosphere.
Through photosynthesis, they convert CO₂ into organic molecules, such as glucose, that
become part of the food chain.
2. Respiration:
When organisms respire (including plants, animals, and microbes), they release carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.
Carbon atoms are returned as CO₂ during cellular respiration.
3. Decomposition:
When plants and animals die, decomposers break down their bodies, releasing carbon back
into the soil and atmosphere in the form of CO₂.
4. Formation of Fossil Fuels:
Over millions of years, the remains of plants and animals are transformed into fossil fuels
(e.g., coal, oil, and natural gas) and sedimentary rocks.
This process stores carbon in the Earth for very long periods.
5. Ocean Carbon Exchange:
The oceans absorb and release CO₂ through physical processes and biological activity (like
the work of marine organisms).

Why is the Carbon Cycle Important?

The carbon cycle is vital for both the environment and biological life on Earth:

1. Environmental Perspective:
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere acts as a greenhouse gas, helping to trap the sun's
heat. This process, known as the greenhouse effect, helps regulate the Earth's temperature,
making it suitable for life.
2. Biological Perspective:
Carbon is the building block of life. It forms stable bonds with other elements (such as
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) to create essential organic molecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These molecules are necessary for the growth,
development, and function of living organisms.

In summary, the carbon cycle is a crucial process that sustains life by regulating carbon levels in
different forms across Earth's systems and supporting both the environmental balance and the
biological processes necessary for life.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 9/13
 Circulation of nitrogen in various forms through nature

• Nitrogen, a component of proteins and nucleic acids, is essential

to life on Earth.
• Although 78% by volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas, this
abundant reservoir exists in a form unusable by most organisms.
• Through a series of microbial transformations, however, nitrogen
is made available to plants, which in turn ultimately sustain
all animal life.

Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle describes the circulation of nitrogen in various forms through different parts of
nature, making it available for life processes. Nitrogen is a vital component of proteins and nucleic
acids (such as DNA and RNA), which are essential to all living organisms.

Key Steps in the Nitrogen Cycle

1. Nitrogen Fixation:
Nitrogen gas (N₂) makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere, but it is in a form that
most organisms cannot use directly.
Through nitrogen fixation, certain bacteria (found in the soil or in symbiotic relationships
with plants, especially legumes) convert nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH₃) or nitrate (NO₃⁻),
which can be taken up by plants.
2. Assimilation:
Plants absorb ammonium (NH₄⁺) or nitrate (NO₃⁻) from the soil through their roots.
These forms of nitrogen are then incorporated into amino acids, proteins, and nucleic
acids, which are crucial for plant growth.
3. Consumption by Animals:
Animals obtain nitrogen by consuming plants or other animals.
They incorporate nitrogen into their own proteins and nucleic acids.
4. Ammonification (Decomposition):
When plants and animals die, or when they excrete waste, decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
break down the organic nitrogen compounds (like proteins and nucleic acids) into ammonia
(NH₃) or ammonium ions (NH₄⁺), returning nitrogen to the soil.
5. Nitrification:
Some bacteria in the soil convert ammonium (NH₄⁺) into nitrites (NO₂⁻), and other bacteria
convert nitrites into nitrates (NO₃⁻).
Nitrates are the most usable form of nitrogen for plants.
6. Denitrification:
In anaerobic conditions (low oxygen environments), certain bacteria convert nitrates (NO₃⁻)
back into nitrogen gas (N₂), which is released back into the atmosphere, completing the

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 10/13
 nitrogen cycle.

Importance of the Nitrogen Cycle

Biological Perspective:
Nitrogen is crucial for the formation of proteins, nucleic acids, and other essential
biomolecules.
Plants, which are the primary producers in ecosystems, depend on nitrogen to grow, and
through the food chain, animals also rely on nitrogen for their biological processes.
Environmental Perspective:
The nitrogen cycle helps maintain the balance of nitrogen in the environment, ensuring that
it is available to organisms in usable forms while preventing excessive nitrogen buildup,
which can lead to eutrophication (overgrowth of algae in water bodies) and other ecological
issues.

In summary, the nitrogen cycle is a critical process that ensures the availability of nitrogen in forms
that can be used by plants and animals, supporting the overall functioning of ecosystems and life on
Earth.

