Mayar International Schools

First Semester 2024/2025

The American High School

Diploma Program

“Booklet 2”

Module 3: The structure of the atom.

Lesson 1: Early ideas about matter.

Lesson 2: Defining the atom.
Lesson 3: How atoms differ.

Grade 9 A.H.S.D

Teacher: Rasha N. Maraqa

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 Lesson 1: early ideas about matter and Lesson 2: Defining the Atom

The Greeks had a theory about matter, in which each matter is made of one or more of the
following four elements.

For example: wood is made of earth, air, and fire. If you burn this piece of wood: earth will come up as
ashes, air will come up as smoke and fire will come up as fire.

Burn

Earth
Earth, Air and Fire

Although it seems silly to us now, remember that Greeks were philosophers, which means that they
mainly depended on their thinking to explain things and they had no instruments to make experiments
as we now do.

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- Democritus was the first philosopher to come up with the idea of atoms, where he said if you have any
material and you decide to break it into smaller pieces, and then you take these smaller pieces and break
them into even smaller pieces and you repeat this breaking process several times eventually you are
going to reach a stage were the pieces cannot be cut anymore. He called these smallest particles “A
TOMOS” which means indivisible (inseparable or undividable).

Material

“A TOMOS”

Aristotle: This Greek philosopher disagreed with Democritus. Aristotle did not believe
Democritus’s idea that atoms moved through space. He did not believe that space could exist. His
views went unchallenged for 2,000 years.

Module 3 the Structure of the Atom

lesson 2: Defining the Atom

- In 1808, an English schoolteacher named John Dalton proposed Dalton’s atomic theory *. His work
marks the beginning of the development of modern atomic theory. Dalton revived and revised
Democritus’s ideas based on the results of scientific research.

* Remember: theory is an explanation supported by many experiments; is still subject to new

experimental data, can be modified, and is considered successful if it can be used to make true
predictions.

The results of his research are known as Dalton’s atomic theory.

1. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

Remember: Atoms are considered the building blocks for elements.

2. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

Remember: this is not completely right as atoms can be subdivided into protons,
neutrons, and electrons.

3. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different
elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.

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 Examples:

Hydrogen as an element consists of atoms. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms that form
hydrogen element are identical in size, mass, and other properties.

The element Oxygen consists of atoms. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms that form
oxygen are identical in size, mass, and other properties.

However, if we compare atoms that form Hydrogen and Oxygen they will have different sizes,
masses, and other properties.

Remember: this is not completely right as atoms of the same elements can have different
masses “We will discuss it more when we talk about isotopes”.

4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical

compounds.
Examples:

1 Carbon + 1 Oxygen will give Carbon Monoxide. While 2 Carbons + 1 Oxygen will give Carbon
dioxide (the same elements; Carbon and Oxygen can form two different compounds; Carbon
Monoxide or Carbon dioxide).

5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

His ideas account for the law of conservation of mass (atoms are neither created nor destroyed) and
the law of constant composition (elements combine in fixed ratios).

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Conservation of Mass
It states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. The mass of the
reactants equals the mass of the products. The conservation of mass in chemical reactions is the
result of the rearrangement of atoms during the reaction.

Mass reactants = Mass products

Law of Definite Proportions (law of constant composition); elements combine in fixed ratios.
The law of definite proportions states that a compound is always composed of the same
elements in the same proportion by mass, no matter how large or small the sample.
For example, pure water obtained from different sources such as a river, a well, a spring, the sea,
etc., always contains hydrogen and oxygen together in the ratio of 1:8 by mass.
The relative amounts of the elements in a compound can be expressed as percent by mass.
The percent by mass is the ratio of the mass of each element to the total mass of the compound
expressed as a percentage.

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The table below demonstrates that the percentages of elements in sucrose remain the same despite
differences in sample amount.

C12H22O11

Law of Multiple Proportions

The law of multiple proportions states that when different compounds are formed by a
combination of the same elements, different masses of one element combine with the same fixed
mass of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers.
Example 1
The two distinct compounds water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) illustrate the law of
multiple proportions.
• Each compound contains the same elements.
• The mass of hydrogen is the same in both compounds.
• The mass of oxygen in hydrogen peroxide compared to water gives a 2:1 ratio.

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Example 2

Laws Based on Dalton’s Theory

Conservation of Mass Law of Definite Proportions Law of Multiple Proportions
“law of constant composition”
Mass is neither created nor A compound is always composed of
When different compounds are
destroyed during a chemical the same elements in the same formed by a combination of the
reaction. The mass of the proportion by mass, no matter how
same elements, different
reactants equals the mass of large or small the sample. masses of one element
the products. combine with the same fixed
The relative amounts of the
mass of the other element in a
elements in a compound can be
ratio of small whole numbers.
expressed as percent by mass.

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 - Dalton also came up with the first table for elements
(BUT REMEMBER, TODAY PERIODIC TABLE
DIDN’T DEPEND ON DALTON PERIODIC TABLE
BUT HE ONLY ARRANGED THE ELEMENTS THAT
WERE KNOWN BACK IN HIS TIME.

