20HSTA201/ TAMILS AND TECHNOLOGY

Unit-III
Manufacturing Technology
Part-A
1.Who is Commier?
Tamils excelled in shipbuilding and sea voyages since ancient times. The experts in this
department were called commiers Tamils have made the ses a part of their lives. Vessels are
commonly used in Tamil Iiterature.

2. What is Odham (Tide? What are type?

Knowing Odiam (Tide) is one of the vessels steering techniques used by Tamils since the
Sangam Period Tamils divided Odiam (Tide) into types
i) High Tide
ii) Low Tide

3. What is Munthurai?
Mundurai was a port on the outer side of the estuaries during the Sangam period. Ingurunoon
verses of sangam literature indicate that it refers to the outer part of the estuary

4. What is Metallurgy?
Metallurgy is a scientific field that studies the material science, engineering, physical, chemical
properties, etc., of metals, intermetallic compounds and alloys.

5. What is beta bronze?

This type of bronze cast at high temperature is called 'beta bronze'. In metallurgy, the
"intermetallic compound' state between the two metals is known as the 'beta state".

6. What do you mean by wood's steel?

Wood steel is cast steel made by mixing iron with organic materials (iron + charcoal + glass)
and heating it for several hours at a temperature not less than 1400 degrees. This process is
called Carbonisation.

7. Explain the meaning of Chennakuzhi fire furnace.

Chennakuzhi is a combination of the word 'Chen' which refers to the colour characteristic of
red or red fire and 'na' which refers to the flame of fire and place name 'kuzhi'.

8. What are the metals used for making coins?

Kings coined gold, silver, bronze, iron and copper to suit their economic status.

9. Who are Puzhiyar and Kuttuvar?

The Puzhiyars from the Mullai region were the gatherers of the raw materials for the beads.
This is explained in the Pathirupathu verse (21:20-23).
Kuttuvars who lived in Kuttanadu on the west coast were engaged in the work of threading
the beads. This reference is found in Kurunthogai 163:1-2.

10. What are the types of glass beads?

i) Kirobo beads
ii) Agoso beads
i) Mereyi beats
i) Adeyum beads
v) Keta Ausi beads
vi) Kifa beads

Part-B

1.Explain the process of ship building technology.

Shipbuilding Technology of Tamilians
Shipbuilding refers to the technology and involvement of Tamila in shipbuilding, maintenance
and shipping, Tamil Nadu has a long coastline, Maritime trade is discussed in the literature. So
it is understood that there must have been many type of ships.
Kammiyar
Tamils excelled in shipbuilding and sea voyages since ancient times. The experts of this
department were called Kammiyars. We know that the Tamils have made the sea a part of their
lives since the sea and the ships are commonly used in Tamil literature.
Predicting Tides
Predicting tides is one of the vessels steering techniques used by Tamils since the Sangam
period.
Tamils divided Tide into two types,
1. High Tide
2. Low Tide).
1. Kazhi Tide
During Kazhi tide, the sea water moves towards the shore.
2. Sea Tide
As the tide slows down, the sea water moves towards the ocean.
By observing these two tides, the people on the shore would go into the sea.
Front Harbour and Big Harbour
1.Front Harbour
During the Sangam period, Front Harbour was a port on the outer side of the estuaries. The
following Ingurunooru verses of Sangam literature indicate that it refers to the outer part of the
estuary.
2. Big Harbour
In estuaries, the outer current is less. So in the Front Harbour, the ship is anchored and the sail
is lowered. Then the heavier goods are unloaded. The current at the mouth of the estuary is
higher and the sail is hoisted there. Later, it hurries to the Big Harbour, which is the inner part
of the estuary. The following lines from Purananooru mention this.
History of Shipbuilding
Even before Stone Age, about 10,000 years ago, man has known ships. But, they cannot be
accepted as proper vessels. First, they started using animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. They
were attached to the upper end of a pole erected on a boat and used for long journeys.
Sangam Fleet
During the first Pandiyan Empire (550-950 AD), CholaEmpire (850-1250 AD), Second
Pandiyan Empire (1150-1350 AD) Tamilians crossed the sea not only for business but also
invaded Sri Lanka and conquered many countries in the eastern regions. Especially under the
Pandiyan rule, more than 25 ports were functioning.
Arrival of the Britishers and the disappearance of Tamil shipbuilding art
Due to the arrival of the Britishers, the shipbuilding art beganto perish little by little. This is
known from the life history of V. O. Chidambaranar

2.Explain the method of extracting iron from iron factory.

