Sound is a form of energy which executes in our ears the sensation of hearing.

It is a longitudinal wave that is

created by a vibrating object.
PROPAGATION OF SOUND:- (Sound waves are called mechanical waves and longitudinal waves)
Sound is produced in vibrating objects. The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a
medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound moves through a medium form the point of generation to the
listener. When an object vibrates, it sets the particles of the medium around it vibrating. The particles do not
travel all the way from the vibrating object to the ear. A particle of the medium in contact with the vibrating
object is first displaced from its equilibrium position. It then exerts a force on the adjacent particle. As a result
of which the adjacent particles gets displaced from its position of rest. After displacing the adjacent particle the
first particle comes back to its original position. This process continues in the medium till the sound reaches
your ear. The disturbance created by a source of sound in the medium travels through the medium and not the
particles of the medium. A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the particles of the
medium set neighboring particles into motion. They in turn produce similar motion in others. The particles of
the medium do not move forward themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward .this is what happens
during propagation of sound in a medium, hence sound can be visualized as a wave.

Sound waves are characterized by the motion of particles in the medium and are called mechanical wave. Air is
the most common medium through which sound travels. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and
compresses the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called a compression (C). This
compression starts to move away from the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves backwards, it
creates a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R). As the object moves back and forth rapidly, a series of
compressions and rarefactions is created in the air. These make the sound wave that propagates through the
medium. Compression is related to the number of particles of a medium in a given volume. More density of the
particles in the medium gives more pressure and vice versa. Thus, propagation of sound can be visualized as
propagation of density variations or pressure variations in the medium.

There is another kind of waves called transverse waves. In these waves the particles oscillate up and down
perpendicular to the propagation of the direction of disturbance.
LONGITYDINAL WAVES:- When the particles of a medium oscillate in same direction in which the wave is
being propagated, then the wave so formed is called a longitudinal wave.
Examples of Longitudinal Waves:
 A long and light spring attached to hook in a wall and held horizontally, such that there is no tension in
the spring. When this spring is pushed towards the wall and then pulled away from the wall rapidly
(above fig.), there appear regions, where the coils of the spring come very close. These regions where
the coils of the spring come closer than normal are called compressions and denoted by C. Conversely,
 there appear regions where the coils of the spring are farther apart. These regions where the coils of the
spring are farther apart than normal are called rarefactions and denoted by R.
 The sound waves produced in air is an example of longitudinal wave. When the sound wave propagates
through air, the particles of air oscillate in the direction of wave propagation, with the result the regions
of compressions and rarefactions are formed in the air which alternate with one another. Thus, sound
energy moves outward.
COMPRESSIONS AND RAREFACTIONS OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES:- Compression:- A part of a
longitudinal wave in which particles of air are closer to one another than normal, such that there is a momentary
decrease in volume and increase in pressure is called the region of compression. Rarefactions: A part of a
longitudinal wave in which particles of air are farther away from one another than normal, such that there is a
momentary increase in volume and decrease in pressure is called the the region of faction.

PITCH:- The property by virtue of which our brain can distinguish between the deep (bass) sound and the
sharp sound is called pitch. The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of sound. It has been found
that the more is the frequency of the sound, the higher is its pitch, i.e., the sound is likely to be shrill.

