YEAR 12 AS CHEMISTRY

LESSON NOTES
2022/2023
 EMPIRICAL AND
MOLECULAR FORMULAE
LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you be able to:

a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula
b) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using
combustion data or composition by mass
EXAMPLE FOR CALCULATING EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=dbsfDBLZKsA
 Relationship between
Empirical and Molecular
Formula
 YOUR TURN!
55 https://www.thoughtco.com/empirical-formula-practice-test-questions-604118
REACTING MASSES AND
VOLUMES OF GASES
Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectrometer
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electrons in Atoms
LESSON OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you be able to:

a) Define the terms energy level, electronic configuration and ionization energy
b) Write the electronic configuration of the first 10 elements in the periodic
table
Ionization Energy
Types of Orbitals
 Filling the Orbitals
and the spdf electron
configuration
 Free Radical

A species with one (or sometimes

more than 1) unpaired electrons.
 Spin-pair repulsion
A pair of electrons in the same orbital repel each other
because they have the same charge. Pairing the spinning
electrons so they spin in opposite directions reduces the
repulsion. The repulsion is more than that of single
electrons in separate orbitals. That is why the electrons
in the p and d orbitals go into separate orbitals before
being paired up.
 TRENDS ON ATOMIC
RADIUS ACROSS A PERIOD
AND DOWN A GROUP
LESSON OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
a) Describe the trends in atomic radius across a
period and down a group
b) Describe the trends in ionic radius across a period
and down a group
CHEMICAL
BONDING
3 TYPES
IONIC BONDING
Example 1
Sodium Chloride
Example 2
Magnesium Oxide
Example 3
Magnesium Fluoride
Example 4
Sodium Oxide
Example 5
Calcium Chloride
Example 6
Calcium Fluoride
VIDEO TIME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxx-X6bi3p8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8D6UOefwMo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyxTSHlKK9Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzzUVDVGvcc
COVALENT BONDING
LESSON OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
a) describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams:
(i) covalent bonding, in molecules such as hydrogen,
oxygen, chlorine,
hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane
Example 1: Hydrogen
Molecule
Example 2: Oxygen
Molecule
Example 3: Chlorine
Molecule
Example 4: Hydrogen
Chloride Molecule
Example 5: Carbon Dioxide
Molecule
Example 6: Methane
Molecule
Example 7: Ethane
Molecule
VIDEO TIME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AV3AdurUaBs
ATTEMPT QUESTIONS IN
YOUR TEXTBOOK
DATIVE COVALENT
BONDING
Lesson Objectives

You should be able to :

1. Define dative covalent bonding, bond
energy, bond order and bond length.

2. Show the relationship between bond

energy, bond order and bond length
BOND LENGTH AND BOND
ENERGY
VIDEO TIME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9jd1Ew_YGU

] BOND LENGTH AND BOND ENERGY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YrVBhWHsAzQ

Endo and Exo

SHAPES OF MOLECULES
Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
Lesson Objectives

You should be able to :

1. State the VSEPR theory

2. Use the VSEPR theory to predict the

shapes/geometry and bond angles of
molecules
3. Define the terms sigma and pi bonds
VIDEO TIME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keHS-CASZfc
VIDEO TIME 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNYiB_2u8J4 VSEPR
VIDEO TIME 3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nxebQZUVvTg VSEPR
SIGMA AND PI BONDS
VIDEO TIME 1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jPUb8AHWK-s
VIDEO TIME 3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qzdRPv4Ns4
METALLIC BONDING
VIDEO TIME 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pT8nrBrTOm4
VIDEO TIME

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVv3TpaQ2-A

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1y2Q6YX1bQ
 INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES AND
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Lesson Objectives

You should be able to :

1. State the types of intermolecular forces and define them

2. Describe the relative strengths of the intermolecular forces

3. Define the term the electronegativity and state the factors

that affect it.

