ME207

Fluid Dynamics

LAB EXPERIMENT - 01

Group - 9

​ Deep Pradhan - 23110087

​ Kunal Maske - 23110201
​ Manan Chavda - 23110078
Anirudh -23110028
Uditesh Dasgupta - 23110344
 THE PITOT TUBE

AIM : To determine the velocity of water through the pitot tube

ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND:

Bernoulli Equation:
One of the basic ideas in fluid mechanics that explains how a fluid moves along a
streamline is the Bernoulli equation. According to the equation, which is based on the
principle of energy conservation, the sum of the kinetic, potential, and pressure
energies of an incompressible flow stays constant. This indicates that, under the
assumption that no external forces, such friction, are acting on the fluid, the total of
the fluid's kinetic energy (from its velocity), potential energy (from its elevation), and
pressure energy stays constant along the streamline.

Bernoulli Equation can be expressed as:

2
⍴𝑣
P+ 2
+⍴gh = constant
Where,
P = pressure of the fluid
⍴ = density of the fluid
v = velocity of the fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = elevation of the fluid

Assumptions for Bernoulli equation to be valid:

1.​ Incompressible flow: The density of fluid should be constant throughout the
flow.
2.​ Steady Flow: The fluid properties (velocity, pressure, etc.) do not change
with time at a given point.
 3.​ Inviscid flow: Viscous effects(friction due to fluid velocity) should be
negligible.
4.​ Flow along a Streamline: The equation applies along streamline.

Static Pressure:

The pressure that a fluid exerts when it is stationary or at rest in relation to its
environment is known as static pressure. It shows the force that the fluid molecules
apply per unit area as a result of their collisions and random motion. When the fluid is
not moving or flowing parallel to a surface without accelerating, this pressure is
measured.
The fluid column's height or depth has a significant impact on the static pressure.
Static pressure in a liquid rises linearly with depth because of the fluid's weight
above. The hydrostatic equation governs this relationship:

P = 𝑃𝑜+ ⍴gh

where:

●​ P = static pressure at a given depth,

●​ 𝑃𝑜​= pressure at the surface,
●​ ρ = fluid density,
●​ g = acceleration due to gravity,
●​ h = depth of the fluid column.

Through the Static Pressure principle we can explain why deeper regions in a
fluid experience greater pressure, as seen in hydraulic systems or water
bodies.

Stagnation Pressure:

The pressure at which a moving fluid is brought to rest without any losses from
heat transfer or friction is known as stagnation pressure, or total pressure. The
term "stagnation point" refers to the location in fluid flow where this pressure is
measured. It is the total of the dynamic pressure, which results from the fluid's
velocity, and the static pressure. In fluid mechanics, the idea of stagnation
pressure is especially crucial because it aids in calculating a fluid's velocity.
It can be stated mathematically as:
2
ρ𝑣
𝑃𝑜 = P + 2

where:

●​ 𝑃
​ 𝑜 = stagnation pressure,
●​ P = static pressure,
●​ ρ = fluid density,
●​ v = velocity of the fluid.

Velocity Relation:

Bernoulli’s equation establishes a relationship between static pressure,

stagnation pressure, and fluid velocity under ideal conditions, assuming no
energy loss due to friction or other factors. While static and stagnation
pressures are crucial in fluid flow analysis, they are often used alongside
Bernoulli’s equation to determine fluid velocity indirectly, without the need for
direct velocity measurements.
From the above equation:
2
ρ𝑣
𝑃𝑜 = P + 2
We can find the velocity to be:
2(𝑃𝑜−𝑃) 1/2
v=( ρ
)

Head Loss in pipe flows:

Head loss in pipe flow refers to the reduction in total mechanical energy of the
fluid as it moves through a pipe. This loss occurs due to friction between the
fluid and the pipe walls, as well as due to turbulence, bends, fittings, valves,
and other obstructions. This loss results in decrease of pressure or energy of
the fluid along its flow of direction.

