Section 3:

River Dynamics 1

Moving water has power. A swiftwater rescuer needs to understand moving water. This section covers
river dynamics which provide the foundation for river reading. The dynamics of moving water covered in
this section includes river currents, river obstacles, and river hazards.

River Currents
<b> River Right and River Left – River right and river left are an orientation used by river users. The
orientation is noted on many of the diagrams. Looking downstream, river right is the right shore and river
left is the left shore. Looking upstream, river right is the left shore (if looking downstream), and river left
is the right shore (if looking downstream). Looking upstream, what is on the right is really on the left, and
what is on the left is really on the right.

<b> Primary Current (Figure 3.1) – The primary current refers to the general direction in which the
river is flowing. It is the current found in an unobstructed main channel. In Figure 3.1, the primary flow is
represented by the laminar flow. The slowest moving water is next to the bottom and each successive
layer of water toward the surface flows faster than the layer below it. The fastest moving water is found
just below the surface. This is because the air next to the surface creates friction which slows the surface
water slightly.

A way to conceptualize this principle

is to imagine sheets of plywood
stacked on the floor with wooden
dowels between each of the sheets of
plywood. Push the stack of plywood.
The next higher sheet of plywood on
the stack will travel at the speed of the
lower sheet plus its own speed. Hence,
the higher the stack of plywood, the
greater the speed that the plywood.
The last sheet of plywood representing
the surface of the water travels slightly
slower than the sheet below it because
of friction with the air above it.

The major implication of this principle

for a rescue swimmer is when
swimming in the defensive swimming Figure 3.01: Laminar Flow – Laminar flow is like a series of sheets of
plywood where each layer travels at the speed of the sheet below it plus its own
mode. Often, it is difficult to keep the speed. Source: author – [file:\RIDY-LaminarFlow.cdr]

1
This section was written by Robert B. Kauffman who is solely responsible for its content. The source material for this
section was adapted from a draft of Building Your Canoe Basics (Chapter 6) in Outdoor Adventures: Canoeing. American Canoe
Association (eds), Human Kinetics, March , 2008. This section is copyrighted © Robert B. Kauffman, 2016.

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feet on the surface of the water since the
slower current below the surface tends to
pull the feet downward.

The laminar flow is a function of the depth

of the river. Since the channel is normally
deeper in the middle and decreases in depth
to the shore, the current in the center or
deepest part of the channel is faster than
current close to the shore. The difference in
the speed of the current on the surface of an
unobstructed channel is represented in
Figure 3.2. Again, this represents a normal
river channel which gets shallower toward
the shore. As a footnote, canals, bridge
abutments, and similar walled channels are
similar to taking the center out of the Figure 3.2: Primary Flow – The shores are shallow and the center of
channel all the way to the canal wall, bridge the river is deeper. This normal contour results in faster current in the
abutment, or similar walled channel. In center of the river and slower currents toward the shore. Source: author
– [file:\RIDY-PrimaryFlow.cdr]
these situations, there is little current
differentiation from the center of the river
to the channel wall. Rocks and other
obstructions can affect this flow.
Submerged rocks in deep channels can
force vertical currents that reach the
surface as boils.

<b> Downsteam and Upstream “Vs”

(Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4) – Two rocks or
other objects can create a restriction in the
water where the water flows between the
rocks to form a small chute. The rocks
form an upstream V and the chute between
the rocks forms a downstream V. There is a
difference in vertical height between the
upstream and downstream Vs. The water
piles up against the rock creating an
increase in the vertical height of the water.
Also, it creates a cushion of water against
the rock. Conversely, the water drops off
quickly in between the two rocks forming a
chute and a downstream V. Also, it is
lower in elevation. Boaters and swimmers
look for this difference in height as they
look for downstream Vs and avoid
upstream Vs. Figure 3.3 shows a typical
stretch of river with its upstream and
downstream Vs. Figure 3.4 provides a view Figure 3.3: Upstream and Downstream Vs – This scene is a typical
from a swimmer’s perspective of the stretch of river where the swimmer looks for the downstream Vs and to
avoid the upstream Vs. Source: author – [file:\RIDY-Vs.cdr]

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change in elevation and the upstream and downstream
Vs. The height differential may be slightly
exaggerated for emphasis. This is the view the
swimmer would have running the stretch of river in
Figure 3.3.

