12 Series

Math has the beauty of poetry, its abstractions are combined with
perfect rigor.
Professor Raman Parimala (born 1948)

Discussion point
The origin of the game of chess is uncertain, both in time and place.
According to one legend it was invented by Sissa ben Dahir, Vizier to
Indian king Shirham. The king asked Sissa ben Dahir what he would
like for a reward. This is what he replied:
‘I would like one grain of wheat to be put on the first square of my
board, two on the second square, four on the third square, eight on the
fourth and so on.’
The king agreed without doing any calculations.
Given that one grain of wheat weighs about 50 mg, what mass of wheat
would have been placed on the last square?

Definitions and notation

A sequence is a set of numbers in a given order, for example
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ….
2 4 8 16

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 The binomial theorem

Each of these numbers is called a term of the sequence. When the

terms of a sequence are written algebraically, the position of any
term in the sequence is usually shown by a subscript, so that a general
sequence is written:
u1, u 2 , u3, …, with general term uk.

For the previous sequence, the first term is u1 = 1 , the second term is u2 = 14 ,
2
and so on.
When the terms of a sequence are added together, for example,
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +…
2 4 8 16
the resulting sum is called a series. The process of adding the terms
together is called summation and indicated by the symbol ∑ (the
Greek letter sigma), with the position of the first and last terms
involved given as limits. k=5 5
So u1 + u 2 + u3 + u 4 + u5 is written ∑ uk or ∑ uk .
k =1 k =1

In cases like this one, where there is no possibility of confusion, the sum
5
is normally written more simply as ∑ uk.
1
If all the terms are to be summed, it is usually denoted even more simply
as ∑ uk, or even ∑ uk.
k

A sequence may have an infinite number of terms, in which case it

is called an infinite sequence. The corresponding series is called an
infinite series.
The phrase ‘sum Although the word series can describe the sum of the terms of any
of a sequence’ sequence in mathematics, it is usually used only when summing the
is often used to sequence provides a useful or interesting overall result.
mean the sum of
the terms of a For example:
This series has a finite
sequence (i.e. the (1 + t)4 = 1 + 4t + 6t 2 + 4t 3 + t4 number of terms (5).
series). 1 − 1 (0.01) − 1 (0.01) 2 − 1 (0.01) 3 …
11 = 10
3  2 8 16 

This series has an infinite

number of terms.
The binomial theorem
A special type of series is produced when a binomial (i.e. two-part)
expression such as (x + 1) is raised to a power. The resulting expression
is often called a binomial expansion.

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 12 Series

The simplest binomial expansion is (x + 1) itself. This and other powers

of (x + 1) are given below.
Expressions like (x + 1)1 = 1x + 1
these, consisting of (x + 1)2 = 1x 2 + 2x + 1
integer powers of x (x + 1) = 1x
3 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1
and constants are (x + 1)4 = 1x 4 + 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 4x + 1
called polynomials.
(x + 1) = 1x +
5 5 5x 4 + 10x 3 + 10x 2 + 5x + 1

If you look at the coefficients on the right-hand side you will see that
they form a pattern.
These numbers are called
(1) binomial coefficients.
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
This is called Pascal’s triangle, or the Chinese triangle. Each number
is obtained by adding the two above it, for example
4 + 6
gives 10
This pattern of coefficients is very useful when you need to write down
the expansions of other binomial expressions. For example,
Notice how in each
term the sum of (x + y) = 1x + 1y
the powers of x and (x + y)2 = 1x 2 + 2xy + 1y 2
y is the same as the
(x + y)3 = 1x 3 + 3x 2y + 3xy 2 + 1y 3
power of (x + y).

This is a binomial These numbers are binomial

expression. coefficients.

Worked example
Write out the binomial expansion of (a + 3)5.