Head Loss is important for following reasons:

●​ Affects Energy Efficiency: Higher head loss means the system needs
more energy to maintain flow, increasing power consumption. Thus
minimizing the head loss is important for maximizing efficiency.
●​ Impacts System Performance: Excessive head loss can lead to
reduced pressure and flow rates, affecting the overall efficiency of the
system.
●​ Pipeline Designs: Designing piping systems with appropriate pipe sizes
and configurations requires accounting for head loss. Calculating head
loss helps us select suitable pipe diameters, and determine pump
requirements.

Head Loss:

Head loss refers to the reduction in total mechanical energy (or hydraulic
head) of the fluid as it flows through a pipe due to friction and other
resistances. It is typically expressed in terms of height (meters or feet) of the
fluid column lost.

Why is Head Loss Important?

1.​ Affects Efficiency – Excessive head loss reduces flow efficiency and
increases energy costs.
2.​ Determines Pumping Power – Engineers must account for head loss
when selecting pumps.
3.​ System Design – Proper pipe sizing and layout reduce unnecessary
losses.
4.​ Indicates Flow Resistance – High head loss suggests excessive
friction, possible clogging, or pipe aging.

Types of Head Loss

 1.​ Major Losses – Due to friction in long, straight pipes (calculated using
Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams equations).
2.​ Minor Losses – Due to bends, valves, fittings, expansions, and
contractions.

Kinetic Energy Coefficient:

The kinetic energy coefficient (denoted as K) is a dimensionless factor that

accounts for deviations from ideal flow conditions in Bernoulli’s equation. It
serves as a correction factor to adjust the kinetic energy term when velocity is
not uniform across a cross-section. The value of K is typically greater than 1,
as real velocity profiles are non-uniform due to viscosity. To modify Bernoulli’s
equation for non-uniform velocity profiles, the kinetic energy correction factor is
incorporated, and additional terms are included to account for head losses due
to viscosity, turbulence, and other resistances. The adjusted form of Bernoulli’s
equation is:

1 2 1 2
𝑃1+ 2 ρ𝑉1+ρgℎ1 = 𝑃2+ 2 ρ𝑉2+ρgℎ2 - Δ𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

where:

●​ P = pressure
●​ ρ = fluid density
●​ V = velocity of the fluid
●​ g = acceleration due to gravity
●​ h = elevation head
●​ Δ𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = head losses caused by viscosity, turbulence, pipe fittings, and
other resistances along the flow path.
Apparatus:

This is the experimental setup of the pitot tube apparatus. In this several
apparatus were used such as a manometer, pitot tube, constant head tank,
measuring tank, stopwatch and flow control valve.

This is the experimental setup of the pitot tube apparatus. In this several
apparatus were used such as a manometer, pitot tube, constant head tank,
measuring tank, stopwatch and flow control valve.

Constant Head Tank

It is the source from where the water flows into the pipe and it ensures the
steady and uniform flow of water. We control the height of the water by
adjusting the valves to keep it constant. This stability ensures accurate velocity
measurements.
Manometer

It is the U-shaped device that measures the pressure difference between the
static and the stagnation points in the fluid flow. We recorded the difference in the
liquid columns to determine the velocity of the fluid using Bernoulli's equation.

Pitot Tube

It is the device that is used to measure the velocity of the fluid flow by determining
the stagnation pressure. It is fixed inside a pipe that is connected to the supply
water tank.
Measuring Tank:

It is the device which is used to determine the flow rate of the water. This tank has
a height meter connected to it which measures the height in cm.

Procedure :

1.​ Switch on the motor attached to the Pitot tube apparatus by the electric
switch.
2.​ The motor circulates water through the system. This measures the flow
of fluid.
3.​ Use inlet and outlet valves to regulate the water level in the constant
water tank to ensure it remains stable.
4.​ Let the water level in the tank stabilize before carrying out
measurements.
5.​ Take the reading of static pressure and stagnation pressure from the
manometer after the water level is stable.
6.​ Start stopwatch and note time taken for measuring tank to rise to
desired height.
7.​ Measure height of tank with height meter mounted on measuring tank

8.​ Repeat experiment at different flow rates, for each flow rate record:
●​ Height measured in stagnation pressure tube and static pressure
●​ Height of the measuring tank.
 ●​ Time required to fill up the measuring tank to the recorded height.