<b> Bends (Figure 3.5) – Rivers tend to meander.

When the river bends, inertia forces the main current
toward the outside of the bend. As the deeper, faster
and the more powerful current reaches the outside of
the bend, it turns downward and creates a spiraling
effect off the bottom of the river that leaves more
room for surface water on the outside of the bend. The
force of the water tends to erode the outside of the
bend where trees and other debris fall into the river
where they can form strainers. In contrast, the slower,
shallower and less powerful current is usually found
on the inside of the bend.

When swimming around a bend, the swimmer

normally hugs the inside of the bend where the current
is slower. Moving to the outside of the bend, the
swimmer encounters the faster water which tends to Figure 3.4: Upstream and Downstream Vs – This is the
push the swimmer into the outside bank where the view from the swimmer’s perspective. Note the subtlety in
swimmer is likely to encounter a strainer or other height between the upstream Vs (high) and downstream Vs
(low). Source: author – [file:\RIDY-Vs&Tongues.cdr]
obstruction. Second, when swimming a bend, the
swimmer sets a slight
ferry angle with the head
pointing toward the inside
of the bend. Since the
current is going faster on
the outside of the bend, if
the swimmer remains
parallel with the current,
she will be turned around
by the current. This is
because the head and
shoulders are moving
faster than the feet.

<b> Chutes and Waves

(Figure 3.6) – A narrow
constriction in the water
forces the water to
increase its
speed through the
constriction. This water
usually forms a smooth
tongue of water. After the Figure 3.

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water passes through the constriction, its
deceleration into a deeper and slower water
results in a series of uniformly spaced
scalloped shaped standing waves. The
constriction can vary several feet in width to a
river wide constriction. The former creates a
simple drop with small waves. The latter river
wide constriction can create large standing
waves several feet in height from the trough to
top of the wave. An important consideration
for the swimmer is to coordinate her breathing
so that she breaths in between the waves and
not as she goes through the wave.

River Features
Rocks are the main obstacles found in a river.
The depth of the rock in the water and its size
are key factors in determining the effect of the
rock on river dynamics. Pillows, holes and
eddies are closely related. A totally submerged
rock may have little or no effect on the surface
current. As the rock gets closer to the surface,
it will force the water passing over it upward
to the surface creating a small wave or pillow Figure 3.6: Chutes and Waves – Water speeds up in a constriction
downstream of the rock. As the rock or of the channel and then it is dissipated as it drops. This creates a
obstruction widens, water from the side cannot series of standing waves. Source: author – [file:\RIDY-Chutes.cdr]
fill in behind the rock. This results in a
depression or void behind the rock. Now the water flowing over the rock attempts to fill the void creating
a hole or hydraulic behind the rock. As the rock becomes exposed, the water can no longer flow over the
rock and can only fill the void behind the rock from the sides. Eddies are created by the water filling in
the void from the sides behind an exposed rock.

<b> Eddies (Figure 3.7) – Eddies are formed behind rocks or other obstructions in the river. Water flows
past the obstruction creating a void behind the object which the water attempts to fill. There are three
distinct parts of an eddy which are created by the water attempting to fill the void.

The first part of the eddy is where the water in the main current rushes by the rock so fast that in order to
fill the void the water has to flow back upstream (see #1 in Figure 3.7). This creates a very strong current
differential between the main current and the current in the eddy. The interface between the downstream
current and the upstream current creates an eddy line or even an eddy wall. As the current increases
dramatically, the eddy line becomes an eddy wall. An eddy wall is the vertical height difference between
the downstream current and the current in the eddy attempting to fill the void behind the rock. If there is
an eddy wall, there is a noticeable downhill current inside the eddy also. For a rescue swimmer, this
powerful of an eddy can be problematic and the rescue swimmer can find the eddy unfriendly. However,
most eddies will have an eddy line where there is little or no vertical difference between the main current
and the upstream current in the eddy.