STEEL INDUSTRY
 The iron and steel industry in India is one of the most important industries within the country.
Evidence of the use of iron by people, especially during the Sangam period has been found by
archaeological researchers. It is said that iron industry must have existed since iron was made
and used as many products.
Evidence
Recent excavations in the Central Gangetic Valley conducted with the consultation of the
archaeologist Rakesh Reddy's wife Aditi Venugopal have shown iron working in India.
Practical Metals
Actually, the practice of producing practical metals first started in India.
Evidence
Places like Uttar Pradesh, Lahiradewa have iron tools dating between 1800 BC-1200 BC (Saahi
1979:366).
Extraction of Iron
Extracting iron from iron ore is more difficult than extracting copper or tin from copper or
silver ore. The process of iron extraction appears to have been invented by the Indian
Civilizations during the Iron Age around 1200 BC.
The history of the development of iron metallurgy can be traced back to various past cultural
civilizations. Iron is known to have been used in various civilizations including Iran, Egypt,
Nubia, Europe, China and Japan.
Evidence
In the application of blast furnace, cast iron was used. Along with the hydrological gradients,
evidence of the use of the accordion has been found in China.
Extraction of metallic ores from mines, extraction of metals, process development and complex
processes have been proved in the literature of Sangam period.
Proof
The 16th Century book The. Ra. Metallica, written by Gyarchu Agaricalli describes it.

3.Explain the process of smelting iron.

SMELTING IRON
Tamilians had known the use of iron before the rest of the world knew it. They also had
widespread access to the technology of extracting and tooling iron from the natural sources.
They might have smelted iron and made weapons wherever necessary as a cottage industry.
Such items are found here.
Evidence
 A heap of iron waste was found at Raginipatti Kanmal in the Northern part near Paiyur on
the highway from Sivagangai to Thondi. When the iron wastes were broken, the stones
looked like iron.
Flint Pipes
The existence of iron smelters is further confirmed by the presence of flint pipes in places
where iron waste is found. These pipes might have been used for smelting iron or blowing air
through the pipe to keep the fire continuously burning.
Iron Furnaces at Kalayar Koil
In the following lyrics, Iyur Moolangkizhar says that
king Venkai Marban, after being defeated by Ukrap
Peruvazhuthi,regretted that saving his town was a rare act like saving water spilt on iron
in a furnace. From this, it is understood that there is evidence of an iron smelting factory during
the Sangam period.
Proof - Purnanoora 21
Chennakuzhi Fire Furnace
Chennakuzhi is a combination of the word 'Chenth' which refers to the colour characteristic of
red or red fire and the name 'na' which refers to the flame of fire and the name of the place
"Kuzhi",
Chen+na+ pit-'red pit'
By being so called, we can realize that it functioned as an iron mill during the Sangam period.
The information, data and names obtained confirm that an iron ore plant was operating at this
place since the Sangam period.
Large circular pots of clay were probably used for smelting iron. Such pits are found wherever
iron scraps are available. These were also called 'Chennakuzhigal' because they spewed fire
Evidence
1. It is special to see a Chennakuzhi in Raginipatti Kanmai.
2. The pond in Porpanikottai is called 'Neeravi Kulam' and there is a Chennakuzhi near it.
Secondary Casting Plants
About 200 metres away from the Porpanai Fort, the secondary iron casing furnaces had been
operating. The raw material redstones are not found here. So, this secondary raw materials
required for the plant should have been obtained from the primary metal separation plant itself.
The carbon iron alloy thus obtained is melted in flint iron pots. Then it is poured into flint
casting pipes to form the basic structure of long rod-like iron, as can be seen from the flint
castings lying around here. And we can see that the lower part of these fint pipes is buried in
the soil and molten metal is poured into it.
Evidence
From Thiruvarangam to Parpanaikottal, in some areas of the ridges with iron wastes, of earthern
furnaces of iron smelting plants partially destroyed, flint iron pipes, iron containers used for
waste disposal have been detected in many places.
Comparison of Sangam Smelting with Modern Smelting
The iron ore laterite rock is broken and pulverized and mixed with charcoal powder to subject
it to the primary ore separation, where the ore is roasted at high temperatures and enriched with
carbon particles. It can be seen in archaeological studies and historical records of metal
smelting that it is used as a raw material for the next level of iron smelting. This can be
compared with the modern metallurgical practice.
Herbal Use
Iron requires a lot of heat for melting it. They did not burn trees to that extent. Instead, they
used herbs to smelt iron, which stands as the evidence of technology.
Location of Smelter
It is natural for factories to be located where raw materials are available. Accordingly, it has
been found through the continuous field survey that ores have been mined near the iron ore
smelter and the iron ore wastes are found scattered nearby.