ADDITIONALLY, IF YOU SEE HIS TABLE, IT

CONTAINS OTHER COMPONENTS THAT WE KNOW
NOW ARE NOT ELEMENTS, SUCH AS LIME AND
SODA).

- By relating atoms to the measurable property of

mass, Dalton turned Democritus’s idea into a
scientific theory that could be tested by experiment.

Discovery of electrons:
- As scientists tried to unravel the atom, they began to make connections between matter and
electric charge. The first discovery of a subatomic particle resulted from investigations into the
relationship between electricity and matter.

-In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the first subatomic particle, electrons. He used what is called a
cathode ray tube, it’s a big glass tube that has two pieces of metal, and connected these two metals
to a power source.

He noticed that as the voltage across the tube was increased, a beam became visible (they called it
cathode ray*) and created a glowing spot when it hit a special coding inside the glass (Figure A).

* Cathode rays are a stream of particles carrying a negative charge. The particles carrying a
negative charge are known as electrons. It’s Called a Cathode ray because it moves from the
Cathode (negatively charged) to the Anode (Positively charged).

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- At that time, Thomson didn’t know what was going on, but we know today what is going on is that
electrons were shooting out from the first metal and attracted to the second metal which had an
opposite charge, but they were moving so fast, they shot along the tube.

- After that Thomson asked himself the following question: the stuff that cathode ray is made of, does
it have an electrical charge?
-
- So he took two metal plates and put them on either side of the glass tube and then turned on
electricity that made the top plate positively charged and the bottom plates negatively charged.
When he turned on the power he saw that now the cathode ray instead of going straight through,
the cathode ray bends up toward the positively charged plate, so he realized that the cathode ray
must be made of stuff that is negatively charged (Figure C).
- He further verified this in another way. He brought a magnet because if something has an electrical
charge and it's moving a magnet will push it in a particular direction. He surrounded the tube with
a magnet and he saw that the cathode ray bent in the other direction (downward), which assured
him that the stuff that makes up the cathode ray needed negatively charged (Figure B).
-
- J.J. Thomson results:
-
- - Showed that Dalton had been incorrect; atoms were divisible into smaller subatomic particles.
-
- - Postulated the existence of electrons using cathode-ray tubes.
-
- - Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron. Results showed that the mass of the charged
particle was much less than that of a hydrogen atom (He found that the ratio was over 1000x lower
than a H+ ion), the lightest known atom.
-
- - The atom must also contain positive particles that balance exactly the negative charge carried by
particles that we now call electrons.
-

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- Atoms were known to be electrically neutral, so they must contain a positive charge to
balance the negative electrons and because electrons have so much less mass than atoms,
atoms must contain other particles that account for most of their mass. Thus they came up
with the Plum Pudding Model where the electrons surround the positive charge inside the atom.

-
- Note: This Model was later proven to be incorrect by Earnest Rutherford.

J. J. Thomson’s proposed model of the atom had: A spherical shape and uniformly distributed
positive charge in which the individual negatively charged electrons resided.

Thomson was not able to find how much negative charge an electron has.

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 Robert Millikan confirmed that the electron carries a negative electric charge and discovered the
mass and charge of the electron.

He used tiny drops of oil and balanced them floating in midair by using gravity and electricity and
they were able to determine how much charge each electron had.

1. The container that Millikan used contains the following:

- Source for oil drop (number 1 in the picture)

- Positive plate (number 2 in the picture)
- Negative plate (number 3 in the picture)
- A pinhole that allows the oil drops to fall (number 4 in the
picture)
- Telescopic eyepiece (number 5 in the picture)
- Source of X-rays (number 6 in the picture)

2. If no voltage is applied, the fall of the droplet is determined by the masses and viscosity of the air
through which they fall.
3. X-rays will hit the particles and will provide them with a negative charge (representing electrons).

4. When the voltage is on the two plates will have a charge (the above plate will be positive, while
the plate at the bottom will be negative).

5. Because the droplets became charged (negatively charged), they will fall more slowly, stop
falling, or even rise depending on their charges.

6. When we apply the appropriate voltage we can suspend the droplets that have charges in the
middle and determine the charge and mass of electrons.

Millikan’s experiment indicated that the electron has a mass of 9.11 × 10-28 grams (1/1840 the mass
of the simplest type of hydrogen atom) and also confirmed that the electrons carry a negative charge
equal to 1.6 × 10-19 coulombs.

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 Sir Earnest Rutherford: Discovery of protons and atomic nucleus:

More detail of the atom’s structure was provided in 1911 by New Zealander Ernest Rutherford who
conducted the gold foil experiment.
Picture 1
1. The scientist blasted a thin, gold foil with fast-moving
alpha particles, which are positively charged particles
with about four times the mass of a hydrogen atom
(picture 1).