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The third part of an eddy is where the
water in the main current enters the void
behind the rock so far downstream that it
continues on downstream but at a slower
rate then the main current (see #3 in Figure
3.7). This area of an eddy can be
problematic for rescue swimmers because
rescue swimmers may think that they are in
the upstream current in the eddy when they
are really moving downstream, and quickly
falling out of the eddy (see Figure 3.7). In
addition, since the current is moving
downstream in the eddy, there is no real
eddy line present in this portion of the
eddy. Many beginning rescue swimmers
will prefer entering an eddy in this area
because there is no current differential and
there is less risk of having to cross the eddy
line. This is okay but remember to swim
upstream into the eddy.

The second part of the eddy is the interface

between the current moving upstream and
downstream in the eddy. The current here
is neutral. In a strong eddy, this is often the
ideal location for a rescue swimmer to
remain stationary. They aren’t being
plastered against the backside of the rock Figure 3.7: Anatomy of an Eddy – In the anatomy of an eddy, there are
by the upstream current where it is difficult three parts. There is the water moving back upstream. The eddy line
to exit the eddy, and they aren’t falling occurs in this section. There is a neutral area, and there is a downstream
moving area. Source: author – [file:\RIDY-EddyAnatomy.cdr]
downstream either.

Conceptually, the three parts of an eddy have many of the same characteristics as a hole or hydraulic.
Both are caused by the river attempting to fill a void. In a sense, an eddy is a hole rotated on its side.
Most eddies are friendly and rescue swimmers will use them extensively as they eddy hop down a river.
However, remember that some eddies can be violent and very unfriendly also.

<b> Hydraulics and Holes (Figure 3.8) – A hole occurs in the river when a rock or other obstruction of
sufficient width to prevent the water from filling in the obstruction from the side forces the water flowing
over the rock to fill the void or depression behind the rock. As the water flows over the rock, it plunges
down to the bottom of the river and races downstream. As it races downstream, the water shoots back up
to the surface where it moves in one of three directions. A portion of the water re-circulates back
upstream to fill the void behind the rock (1). Further downstream, some of the water comes up to the
surface and continues on downstream (3). This water travels at a slower rate than the general flow of the
river and quickly picks up speed as it moves downriver. In between or at the interface of the upstream and
downstream flow, the flow is neutral in that it is not really flowing downstream or upstream (2). This
neutral area is called the “boil.”

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The shape of the hole
affects how friendly it
is. In a smiling hole
the center of the hole
is further upstream
than the sides. This
creates the impression
that the hole is
smiling when looking
at the hole from the
upstream side. It
tends to be more
friendly to a swimmer
or paddler since they Figure 3.8: Anatomy of a Hydraulic – In the anatomy of an eddy, there are three parts. There is
will find it easier to the water moving back upstream attempting to fill the hole. There is the neutral area or boil, and
maneuver to the side the downstream flow. Source: author – [file:\RIDY-HydraulicTypical.cdr]
of the hole where
they can exit the hole.

In contrast, in a frowning hole, the middle of the hole is downstream of the sides. From the upstream side
of the hole, it looks like it is frowning. Since the middle of the hole is downstream, the force of the hole
tends to move the swimmer or paddler to the center of the hole where it is strongest and most powerful.
These holes are often called keepers because they keep a person stuck in the hole. They are difficult to
exit because the swimmer or paddler has to literally paddle uphill to reach the side of the hole where they
can extricate themselves from the hole.

If you are paddling a canoe or kayak you can easily feel where you are in the hole. If you are on the
upstream side of the boil, you can feel the pull of the current pulling the canoe upstream and into the hole.
Conversely, if you are on the downstream side of the boil, you can feel the boat slipping downstream and
dropping out of the hole. If you are sitting on the shore and watching the paddler you can play a little
mental game where you look closely at the attitude of the canoe and tell where the canoe is in the hole.
Look at the trim of the boat. If the stern is lower than the bow, then the canoe is in the downstream
portion. Unless they paddle hard, they are out of the hole, and they might as well ferry to the shore and try
again. If the bow is lower than the stern, the canoe will move upstream and into the hole.