4. Explain the types of coins with evidences.

Miscellaneous Coins
1. Stamp Coin
Stamp coins were in use from the 5th Century BC to the 2nd Century BC. Pandyas were the
first to issue stamp coins.
Evidence
It is noteworthy that casting nests used for issuing stamps have been found in Tamil Nadu.
2. Pandiya Coins
Pandiyas issued copper coins followed by stamp coins. This copper coin is square shaped. In
the front part, there is a horse standing to left, under whose are tortoises in two tanks. There is
a fish in the background. The name Peruvazhuthi is inscribed in the form of a Tamil-Brahmi
line. It dates back to the 3rd Century BC and tortoise found in it reveals the 'Pandiyas'
attachment to velvi.
3.Peruvazhuthi Coins
The Peruvazhuthi coin is a copper coin issued by the Pandiyan Kings of the Sangam period of
which the Pandiyas' title Peruvazhuthi is inscribed in these coins and shows that they are 2300
years old.
4. Chola Coins of the Sangam Period
The Chola coins of the Sangam period have a standing bull on the obverse and a tiger drawn
with lines on the reverse. These are made of oblong square shaped copper cast. This coin has
been made mixing the casting method and stamping method. It was around the 3rd Century BC
that Tamils had known how to make and use coins by casting.
Evidence
A Sangam Chola coin has been found in the Amaravathi river basin. Archaeologists like
Arumuga Sitharaman consider its period to be the later part of the 3rd Century BC.
5. Chera Coins of Sanga Period
The Chera coins of the Sangam era are found to be inscribed with bow and some coins have
king's head and his name engraved on them.
Evidence
Coins of the Chera kings of the Sangam period like Cheraman Kottam Palathu Thunjiya
Makothai and Kuttuvan Kothai
6. Malaiyaman Kasugal
Thirukovilur Malayaman, a regional king lived between AD 100-300. In the coins issued by
them, Thirukovilur, the region they ruled, a river, three mountains and a road are seen.
7. Punch Coins
Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper became the standard form of coinage. These
punched coins are either square or round or rectangular shape.
The symbols on these were struck using punches and prints.
8. Coins of Mauriyas
Historical evidences from the Sangam period suggest that the Mauriyas used silver and copper
metals and used punch or punch-marked coins.
9. Coins of the Indo-Greeks
These coins were issued between 2nd and 1st Century BC. Mostly, they are made of silver.
Usually, some are rectangular and circular in shapes. They also have the name of the ruler who
depicts the puranas. The language in it is Prakrit and the script in Karoshti.
10. Kushana Type Coins
The Kushanas were the first dynasty to issue a large number of gold coins in the 1st and 4th
Centuries. Low value was found in copper coins. The coins had the image and name on the
obverse and deities on the reverse. The language used is Greek.
11. The coins of the Guptas
The Guptas issued well-minted gold coins. At the top, the kings are found in various guises.
Some coins show playing
5. Write the method of making stone beads and glass
beads with evidence.
Gem stones (carnelian ornaments)
'Carnelian' is a type of a precious stone. In Tamil Nadu, these stones were used to make
ornaments such as beads, rings, etc., during the Sangam period.
It is usually a red coloured stone. It had been used even before 6000 years ago. Since the Indus
Valley civilization, it has been widely used for jewelry making.
Making Method of Stone Beads
The stone 'Calsidony' is found naturally as small pebbles. The red colour of Carnelian is
obtained by heating this stone. From this, small flakes are broken with a hammer made of deer
antlers and the temporary shape of the ornament is obtained. Then, more small flakes are
broken into it to obtain the desired shape. After that, the beads are drilled. Finally, it is rubbed
well and polished.
Thousands of such beads have been found in Sangam settlements. Camelian beads are found
on Sangam tombs.
Glass beads
History of Glass
Glass beads used for making ornaments found in Sangam excavations in Egypt are believed to
date back to 2500 BC.
Early such beads were discovered during the archaeological excavations at Mabunguveyil in
South Africa. And these are between 970-1000 AD. Still manufacturing glass beads continues
in West Africa especially in Ghana.
Craftsmen and women making grobo beads have been
documented from the early 1920s to the present day.
Proof
Bead making in Ghana was first documented in 1746 by John
Method of Making Glass Beads
The method of making small glass vases by dipping moulds made of silica compound into
molten glass is known to have been in use as early as 1500 BC.
By dipping long tubes in molten glass and blowing it was possible for making various things.
This invention was made in the mid 3rd Century BC. As result, making glass vessels and beads
became easier.
Generally glass beads are made from finely ground glass. Various types of glass such as broken
and unused bottles, old medicine bottles, specialty glasses like clear cream jars, ash trays,
window panes are finely ground and ground into beads. These glasses give bright colours and
shiny surfaces.
Making Coloured Glass Beads
Modern ceramic paints, finely ground broken beads or glass beads can be made by adding
pieces of different coloured glass from different sources in a variety of styles, designs and
decorative patterns.
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