4. Define the term bond polarity and relate it to

electronegativity.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojgrvPnbPj4
Peculiar Properties of Water
Lesson Objectives

You should be able to:

State the type of bond found in water that
contributes to peculiar properties.
VIDEO

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njWsfApthXc
Besides mercury, water has the highest surface
tension for all liquids. Water's high surface tension is
due to the hydrogen bonding in water molecules.
Water also has an exceptionally high heat of
vaporization. Vaporization occurs when a liquid
changes to a gas, which makes it an endothermic
reaction.
Enthalpy change and boiling point of water

Water has a high enthalpy of vaporisation than

expected. This is because of the hydrogen
bonding.

Look at figure 4.44 on page 98

Bonding and Physical
Properties
Ionic Compounds-Phyical state at rtp
They are solids at room temperature and pressure.
Why?
They have strong electrostatic forces (ionic bonds)
holding the positive and negative ions together
The ions are regularly arranged in a lattice with the
oppositely charged ions close to each other.
Ionic Compounds-Solubility
Ionic Compounds
They are characterized by:

High m.p

High b.p

High enthalpy changes of vaporisation

A lot of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic attractive forces

Metals-Physical state at rtp
All are solids except mercury which is a liquid at rtp

Have high mp

Have bp

Have high enthalpy changes of vaporisation

This is because it takes a lot of energy to overcome the strong attractive forces
between the positive ions and the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
Covalent Compounds-Physical State at rtp
Exist as liquids and gases (simple molecular structures) eg water, ammonia

Intermolecular forces are weak

Low mp

Low bp

Low enthalpy changes of vaporisation

STATES OF
MATTER
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=robEY-idcLU
METALLIC LATTICE
GIANT MOLECULAR
STRUCTURES
 AS LEVEL
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Introduction to Organic
Chemistry
LESSON OBJECTIVES Friday 2/9/2022
Define the following terms: organic chemistry, hydrocarbon

Families of organic compounds based on functional groups:

Alkanes; Alkenes; Alcohols; Aldehydes; Ketones; Carboxylic acids; Esters, Amines and
Nitriles

Different ways of representing organic compounds:

General formula; condensed formula, structural formula; skeletal formula; displayed

formula;
Naming of Organic Compounds
 Structural formula of propanol

Condensed formula of propanol

C3H8O
Skeletal formula of propanol
Molecular formula of propanol
ISOMERISM
4 Types of Orbitals

a) s orbitals
b) p orbitals
c) d orbitals
d) f orbitals
Spdf Electron Configuration
Hybridization in
Organic
Compounds
Hybridization in Alkanes (Single bond); Alkenes (Double bond) and Alkynes (Triple bond)
Difference between pi and sigma bonds
Types of Organic
reactions and reaction
mechanisms
a) Addition Reactions
b) Elimination reactions
c) Combustion and Substitution reactions
e) Free-radical substitution
Free-radical substitution
f) Hydrolysis
HYDROCARBONS
Reactions of Alkanes
Cracking in Alkanes
Reactions of Alkenes
Addition Reactions of Alkenes
Oxidation of Alkenes by Hot Concentrated acidified potassium permanganate
Oxidation of alkenes with cold potassium permanganate
Write the Summary on 319-320 in your textbooks

Attempt all the exam-style questions on pages

320-322
HALOGENOALKANES
(HALOALKANES)
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1) Define the term haloalkanes
2) List types of haloalkanes and give examples
3) Describe how to make halogenoalkanes
Types of Halogenoalkanes
Examples of Halogenoalkanes
Lesson Objectives
Learner should be able to:

1) At least three examples of nucleophiles (OH, NH3,

CN)
2) State that haloalkanes can undergo two types of
nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 and SN2)
3) Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions
of haloalkanes
4) Draw the reaction mechanisms for haloalkane
reactions.
Elimination Reactions
Write the End of Chapter Summary on page 333
in your textbooks.