Understanding these currents on an experiential level can be of benefit to the swiftwater rescuer. The
rescuer can approach the victim in the downstream current behind a low head dam or keeper hole and
throw a rope to the victim trapped in the hole. This area is perfectly safe for the rescuer, but the rescuer
needs to know exactly where they are in terms of these three currents. Once the rescuer crosses the boil, it
is all downhill and they too can become a victim. This is not an uncommon situation. This author has
reviewed more than one case where the rescuer crossed the boil and died. It is important to know where
you are in terms of the currents pictured in Figure 3.8.

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<b> Pillows (Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10)
– As the rock approaches the surface, it
will force the water passing over it
upward to the surface creating a small
rounded wave or pillow downstream of
the rock. The further underneath the
water that the rock is in the water, the
further downstream the pillow. And, as
the rock moves closer to the surface, the
pillow moves closer to the rock until it is
directly over it. It takes experience for a
swiftwater rescuer to recognize which Figure 3.9: Pillows – The water hits the top of the rock forcing it to the
pillows are close to the surface and need surface creating a downstream bubble or pillow on the surface. Source:
to be avoided and which ones are deep author – [file:\RIDY-Pillows.cdr]
enough not to pose a problem.

When the rock finally emerges out of the

water, the pillow becomes a cushion of
water that flows up against the rock
forming a cushion. A boater floating up
on a well developed cushion can use the
cushion to avoid broach on the rock.
Regardless, it requires quick thinking
and a quick reaction to avoid broaching.
In addition, if the current is powerful
enough, the rock may actually form a Figure 3.10: Compression Waves – The water hits the front of an exposed
series of compression waves upstream of rock and creates a cushion because it has no where to go. Source: author –
the obstacle (Figure 3.10). [file:\RIDY-CompressionWaves.cdr]

River Hazards
<b> Strainers (Figure 3.11) – Strainers are formed when water flows through an obstacle. Much like
spaghetti in a colander, water flows through the strainer leaving the victim trapped helplessly. Stainers are
most commonly formed by trees and rocks. STRAINERS ARE KILLERS. They are extremely dangerous
and river users should always avoid them.

Trees are the most commonly encountered form of strainers found on a river. As a river continues to
carve out a bend in the river, trees along the bend will fall into the river channel as the river current
undermines the foundation underneath the tree. Also, a strainer on the bend of a river is particularly
dangerous since the current is faster there and the rescue swimmer who is flowing with the current is
more likely to be swept into the strainer.

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Rocks can also cause strainers.
Usually, the rocks are positioned on the
bottom in such a way that water will
flow thru them to create a strainer.
Often, these strainers are referred to as
undercut rocks. Water boiling up from
the bottom in an eddy or an eddy
without an eddy line is often a good
indication of an undercut rock.

The strainer drill helps to prepare

students for handling strainers. Again,
avoidance is the primary strategy. If
there is no avoiding the strainer, swim
aggressively toward it and try to get as
high up onto it to avoid drowning.
Figure 3.11: Strainers – A strainer allows the water to pass through but holds
<b> Undercut rocks – Most undercut the swimmer. They are killers and should be avoided. Source: author –
rocks are a form of strainers. The main [file:\RIDY-Strainers.cdr]
attribute of an undercut rock is that the
water flows underneath rather than around the rock. Depending on its size, the current can sweep a victim
underneath the rock and impale the victim in the orifice of the undercut rock (strainer).

For most boaters, a good indication of an undercut rock is that normal river features like an eddy don’t
behave as they normally do. They seem weird or different and they act weird because the currents are
different. The eddy pictured
in Figure 3.12 is modeled
after and uncut rock on the
Lower Youghiogheny River.