LOUNDNESS: The loudness of sound is determined by the amplitude of its wave. The more is the amplitude,
the louder is the sound. That is the reason when we hit a table with a spoon lightly, a soft sound is produced, but
when we hit it with a large force, a loud sound is produced. The loud sound has more energy and can travel
through longer distance as compared to less loud sound. The loudness is basically the effect produced in the
brain by the sound of different frequencies.
TIMBER OR QUALITY: The property by virtue of which two sounds of same pitch and same loudness can
be distinguished from on another is called timbre or quality of sound. The quality of sound is produced because
of the change in wave form.
INTENSITY OF SOUND:- The intensity of a sound is defined as the amount of sound energy passing through
a unit area per second.
Intensity of sound = Energy / (Area x Time)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOUDNESS AND PITCH:-
Loudness Pitch
1. It is amplitude dependent. It is frequency dependent.
2. It results in a heavy voice. It gives a shrill effect to the voice.
3. It transfers more energy to the eardrum. It does not depend upon the energy transferred to
the eardrum.
4. It does not control bass in music. It controls basin music.
5. Men have a heavy voice due to loudness. Women have a sharp voice due to pitch.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVE
• The characteristics of sound waves are : wavelength, frequency, amplitude, time period and velocity.
→ When a wave travel in air the density and pressure of air changes from their mean position.
→ Compression is shown by crest while rarefaction is shown by trough.
→ Compression is the region of maximum density or pressure.
→ Rarefaction is the region of minimum density or pressure
WAVELENGTH (W): The linear distance between consecutive particles in the same phase of and oscillating
medium is called Wavelength. Wavelength is denoted by letter lambda ( ).

In the above fig., the linear distance between the particles E and F or D and H or Q and S represents wavelength
Unit of Wavelength: Its unit in S.I system is metre (m).
AMPLITUDE:- The maximum displacement of an oscillating particle about its mean position is called its
Amplitude. In the above fig., PE or DQ represents the amplitude of the motion. Units of amplitude: It is
measured in Metres in S.I. system.
FREQUENCY:- The number of oscillations executed by an oscillating particle of a medium about its mean
position in one second is called the frequency of the wave motion. OR The number of waves passing through
one particular point in a medium in one second is called the frequency of the wave motion. Frequency is
denoted by letter ( f ). Units of Frequency: The unit of frequency in S.I. System is hertz ( Hz ). 1 Hertz: One Hz
is equal to 1 vibration per second. Bigger unit of frequency is kilohertz kHz = 1000 Hz.
TIME PERIOD (T):- The time required by an oscillating particle to complete one oscillation is called the Time
Period. OR The time in which one complete wave passes through a point is called the time period. Time period
is denoted by letter T and its Unit is Second.
WAVE VELOCITY:- The distance covered by a disturbance in any particular medium is called its Wave
Velocity in that medium. It is denoted by the letter v. Its unit in S.I. System is m/s.
Velocity = Distance travelled/Time taken
⇒ v = λ/T
(λ is the wavelength of the waves travelled in one time time period T)
v = λv (1/T = v)
So, Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency
This is the wave equation.
SPEED OF SOUND IN VARIOUS MEDIUMS
→ Speed of sound depends on the nature of material through which it travels. It is slowest in gases, faster in
liquids and fastest in solids.
→ Speed of sound increases with the rise in temperature.
→ Speed of sound increases as humidity of air increases.
→ Speed of light is faster than speed of sound.
→ In air, speed of sound is 344 ms-1 at 22ºC
REFLECTION OF SOUND:- Sound waves get reflected when these falls on the surface of an obstacle. The
following experiment shows that sound shows reflection.