Attempt all the exam-style questions on pages

333-334
ALCOHOLS, CARBOXYLIC
ACIDS AND ESTERS
Lesson Objectives
The learner will be able to:
1) Define alcohols
2) Classify alcohols
3) List the properties of alcohols
4) List and explain the reactions of
alcohols
Reactions of Alcohols

A. Combustion
B. Oxidation
C. Dehydration
D. Substitution to form halogenoalkanes
E. Reaction with metals (Sodium, potassium..)
F. Esterification
A) DEHYDRATION OF ETHANOL
Generally, in dehydration of alcohols:
B) Substitution in alcohols to form Halogenoalkanes
Generally, the halogen substitutes the OH group from the alcohol and an
halogenoalkane is formed as shown by the equation below. H-X is hydrogen
halide where X is an halogen (Cl, Br, F…)
C) Reaction of alcohols with Sodium Metal
D) Esterification (Formation of Esters)
Hydrolysis of Esters
E) Combustion of Alcohols
F) Oxidation of alcohols
AUDIO VISUAL

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=R2PWi_9L4gk
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
eEcIgZ3yGA8
f) Reduction of Carboxylic Acids
Copy summary on page 347 in your
coursebooks.

Attempt all the exam style questions

on pages 347-348 in your
coursebooks.
18. CARBONYL
COMPOUNDS
Lesson Objectives
1) Define carbonyl compounds
2) List five types of carbonyl compounds
3) Define aldehydes and ketones.
4) Write the molecular, displayed, skeletal and structural
formulae of the first five members of the aldehydes and
ketones family.
YOUR TURN

A) Attempt questions 1a-e and 3a on page 363

B) Draw the displayed and skeletal formula of the
aldehydes and ketones on page 352 of your
textbook. Refer Tables 18.1 and 18.2
C) Write the molecular formula of each of the above
compounds.
AUDIO AND VISUAL

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6G
zvA4XSxxQ&ab_channel=Dr.D.Explain
sStuff
Lesson Objectives

Learner should be able to:

1. Describe how aldehydes and ketones are
prepared from alcohols.
2. Describe how to test for aldehydes and
ketones.
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
Testing for Aldehydes and
Ketones
Reactions to form Tri-IodoMethane
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
Copy summary on page 362 in your
coursebooks.

Attempt all the exam style questions

on pages 363-365 in your coursebooks.
CHAPTER 7

REDOX REACTIONS
Definitions
Definition of Redox Reactions

Attempt Question 1 on page

156 in your coursebook.
Applying the Oxidation Number Rules

Attempt Question 3 on
page 159 in the coursebook
Oxidising agents and reducing agents

Attempt Question 3 on
page 159 in the coursebook
Naming Compounds and Oxidation Numbers

Attempt Questions 5 and 6 on

pages 161 and 162 in the
coursebook
Lesson Objectives

Learner should be able to:

1. Balance chemical equations using oxidation numbers
2. Define the time disproportionation
3. Recognize disproportionation in chemical reactions and
identity the species undergoing disproportionation
4. Write half equations
Balancing Chemical Equations using oxidation Numbers

Review worked example 4 and 5 on

pages 163-164 in your coursebook
and attempt Question 7 on page 164.
Help: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Rv6kn0qROI
Disproportionation

Attempt Question 8 on page 165

in your coursebook
Half Equations

Attempt Question 2 on page

157 in your coursebook.
Chapter Summary

Copy the Chapter Summary

notes on page 165.
Exam Style Questions

Attempt the exam style

questions 1-6 on pages 166 to
168 in your coursebook.
CHAPTER 9

RATES OF REACTION
Lesson Objectives

Learner should be able to:

1) Define the term rate of reaction
2) Calculate rate of reaction from a graph
3) Describe the collision theory defining the
terms effective and ineffective collisions.
Attempt questions 1
and 2 on pages 211 and
213 respectively in
your coursebook.
Calculating Rate of Reaction Graphically
How does a catalyst work?
Attempt Question
3 and 4 on pages
215 & 218 in your
coursebook
Boltzmann Distribution
Attempt the
questions 5, 6, 7, 8 &
9 on pages 219-221
Write the end of
chapter summary
on page 222.
Attempt the
Exam Style
Questions 1-5 on
pages 222-223
CHAPTER 6

ENTHALPY CHANGES
Lesson Objectives
Learner should be able to:

1. List the differences between physical and chemical changes

2. List the difference between endothermic and exothermic reactions

3. Define activation energy, bond energy, bond breaking, bond making and
draw reaction pathway diagrams for endothermic and exothermic reactions
Differences between Chemical and Physical Changes
Reaction Pathway Diagrams
Attempt Questions
4-7 on page 142 in
your coursebook
ATTEMPT ALL EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS ON PAGES 149-151
IN YOUR COURSE BOOK
Chapter 8

EQUILIBRIA
Lesson Objectives
You should be able to:

1. Define the terms reversible reaction and dynamic equilibrium.

2. Explain why a closed system is needed for equilibrium to be
established.
3. State Le Chatelier’s Principle
4. Use Le Chatelier’s Principle to deduce qualitatively the effects of
changes in temperature, concentration, pressure or presence of a
catalyst on a reaction at equilibrium
What is a reversible reaction?
What is chemical equilibrium?

A reaction that does not go to

completion and in which reactants
and products are present in fixed
concentration ratios.
 What is a dynamic equilibrium?

State of reaction in which reactant s are

being converted to products at the same
rate as the products are being converted
back to reactants.

What is a closed system?

A system in which matter is not lost or
gained, such as gases in a closed gas
jar.
Attempt Question 2 on page 175
from your coursebook.
What are the characteristics of equilibrium?
1) it is dynamic
2) the forward and reverse reactions occur
at the same rate
3) the concentrations of reactants and
products remain constant at equilibrium.
4) it requires a closed system
CHANGING POSITION OF
EQUILIBRIUM
Shifting position of equilibrium
The position of equilibrium can be shifted to the right (formation of more
products) or to the left (formation of more reactants) when the conditions
of the reactions are changed/altered.

Change of the following factors leads to shift of equilibrium:

1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Concentration

We use Le Chatelier’s Principle to deduce the effect of the above

factors on the equilibrium.
Lesson Video

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=BPDkl92NCUs
Attempt Question 3, 4 & 5
on pages 177, 178 & 179
respectively from your
coursebook.
Equilibrium Expressions
and the equilibrium
Constants, Kc & Kp
Lesson Objectives
You should be able to:
1. Define the terms equilibrium expressions and constants
2. Deduce expressions for equilibrium constants in terms of
concentrations, Kc and in terms of partial pressures, Kp
3. Calculate the equilibrium constants, Kc and Kp for at least
5 stoichiometric equations.
4. Use the terms mole fraction and partial pressure
VIDEO STARTER

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=xfGlEXWDRZE
What is equilibrium constant, Kc or Kp?
This is a number/constant calculated from the equilibrium
expression for a reaction. It can be in terms of concentrations, Kc, or
partial pressures, Kp.

What is an equilibrium expression?

This is a simple relationship that links Kc to the equilibrium
concentrations, or Kp to the equilibrium partial pressures, of reactants
and products and the stoichiometric equation.
Attempt Question 7, 8,9, 10, 11,
12 & 13 on pages 184-188
respectively from your
coursebook.
 Equilibria and the
Chemical Industry
Two reactions:
1) Manufacture of Ammonia (Haber Process)
2) Manufacture of Sulfuric acid (Contact Process)
Lesson Objectives

You should be able to:

● Describe and explain the conditions in the Haber
process and Contact process, as examples of the
importance of an understanding of dynamic
equilibrium in the chemical industry and the
application of Le Chatelier’s Principle.
The Bronsted-Lowry
theory of Acids and Bases
Lesson Objectives
You should be able to:
1. State the names and formulae of the common acids, limited to
hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulfuric acid, H2SO4, nitric acid, HNO3,
ethanoic acid, CH3COOH.
2. State the names and formulae of the common alkalis limited to sodium
hydroxide, NaOH, potassium hydroxide, KOH and ammonia, NH3.
3. Describe the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
AUDIO VISUAL APPEAL

https://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=ZiokqP0aZ1E
AUDIO VISUAL APPEAL

https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=7qBRIWSA3Yc&t=57s
Strong and Weak Acids &
Bases
Lesson Objectives
You should be able to:
1. Describe strong acids and strong bases as fully dissociated in aqueous
solution and weak acids and weak bases as partially dissociated in aqueous
solution
2. Appreciate that water has a pH of 7, acid solutions pH of below 7 and
alkaline solutions pH of above 7.
3. Explain qualitatively the differences in behaviour between strong and weak
acids including the reaction with a reactive metal and difference in pH
values by use of a pH meter, universal indicator or conductivity
Distinguishing between strong and weak acids using equal
concentration/molarity
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