Typically, there are several

symptoms or characteristics
to help spot an undercut
rock. First, the pillow or
cushion on the upstream side
of the rock is missing. This
is because the current is
flowing through and not
piling up against the rock.
Second, the current flowing
through the orifice creates a
boil with its outflow. The
boil and outflow
significantly changes the
river feature. The eddy
pictured does not behave as
an eddy normally behaves Figure 3.12: Anatomy of on Undercut Rock – To the trained eye, the undercut rock
(see Figure 3.7). Next, there seems very different than a normal river feature. Source: author – [file: \RIDY-
UndercutRocks.cdr]

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is less current flowing around the rock. The eddy line may be weak or missing. The outflow current may
reduce the current differential and eddy line. A boater entering this eddy would immediately experience
the lack of an eddy line to cross and the force of the outflow current. Last, because of the outflow and
boil, the current in the eddy is different than normal.

<b> Low-head Dams (Figure 3.13) – A low-head dam and a hydraulic are essentially the same with some
important differences (see Figure 3.8). Examination of Figure 3.8 and Figure 3.13 suggests that they are
essentially the same diagrams. However, there are some important differences. The hydraulic behind a
low-head dam is a “perfect” hydraulic. It goes from one river abutment to the other. The only exit may be
to dive down and catch the water moving downstream. In contrast, naturally formed hydraulics are
imperfectly formed and can usually be escaped. A low-head dam is designed to disperse the kinetic
energy of the falling water upward rendering it harmless. Unfortunately, hydraulic is perfectly formed and
extends from one abutment to the other abutment. This is why they are called the drowning machine.

A horizon line is the usual indicator of a river wide obstacle like a waterfall or low-head dam. Actually,
this is a variation of the differential heights created by upstream and downstream Vs (see Figure 3.3),
except there is no height differential. Hence, the horizon line. As you look downstream, there will often
be a section of calm
or smooth-looking
water followed by a
line across the river
where the water
drops out of sight.
Trees on your side of
the horizon line will
look normal.
However, the trees
just downstream from
the horizon line often
look as if someone
cut a section out of
their trunks. If the
horizon line is
formed by a low-head
dam there are usually Figure 3.12: Low Head Dams – Low head dams are perfect hydraulics from abutment to
abutment. They are killers and should be avoided. Source: author –
abutments on each
[file:\RIDY-HydraulicLowHeadDam.cdr]
side of the dam which
are a clear indication
of the dam.

There are several approaches to rescuing a victim caught in the hydraulic of a low head dam. Several of
these are in the province of the rescue squad and their specialized equipment. The first rule for any rescue
attempt is to understand that the hydraulic behind a low head dam is a drowning machine. This applies to
rescuers also. An untethered rescuer trapped in the hydraulic becomes another victim. There are cases
where a bystander with full knowledge of the dangers of low head dams attempted a rescue and drowned
in his rescue attempt to rescue two victims. One victim recycled out of the hydraulic and survived. The
other victim along with the rescuer drowned.

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The following are some rescue methods. The first requires the specialized equipment of a rescue squad. A
fire hose is capped with a special cap and inflated with air. The hose is extended to victim trapped in the
hydraulic. It works but requires the specialized caps. A Tefler lower can be used. This requires
considerable setup time. Third, a power boat can maneuver in the slowly moving downstream current
behind the hydraulic and throw a throw bag to the victim. A grappling hook can be used in place of the
throwbag. A tethered victim can enter the hydraulic and effect a rescue. However, this can endanger the
rescuer and should be used as a last resort, if at all. Maneuvering in the slackwater behind a hydraulic by
rescuers requires an empirical understanding of the parts of hydraulic. This point cannot be emphasized
enough.

<b> Old Man-made Structures (no figure) – Most rivers contain man-made structures such as old dams
or bridge abutments that have fallen in disuse. Sometimes these structures are potentially a fun place to
play with a canoe or kayak. Always use caution around these structures. Rip-rap may contain large spikes.
Old dams and bridge abutments may contain reinforcing rods or sharp rocks that can create nasty injuries.
Check the site at low water for hazards and if there is any doubt, find another place to play.

<b> Drowning Trap Flows (Figure 3.14, Figure 3.15, and Figure 3.16) – Any water level on the river
can be hazardous. Ask people when the river is dangerous. Most people associate flood-like conditions
with danger like muddy water, water flowing over the banks, water in the trees, floating debris and big
waves. Floods and high water are dangerous and most people recognize the danger and stay off the river
(Figure 3.14).