9.​ Tabulate recorded data and calculate the required quantities to analyze
the results.

Experimental Measurements:

Time taken to increase the height of tank by 1 cm

S no Trial 1 (sec) Trial 2 (sec) t (s)

1 11.47 10.32 10.895
2 13.32 12.68 13
3 22.47 20.36 21.415

Measurement of static and stagnation heads:

Head
Constant Static Stagnation
S no. (metres) head(h1) head(h2) h=h2-h1
1 0.437 6.1 cm 7.4 cm 1.3 cm
2 0.413 7.1 cm 8.3 cm 1.2 cm
3 0.385 12.1 cm 12.5 cm 0.4 cm
Calculations :

Consider any point 1 which is flowing through the fluid as a static point and the
point where the KE becomes zero is the stagnation point.

By applying Bernoulli’s equation at static and stagnation points, we get

​
​ P1 + 1/2 ρV + ρgh1 = P2 + 1/2 ρV22 + ρgh2
1
2

As both the points are at equal height, h1 = h2 = 0.

Now, V2 = 0 as the KE at the point is equal to zero (stagnation point).

So, now the equation becomes —

​ ​ P1 + 1/2 ρV12 = P2

​ ​ 1/2 ρV12 = P2 - P1

​ ​ 1/2 V12 = g(h2 – h1)

Both the points are at equal height so h1 = h2 = h.

Hence, the velocity of the flow rate V1 is —

​
​ V1 = √(2gh)
where V1 is the theoretical velocity.

Va= Qa/a
S no. Vt (m/s) Qa= AH/t (cm^3/s) (m/s) Head loss (m)

1 0.505 146.86 0.468 1.84

2 0.485 123.08 0.392 4.16

3 0.28 74.71 0.238 1.11

t = average time taken to fill tank by 1cm

​ h = h2-h1;

​ V1= Theoretical velocity of the flow

​ H = height of the water in the measuring tank

​ A = area of the measuring tank (0.4 m x 0.4m)

​ d = cross-section diameter of the pipe. (0.02m)

​ a = cross-sectional area of the pipe(a=pi*r2)

​ Qa = Volume flow rate

​ Va= Actual velocity of the flow

Error analysis:

We have calculated the theoretical and measured the experimental value of

velocities for all the 3 volume flow rates and compared them to get insights.
 Velocity Velocity
Volume flow Rate (Theoretical) (Actual)
(cm^3/s) (m/s) (m/s) Error (%)
146.86 0.505 0.468 7.327
123.08 0.485 0.392 19.175
74.71 0.28 0.238 15

Conclusions from error:

In this experiment , we are getting errors in measurement of velocity ranging
from 7-20% for different flow rates with the theoretical value of velocity always
exceeding the actual value. This error is expected and it arises due to a
phenomenon called head loss. Viscous forces, frictions, pipe curvature and
compressibility factors affect the velocity of fluid making it less than the
theoretical expectations calculated through bernoulli’s equation.
Potential Sources Of Error:

1)​ Human Errors :- The human error might be due to calculation using a
stopwatch where there might be some slight delay while measurement.
Inaccuracies in the measured results can be introduced by human error
in the Pitot tube experiment, which can include misreading instruments,
wrong data collection, inappropriate equipment management, or
irregularities in the experimental protocol.

2)​ Modeling errors :- Errors in the Pitot tube experiment could result from
assumptions or simplifications made in the theoretical models used to
analyze the fluid flow. For example, ignoring certain factors like viscosity
or turbulence or assuming ideal fluid behavior could cause discrepancies
between theoretical predictions and experimental results.

3)​ Errors due to apparatus : Errors might occur due to some faulty
apparatus, vibrations in the machine due to the motor causes the fluid
inside to fluctuate.
​

References:

1.​ Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Robert W.Fox and Alan McDonald

2.​ Fluid Mechanics White and Franks