Sketch the pH titration curves of titrations using combinations of

strong and weak acids with strong and weak alkalis

Select suitable indicators for acid-alkali titrations, given appropriate

data (pka values will note be used)
 What is a titration curve?
A titration curve is a graphical representation of the pH
of a solution during a titration. In a strong acid-strong
base titration, the equivalence point is reached
when the moles of acid and base are equal and the
pH is 7. In a weak acid-strong base titration, the pH is
greater than 7 at the equivalence point.
ALKALI METALS (G1) AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS (G2)
Chapter 10

PERIODICITY
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe qualitatively (and indicate the periodicity) the variations

in atomic radius, ionic radius, melting point and electrical
conductivity of the elements
2. Explain the variation in melting point and electrical conductivity in
terms of the structure and bonding of the elements.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe , and write equations for reaction of Period 3 elements with
oxygen (to give Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, P4O10, SO2).
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe , and write equations of period 3 elements with chlorine (to give
NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3, SiCl4, PCl5)
2. and water (Na and Mg only).
Reaction of Magnesium with Water
Check Your Understanding :
(In 10 minutes)

Write balanced chemical equations for the reaction of period 3

elements with oxygen, chlorine and water
Lesson Objective
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. State and explain the variation in the oxidation number of oxides (Na2O,
MgO, Al2O3, P4O10, SO2 and SO3 only) and chlorides (NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3,
SiCl4, PCl5 only) in terms of their outer shell (valence shell) electrons.
2. Describe and write equations for, the reactions, if any, of the oxides Na2O,
MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3 with water including the likely pHs
of the solutions obtained.
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe and write equations for, the reactions, if any, of the oxides Na2O,
MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3 with water including the likely pHs
of the solutions obtained.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe, explain, and write equations for, the reactions of the chlorides
NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3, SiCl4, PCl5 with water including the likely pHs of the
solutions obtained.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Predict the characteristic properties of an element in a given group by
using knowledge of chemical periodicity
2. Deduce the nature, possible position in the periodic table and identity of
unknown elements from given information.
Lesson objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Suggest the types of chemical bonding present in the chlorides and oxides
from observations of their chemical and physical properties.
Chapter 11

GROUP 2 ELEMENTS
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe, write equations for, the reactions of group 2 elements with
oxygen, water and dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acid

What do we know from O Levels?

Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe, and write equations for, the reactions of the oxides, hydroxides
and carbonates of group 2 elements with water and dilute hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids.
Lesson Objectives
1. Describe, and write equations for, the thermal decomposition of the
nitrates and carbonates, to include the trend in thermal stabilities of group
2 elements.
Lesson Objectives
1. State the variation in the solubilities of the hydroxides and sulfates of
group 2 elements
Chapter Summary

Write End of Chapter Summary on Page 258

in your coursebook.

Draw a mind map to summarise the chapter.

Attempt Exam Style
Questions 1-4 on pages
258 to 259
Chapter 12

GROUP 17 ELEMENTS
What do we already
know from IGCSE
about Group 17
elements?
Lesson Objectives
1. Describe the colours and trend in volatility of the elements
chlorine, bromine and iodine.
2. Describe and explain the trend in the bond strength of the
halogen molecules.
3. Interpret the volatility of the elements in terms of
instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces.
The chemical properties of
the halogen elements and
hydrogen halides
Lesson objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the relative reactivity of the group 17 elements as

oxidising agents
Oxidising
agents take
electrons
from other
reacting
species. They
gain
electrons.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the reactions of group 17 elements with hydrogen