Experiment:- (i) Place a large plane board, (of a metal, cardboard or wood) in the vertical position (i.e.,
perpendicular to the plane of the paper). (ii) Take two hollow metallic tubes (each about 1 m long and about 8 to
10 cm in diameter) and place them in the plane of the paper and in positions inclined to the board. (iii) Hold a
small watch W at the free end of the tube and try to hear the ticking sound of the watch by positioning the ear at
(iv) Put a cardboard screen S in between the two tubes so that the sound produced by the watch does not reach
the ear directly. (v) Turn the tube till the ticking sound of the clock is the loudest. In this position, it is found
that the tubes are inclined the same angle, i.e., I (angle of incidence of sound wave) = r (angle of reflection of
the sound wave). (vi) If the tube is lifted slightly vertically upwards, no sound is heard, this implies that the
reflected sound wave lies in the same plane (i.e., the plane of the paper) as the incident sound wave. The normal
the surface lies in the same plane as that in which the incident and reflected sound waves lie. From this
experiment, we obtain the following two laws for the reflection of sound waves. These laws are as follows.
First Law. The angle of reflection (r) is always equal to the angle of incidence (i), i.e., ∠r = ∠i Or i=r.
Second Law. The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal (at the point of incidence), all lie in the
same plane.
USES OF REFLECTION OF SOUND:- It is not that reflection of sound produces echoes only. It has various
useful applications as well.
1. Stethoscope: You must have seen a stethoscope around a doctor’s neck. Doctors use it to hear the sounds
produced by various body parts (i.e., within the body), for example, heart and lungs. The sound from a patient’s
body parts reaches the doctor’s ears through a connecting tube. The diaphragm connected at one end of the
stethoscope picks up the body sound. The sound undergoes multiple reflections along its passage through the
tube.
2. Curved Ceilings of Auditoriums: Often the ceilings of auditoriums, concert halls and cinema halls have
curved and polished surfaces. The polished surface reflects sound and the curved shape helps in making the
sound available in each part of the auditorium.
3. Curved sound Boards at the Back of a Source of Sound: A sound board is a concave board which is used for
evenly spreading sound in a big hall. The sound board is placed such that the person speaking (the source of
sound) is at its focus. After reflection from the sound board, sound waves become parallel and are spread evenly
towards the audience throughout the hall. Thus, even a person sitting at the end of the hall is able to hear the
speaker clearly.