2. When he allowed alpha particles to hit the thin gold

foil, the results were as demonstrated in (picture 2):
some of the particles passed through to the other side,
others had small-angle deflection and some had wide-
angle deflections.

3. The interpretations of the results were as follows: Picture 2

- Since most of the alpha particles pass

through, this means that the space within
the atom is empty.

- Since some alpha particles were deflected by

large angles, there must be a positive charge
inside the atom, specifically at the center of
the atoms.

He called the center of the atom the Nucleus and the positive charges Protons.

- Since small defections also happen, this means that the volume occupied by the nucleus is very small.

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Atoms had too much mass! Scientists have discovered that atoms weighed more than they should
if there were protons and electrons. How can this happen?

James Chadwick

He proposed that there was a 3rd subatomic particle he called the Neutron, which helped to stabilize
the protons in the Nucleus.

The problem was that these protons couldn’t account for the entire mass of the nucleus, thus,
Rutherford predicted the existence of a new particle that would be neutral and would account for
the missing mass, which was later discovered by James Chadwick as the neutrons.

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 John Dalton J.J. Thomson Robert Millikan Rutherford Chadwick
Billiard Ball Cathode ray Oil Drop Gold Foil Discovered
Model experiment. experiment experiment Neutrons
using alpha
“Atoms are particles.
indivisible and Discovered the Millikan’s
strong” presence of experiment
electrons. indicated that Discovered
the electron has protons and
Proposed Plum a mass of 9.11 × atomic nuclei.
Pudding Model 10-28 grams
where the atom had (1/1840 the mass
a spherical shape of the simplest Nuclear Model
and uniformly type of hydrogen
distributed positive atom)
charge in which the
individual negatively Also confirmed
charged electrons that the electrons
resided carry a negative
charge equal to
1.6 × 10-19
coulombs.

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The Proton and the Neutron

•A proton is a subatomic particle carrying a charge equal to but opposite that of an electron.

•A neutron is a subatomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton, but which carries
no electric charge.

The Rutherford model of the atom was an improvement over

previous models, but it was incomplete. It did not explain where
the atom’s negatively charged electrons are located in the space
surrounding its positively charged nucleus. After all, it was well
known that oppositely charged particles attract each other. So
what prevented the negative electrons from being drawn into the
positive nucleus?

Module 3 the Structure of the Atom

lesson 3: How Atoms Differ

Atomic Number

Atoms of each element contain a unique positive

charge in the nuclei. The number of protons in an atom
is called the atomic number.

In the periodic table, each element is represented by

its chemical name, atomic number, chemical symbol,
and average atomic mass.

Elements are listed in their natural (neutral) state on the periodic table. Therefore, the number
of protons and electrons in an element is equal.

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

The atomic number of an atom equals its number of protons and its number of electrons.

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Use with Example Problem 1: Complete the table at right.

KNOWN:
A. Element = Pb, atomic number = 82
B. Number of protons = 8
C. Number of electrons = 30

UNKNOWN
A. Number of protons (Np), number of electrons (Ne) =?
B. Element, atomic number (Z), Ne =?
C. Element, Z, Np =?

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Isotopes and Mass Numbers

All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons, but the number of neutrons
can differ.

Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes.

The mass number identifies each isotope of an element. It is the sum of the atomic number (or
number of protons) and neutrons in the nucleus.

In nature, most elements are found as mixtures of isotopes.

Usually, the relative abundance of each isotope is constant. Different sources containing atoms of
potassium have the same percent composition of isotopes.

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Use Example Problem 2.

Problem: A chemistry laboratory has analyzed the composition of isotopes of several elements. The
composition data is given in the table below. Determine the number of protons, electrons, and
neutrons in the isotope of neon. Name the isotope and give its symbol.

Response

ANALYZE THE PROBLEM

You are given some data for neon in the table. The symbol for neon can be found on the periodic
table. From the atomic number, the number of protons and electrons in the isotope is known. The
number of neutrons in the isotope can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass
number.

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Mass of Atoms

The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of the isotopes of that element.

Because atomic mass is a weighted average, the chlorine-35 atoms, which exist in greater
abundance than the chlorine-37 atoms, have a greater effect in determining the atomic mass.

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Use Example Problem 3.

Problem

Given the data in the table, calculate the atomic mass of unknown Element X. Then, identify
the unknown element, which is used medically to treat some mental disorders.

SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN

Calculate 6X’s contribution. Substitute mass = 6.015 amu and abundance = 0.0759.
6X: mass contribution = (mass) (percent abundance)

Mass contribution = (6.015 amu) (0.0759) = 0.456 amu

Calculate 7X’s contribution. Substitute mass = 7.016 amu and abundance = 0.9241.
7X: mass contribution = (mass) (percent abundance)

Mass contribution = (7.016 amu) (0.9241) = 6.483 amu

Total the mass contributions to find the atomic mass.

Atomic mass of X = (0.4565 amu + 6.483 amu) = 6.939 amu

Identify the element using the periodic table.

The element with a mass nearest 6.939 amu is lithium (Li).

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