and explain their relative reactivity in these reactions.
2. describe the relative thermal stabilities of the hydrogen
halides and explain these in terms of bond strengths.
3. Describe the relative reactivity of halide ions as reducing
agents
Some Reactions of
Halide ions
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe and explain the reactions of halide ions with:

a) Aqueous silver ions followed by aqueous ammonia (the formation and
formula of the silver complex is not required)
b) Concentrated sulfuric acid, to include balanced chemical equations
The Reactions of
Chlorine
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a) Describe and interpret, in terms of changes in oxidation number, the
reactions of chlorine with cold and with hot aqueous sodium hydroxide
and recognize these as disproportionation reactions
b) Explain, including by use of an equation, the use of chlorine in water
purification to include the production of the active species HOCl and ClO-
which kill bacteria.
Disproportionation of Chlorine in Cold and Hot aqueous
Sodium Hydroxide

Chlorination.
What is chlorination in water
treatment/purification?
Chapter 13

NITROGEN AND SULFUR

Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a) Explain the lack of reactivity of nitrogen, with reference to triple bond
strength and lack of polarity
● Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and the main unreactive gas in air
● 78% of air is nitrogen gas
● The lack of reactivity of nitrogen gas can be explained by looking at
its intramolecular bonds
● Intramolecular bonds are the bonds within a molecule

Bonding in nitrogen
● The electron configuration of a nitrogen atom is 1s2 2s2 2p3
● To achieve a full outer shell of electrons, it needs to gain three
electrons
● Nitrogen atoms therefore form a triple covalent bond between two
nitrogen atoms in which they share three electrons with each other
● The bond enthalpy of the nitrogen triple bond is 1000 kJ mol-1
● This means that 1000 kJ of energy is needed to break one mole of N2 triple
bond
● As it is so difficult to break the nitrogen triple bond, nitrogen and oxygen gas in
air will not react with each other
● Only under extreme conditions will nitrogen gas react (eg. during a
thunderstorm)
Polarity of nitrogen
● The electrons in a nitrogen molecule are shared equally between the two nitrogen atoms
● Therefore, nitrogen molecules are nonpolar molecules
● Due to the lack of polarity, nitrogen gas is not attracted to or likely to react with other molecules the way polar molecules
would

NB: Since the electronegativity of the two nitrogen atoms is the same, they will pull the electrons towards them equally so overall
the molecule is nonpolar

Properties of Ammonia
● Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and will turn damp red litmus paper blue as it is an alkaline gas
● Ammonia is made on a large scale in industry using the Haber process:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a) Describe and explain
● the basicity of ammonia, using the Bronsted-Lowry theory
● the structure of the ammonium ion and its formation by an acid-base
reaction
● the displacement of ammonia from ammonium salts by an acid-base
reaction
 Basicity of ammonia
● Ammonia can act as a Brønsted–Lowry base by accepting a proton (H+) using
the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom to form an ammonium ion:

NH3(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)

● In an aqueous solution of ammonia, an equilibrium mixture is established

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

● Since the position of the equilibrium lies well over to the left the ammonia
solution is only weakly alkaline
● There is a higher concentration of ammonia molecules than hydroxide ions in
solution
● Ammonia is therefore a weak base
Structure & formation of ammonium ion
● The ammonium ion is formed by an acid-base reaction of ammonia with water:

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

● The nitrogen in ammonia is covalently bonded to three hydrogen atoms and has one
lone pair of electrons causing the ammonia molecule to have a pyramidal shape
● The nitrogen atom in ammonia uses its lone pair of electrons to form a dative bond with
a proton to form the ammonium ion
● The ammonium ion has a tetrahedral shape in which all bonds have the same length
 Preparation of ammonia gas from an ammonium salt
● Ammonia gas can be prepared from an ammonium salt and a base in an acid-base reaction:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
● State and explain the natural and man-made occurrences of oxides of
nitrogen and their catalytic removal from the exhaust gases of internal
combustion engines
● understand that atmospheric oxides of nitrogen (NO & NO2) can react with
unburned hydrocarbons to form peroxyacetyl nitrate, PAN, which is a
component of photochemical smog.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
Natural occurrence of nitrogen oxides