The microbial transformations steps-1. nitrogen fixation

2. nitrogen assimilation
3. ammonification
4. nitrification and
5. denitrification ....1. Nitrogen fixation : nitrogen gas is converted into inorganic

nitrogen compounds like NH3 , NH4

+
, NO2
-
, NO3- 2. nitrogen assimilation/ absorption NO3
- and NH3

resulting
from nitrogen fixation

absorbed for
nourishment into the
specific tissue compounds
of algae and higher plants

Animals then ingest these

algae and plants,
converting them into their
own body protein
compounds. 3.Ammonification:The remains of all living things and their waste
products are decomposed by microorganisms to ammonia (NH3

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 11/13
 ) and

ammonium (NH4+). NH3

can leave the soil or be converted into other

nitrogen compounds, depending in part on soil conditions. 4.Nitrification: a process carried out by
nitrifying bacteria, transforms
soil ammonia into nitrates (NO3−), which plants can incorporate into
their own tissues. 5.Denitrification
Nitrates also are metabolized/digested by denitrifying bacteria, which
are especially active in water-logged anaerobic soils and converted to
free atmospheric nitrogen.

Microbial Transformations in the Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle involves several microbial transformations that help convert nitrogen into different
forms that can be utilized by plants and animals. These transformations are carried out by specific types
of bacteria and other microorganisms. The key steps are:

1. Nitrogen Fixation

Process: Nitrogen gas (N₂) from the atmosphere is converted into inorganic nitrogen
compounds, such as ammonia (NH₃), ammonium (NH₄⁺), nitrites (NO₂⁻), and nitrates (NO₃⁻).
Microorganisms Involved: This process is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as those
in the root nodules of legumes (e.g., Rhizobium) or free-living soil bacteria.
Importance: This makes nitrogen available in forms that plants can absorb and use for growth.

2. Nitrogen Assimilation/Absorption

Process: Plants absorb nitrates (NO₃⁻) and ammonia (NH₃) from the soil, which are the products
of nitrogen fixation. These nitrogen compounds are then incorporated into organic molecules like
amino acids and proteins.
Microorganisms Involved: Algae and higher plants absorb these nitrogen compounds through
their roots.
Importance: This provides essential nitrogen for plant growth, and plants form the basis of the
food chain, supplying nitrogen to animals.

3. Ammonification

Process: The remains of dead organisms and their waste products (like feces) are broken down
by microorganisms (decomposers), releasing ammonia (NH₃) or ammonium ions (NH₄⁺).
Microorganisms Involved: Decomposers like bacteria and fungi carry out this process.
Importance: This returns nitrogen to the soil in a form that can be further processed or used by
plants.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 12/13
4. Nitrification

Process: Ammonia (NH₃) in the soil is converted into nitrates (NO₃⁻), a form of nitrogen that
plants can easily absorb.
Microorganisms Involved: This is carried out by nitrifying bacteria, which are divided into two
groups:
1. Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), such as Nitrosomonas, convert ammonia (NH₃) to
nitrites (NO₂⁻).
2. Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), such as Nitrobacter, convert nitrites (NO₂⁻) to nitrates
(NO₃⁻).
Importance: Nitrates are the most bioavailable form of nitrogen for plants, allowing them to
incorporate nitrogen into their tissue for growth.

5. Denitrification

Process: In anaerobic conditions (such as waterlogged soils), denitrifying bacteria convert

nitrates (NO₃⁻) back into nitrogen gas (N₂), releasing it into the atmosphere.
Microorganisms Involved: Denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium are
involved in this process.
Importance: Denitrification helps maintain the balance of nitrogen in the environment by
returning nitrogen gas to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.

Summary of Key Microbial Transformations

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen gas (N₂) → Ammonia (NH₃), Ammonium (NH₄⁺), Nitrates (NO₃⁻).
2. Nitrogen Assimilation: Nitrates (NO₃⁻) and Ammonia (NH₃) → Organic molecules in plants and
algae.
3. Ammonification: Dead organisms and waste → Ammonia (NH₃) or Ammonium (NH₄⁺).
4. Nitrification: Ammonia (NH₃) → Nitrites (NO₂⁻) → Nitrates (NO₃⁻).
5. Denitrification: Nitrates (NO₃⁻) → Nitrogen gas (N₂).

These microbial transformations are crucial for converting nitrogen into forms that can be used by
plants and animals, and they play an essential role in maintaining the nitrogen balance in the
ecosystem.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 13/13