4. Megaphones, Horns and Loudspeakers: megaphones, horns (in cars, buses, etc.) and loudspeakers propagate
sound in a particular direction. These instruments are specially designed with a conical opening in front of a
small tube. Multiple reflections of sound from the conical part help in guiding the sound in a particular direction
towards the audiences. These objects are used to address small gathering of people.
5. Musical Instruments and Mouth Cavity: various musical instruments, like flute, shehnai, trumpet, and
saxophone have shapes which help in guiding the out coming sound in a particular direction by the use of
multiple reflections. In fact, the shape of our mouth cavity also helps in propagating the sound in a particular
direction by multiple reflections.
ECHO :- An echo is the phenomenon of repetition of sound of a source by reflection from an obstacle. To
distinguish an echo from the original sound, the obstacle must be situated at a suitable distance from the source
of sound. The sound produced by the tick of a clock, firing of a shot or thumping of a table is called simple
sounds. The sensation of such sounds lasts in our brain for one-tenth of a second. This property is called the
persistence of hearing. Therefore, to hear a distinct echo of a simple sound, the time taken by this sound to
reach the listener after reflection should be 1/10th of a second.
Minimum distance to hear an echo
Speed = Distance/Time Here, Speed of sound in air = 344 ms-1 at 22ºC and Time = 0.1 second
344 = Distance/0.1 sec
⇒ Distance = 344 × 0.1 = 34.4 m
So, distance between reflecting surface and audience = 34.4/2 = 17.2 (at 22ºC).
Thus to hear the echo for a sound distinctly, the reflecting surface should be at a minimum distance of 17.2 m
from the observer. The minimum distance is not a constant because the velocity of sound changes with the
change in temperature.
REVERBERATION:- When a sharp sound is made in a hall, the listener cannot hear it as such .it is found to
get prolonged. The intensity of sound first reaches a maximum and then falls till it becomes inaudible. This
happens on account of a number of reflections of sound from different parts of the hall. The sound energy goes
on decreasing with successive reflections (till it is no longer audible). It is interesting to note that a sound wave
suffers 300 reflections in a room of ordinary size before becoming inaudible. The phenomenon of persistence or
prolongation of audible sound after the source has stopped emitting sound is called reverberation. The time for
which reverberation persists until it becomes inaudible is called reverberation time.
HOW IS REVERBERATION REDUCED? Since reverberation is due to repeated reflections of sound waves
from the ceiling, floor, walls etc. of a hall or an auditorium, we can reduce it by increasing the absorption of
sound energy. To achieve this: (i) The walls are covered with some sound absorbing material like felt, fiber
board, glass wool etc. or by heavy curtains with folds. (ii) The floor is carpeted. (iii) The furniture is
upholstered. (iv) False ceiling of a suitable sound absorbing material is used.
Range of Hearing
(i) Range of hearing in human is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
→ Children younger than 5 years and dogs can hear upto 25 KHz.
(ii) The sounds of frequencies lower than 20 Hz are known as ‘infrasonic sounds’.
→ A vibrating simple pendulum produces infrasonic sounds.
→ Rhinoceroses communicate each other using frequencies as low as 5 Hz.
→ Elephants and whales produces infrasonic waves.
→ Earthquakes produces infrasonic waves (before shock waves)
which some animals can hear and get disturbed.
(iii) The sounds of frequencies higher than 20 KHz are known as ‘ultrasonic waves’.
→ Dogs, parpoises, dolphins, bats and rats can hear ultrasonic sounds.
→ Bats and rats can produce ultrasonic sounds.
Applications of Ultrasound
(i) It is used to detect cracks in metal blocks in industries without damaging them.
(ii) It is used in industries to clean ‘hard to reach’ parts of objects such as spiral tubes, odd shaped machines etc.
(iii) It is used to investigate the internal organs of human body such as liver, gall bladder, kidneys, uterus and
heart.
(iv) Ecocardiography: These waves are used to reflect the action of heart and its images are formed. This
technique is calledechocardiography.
(v) Ultrasonography: The technique of obtaining pictures of internal organs of the body by using echoes of
ultrasound waves is called ultrasonography.
(vi) Ultrasound is used to split tiny stones in kidneys into fine grains.
SONAR
→ The word ‘SONAR’ stands for ‘Sound Navigation And Ranging’.
→ SONAR is a device which is used to find distance, direction and speed of underwater objects. SONAR
consists of a transmitter and a receptor or detector and installed at the bottom of a ship.The transmitter produces
and transmits ultrasonic waves. These waves travel through water and after striking the objects on the bottom of
sea, are reflected back and received detector. These reflected waves are converted into electric signals by
detector. The sonar device measures the time taken by ultrasound waves to travel from ship to bottom of sea and
back to ship. Half of this time gives the time taken by the ultrasound waves from ship to bottom. The sonar is
used to find the depth of sea, to locate underwater hills, valleys, submarines, icebergs and sunken ships etc. Bats
fly in the dark night by emitting high pitched ultrasound waves which are reflected from the obstacle or prey
and returned to bats ear. The nature of reflection tells the bat where the obstacle or prey is and what it is like.
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR
→ The ear consists of three parts: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
→ The ears are the sense organs which help us in hearing sound.
→ The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the sound from surroundings.
→ This sound passes through the auditory canal.
→ At the end of auditory canal, is a thin elastic membrane called ear drum or tympanic membrane.
→ The middle ear contains of three bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup linked with one another. Free end of
hammer touches drum and that of stirrup linked with membrane of oval window of inner ear.
→ The lower part of middle ear has a narrow ‘Eustachian tube’.
→ The inner ear has a coiled tube called cochlea, which is connected with oval window. Cochlea is filled with a
liquid containing nerve cells.
→ Other side of cochlea is connected to auditory nerve which goes to brain.

WORKING OF HUMAN EAR Pinna → Ear canal → Ear drum → Hammer → Anvil → Stirrup → Oval
window → Cochlea → Auditory nerve → Brain
→ When compression of sound wave strikes the ear drum, the pressure on the outside of ear drum increases and
pushes ear drum inwards.
→ While during rarefaction ear drum moves outwards. Thus, ear drum starts vibrating back and forth.
→ These vibrations are increased by three bones and middle ear transmits these amplified pressure variations
received from sound waves to inner ear.
→ In the inner ear the pressure variations are turned into electric signals by the cochlea.
→ These electric signals are sent to the brain via auditory nerve and the brain interprets them as sound.