● Due to its lack of reactivity, only under extreme conditions will nitrogen react with oxygen to form gaseous nitrogen oxides
● An example of these extreme conditions is lightning which can trigger the formation of nitrogen(II) and nitrogen(IV) oxides
(NO and NO2 respectively)
● The chemical equations for these reactions are:

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)

N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

Man-made occurrence of nitrogen oxides

● In the engine of a car, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed and ignited by a spark
● Air consists of 78% of nitrogen and 21% of oxygen
● Under the high pressure and temperature inside a car engine, nitrogen can react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides
● These nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere through the car’s exhaust fumes
 Catalytic removal of nitrogen oxides
● The nitrogen oxides released through cars’ exhaust fumes pollute the atmosphere
● Many car exhaust systems are therefore fitted with catalytic converters to reduce the pollutants from motor vehicles
● The nitrogen oxides are reduced on the surface of the hot catalyst (e.g. platinum) to form the unreactive and harmless
nitrogen gas which is then released from the vehicle’s exhaust pipe into the atmosphere
● The chemical reaction for the reduction of nitrogen oxide to nitrogen gas by the catalyst is as follows:

2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO2(g) + N2(g)

 Oxides of Nitrogen & Photochemical Smog
● Nitrogen oxides are examples of primary pollutants because they are given off directly into
the air from the source of pollution
● Examples of pollution sources are car exhausts and power plants
● Nitrogen oxides are extra dangerous as they can react with substances in the air to make
secondary pollutants
● These are pollutants that are not given off directly into the air from human activity
● Exhaust fumes contain another primary pollutant called volatile organic compound (VOCs)
● These are unburnt hydrocarbons from fuel and their oxidised products
● VOCs react with nitrogen oxides in air to form peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN, CH3CO3NO2)
● Sunlight provides the energy needed to start off the reactions of VOCs and nitrogen oxides
in air, so they are also called photochemical reactions
● PAN is one of the harmful pollutants found in photochemical smog
● ‘Smog’ is derived from ‘smoke’ and ‘fog’
● PAN affects the lungs and eyes and in high concentrations plant-life
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
● Describe the role of NO and NO2 in the formation of acid rain both directly
and in their catalytic role in the oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide.
 Oxides of Nitrogen & Acid Rain
Formation of acid rain by nitrogen oxides

● As mentioned earlier, lightning strikes trigger the formation of nitrogen(II) and nitrogen (IV) oxides in air:

2NO(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)

● The air also contains oxygen and tiny droplets of water that make up clouds
● The nitrogen(IV) oxide (NO2) dissolves and reacts in water with oxygen as follows:

NO2(aq) + H2O(l) + 1½O2(g) → 2HNO3(aq)

● When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger
● When the droplet containing dilute nitric acid are heavy enough, they will fall down as acid rain
 Nitrogen oxide as a catalyst
● Acid rain also contains dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
● Sulfur(IV) oxide (SO2) is another pollutant found in the atmosphere
● When SO2 is oxidised, it forms SO3 which reacts with rainwater to form dilute sulfuric acid as follows:

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

● Nitrogen oxides can directly cause acid rain but can also act as catalysts in the formation of acid rain
● NO2 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 to SO3:

NO2(g) + SO2(g) → SO3(g) + NO(g)

○ The formed NO gets oxidised to regenerate NO2:

NO(g) + ½ O2(g) → NO2(g)

● The regenerated NO2 molecule can get again oxidise another SO2 molecule to SO3 which will react with rainwater to form
H2SO4
Write the end of chapter summary
on pages 278-279

Attempt the Exam-Style questions on

pages 279-280
PRACTICAL SKILLS 1
KEY TERMINOLOGIES
INTERVAL
AUDIO VISUAL APPEAL

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=WM_jXZuA90U
PRACTICE

TURN TO PAGES 367-379 IN YOUR

COURSEBOOK