On many rivers, recreational fatalities tend to occur at moderate water levels when the river is well within
its banks and the river looks perfectly normal (i.e. It is not flooding). The normal cycle of flows for rivers
is that during the summer when most people visit the river, the water level drops to where the moving
water is no longer a contributing factor in the fatalities. However, if the water level rises, the river can
become very dangerous (Figure 3.15).

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Figure 3.14: Flood Levels – Intuitively, most people recognize rivers flooding and the dangers
associated with them. They avoid flooding rivers. Source: author –
[file:\RIDY-DrowningTrapFlood.cdr]

Figure 3.15: Normal Summer Flows – In the summer when most people visit rivers, the river is
at low flow where it tends to lose its power as a contributing factor in accidents. Source: author –
[file:\RIDY-DrowningTrapNormal.cdr]

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Figure 3.16: Drowning Trap Flows – When high flows occur during summer, the river current has
the power to become a contributing factor in drownings. Since the river is within its banks, people
don’t perceive it being dangerous because there aren’t flood conditions. Source: author –
[file:\RIDY-DrowningTrapNormal.cdr]

Depth, velocity and deceptiveness define the drowning trap (Figure 3.16). At these moderate flows the
river has the power (depth and velocity) to drown, yet it is deceptive since people tend to associate flood
conditions with danger rather than moderate flows. The cross-sectional profile of a typical eastern river
illustrates the relationship between moderate drowning trap flows, summer low flows and flood levels
which people normally perceive as being dangerous.

The depth of the water is a key determinant of its velocity and its power. Imagine standing in moving
water about waist deep. With some deliberate care you can brace yourself against the current and stand in
the water. Add another foot of water so that the water is above your waist. Now the river current can
easily move you. Perhaps it may knock you off your feet and sweep you downstream. When the river's
speed reaches that of person walking fast, it begins to have the power to move you, knock you over and
depending on circumstances, drown you.

A good indicator of drowning trap levels is when annual vegetation on gravel bars are inundated during
the summer months. Look for those areas which were under water during the spring runoff. When this
vegetation becomes either partially of fully under water, the river is higher than normal and may be in the
drowning trap flows.

The third component of the drowning trap is deceptiveness. When asked, most people correctly associate
flood-like conditions as being dangerous. And they are dangerous. However, in the Drowning Trap flows
the river is well within its banks and to the casual visitor, the river looks perfectly normal. A study on the

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Potomac River in Maryland found that three fourths of the river visitors visited two or less times to the
river. Hence, most visitors have no reference point to determine what is the normal summer flow of the
river. The river is not flooding and it looks normal because it is well within its banks. However, it has the
depth and velocity to contribute to an accident. In this way it is deceptive because people don’t readily
recognize the danger for what it really is.

Summary
Having an understanding of river dynamics is important for the rescue swimmers. First, it helps the rescue
swimmer not to become a second victim. This was evident in rescues behind a low head dam. Second,
understanding and having familiarity with river dynamics is important as the rescuer moves in the river. It
helps to facilitate a rescue, and again, it helps the rescuer in not becoming a second victim during the
rescue. Third, understanding river dynamics goes hand-in-hand with river rescue. Last, wading and
swimming rapids helps the rescuer to become familiar with the medium with which they are working.
This familiarity is always a good thing.

References
Bennett, J., (1996). The Complete Whitewater Rafter. Camden, Maine: Ragged Mountain Press.
Dillon, P. And Oyen, J., (eds) (2009). Building Your Canoe Basics (Chapter 6) in Outdoor Adventures:
Canoeing. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, March.
Dillon, P. And Oyen, J., (eds) (2009). Water Safety and Survival Skills (Chapter 5) in Outdoor Adventures:
Kayaking. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, March.
Kauffman, R., Taylor, S., and Price, R., (1991). A Recreational Gauging and Information System to Alert
Potomac River Users of Dangerous Water Levels. Annapolis, Maryland: Department of Natural
Resources, Boating Administration, Planning and Policy Program. 305 pp.
Kauffman, R. (2015). Swiftwater Rescue Packet. McHenry, Maryland: Garrett College. Unpublished
packet.

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