Solution
The binomial coefficients for power 5 are  1  5  10  10  5  1.
In each term, the sum of the powers of a and 3 must equal 5.
So the expansion is:
1 × a 5 + 5 × a 4 × 3 + 10 × a 3 × 32 + 10 × a 2 × 33 + 5 × a × 34 + 1 × 35
i.e. a 5 + 15a 4 + 90a 3 + 270a 2 + 405a + 243.

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 The binomial theorem

Worked example
Write out the binomial expansion of (3x − 2y)4.

Solution
The binomial coefficients for power 4 are  1  4  6  4  1.
The expression (3x − 2y) is treated as (3x + (−2y)).
So the expansion is
1 × (3x)4 + 4 × (3x)3 × (–2y) + 6 × (3x)2 × (–2y)2 + 4 × (3x) × (–2y)3+ 1 × (–2y)4
i.e. 81x4 − 216x 3y + 216x 2y 2 − 96xy 3 + 16y4

Pascal’s triangle (and the binomial theorem) had actually been

discovered by Chinese mathematicians several centuries earlier,
and can be found in the works of Yang Hui (around ad1270) and
Chu Shi-kie (in ad1303). However, Pascal is remembered for his
application of the triangle to elementary probability, and for his study
of the relationships between binomial coefficients.

Tables of binomial coefficients

Values of binomial coefficients can be found in books of tables. It can
be helpful to use these when the power becomes large, since writing out
Pascal’s triangle becomes progressively longer and more tedious, row
by row. Note that since the numbers are symmetrical about the middle
number, tables do not always give the complete row of numbers.

Worked example
Write out the full expansion of ( a + b) 8.

Solution
The binomial coefficients for the power 8 are
1  8  28  56  70  56  28  8  1
and so the expansion is
a 8 + 8 a 7 b + 28 a 6 b 2 + 56 a 5 b 3 + 70 a 4 b 4 + 56 a 3 b 5 + 28 a 2 b 6 + 8 ab 7 + b 8.

The formula for a binomial coefficient

You may need to find binomial coefficients that are outside the
range of your tables. The tables may, for example, list the binomial
coefficients for powers up to 20. What happens if you need to find
the coefficient of x17 in the expansion of (x + 2)25? Clearly you need a
formula that gives binomial coefficients.
The first thing you need is a notation for identifying binomial coefficients.
It is usual to denote the power of the binomial expression by n, and the

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 12 Series

position in the row of binomial coefficients by r, where r can take any

value from 0 to n. So, for row 5 of Pascal’s triangle
n = 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
r=0 r=1 r=2 r=3 r=4 r=5
The general binomial coefficient corresponding to values of n and r is
 
written as  n  . An alternative notation is nC r, which is said as ‘N C R’.
r
5
Thus   = 5C3 = 10.
 3
 n
The next step is to find a formula for the general binomial coefficient   .
r

Real-world activity
The table shows an alternative way of laying out Pascal’s triangle.

Column (r)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 … r
Row (n) 1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Note that 0! is
… … … … … … … … …
defined to be 1.
… … … … … … … … … …
You will see the
need for this n 1 n ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
when you use the  n n!
n  Show that   = , by following the procedure below.
 r r !( n − r )!
formula for  . The numbers in column 0 are all 1.
r 
To find each number in column 1 you multiply the 1 in column 0 by the
row number, n.
1 Find, in terms of n, what you must multiply each number in
column 1 by to find the corresponding number in column 2.
2 Repeat the process to find the relationship between each number in
column 2 and the corresponding number in column 3.
3 Show that repeating the process leads to
 n n( n − 1)( n − 2)…( n − r + 1)
 r  = 1 × 2 × 3 ×…× r
for r  1.

4 Show that this can also be written as

 n n!
 r  = r !( n − r )!

and that it is also true for r = 0.

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 The binomial theorem

Worked example
 n n!
Use the formula   = to calculate these.
 r  r !( n − r )!

 7  7  7  7
a)   b)   c)   d)  
0  1  2  3

 7  7  7  7
e)   f)   g)   h)  
 4  5  6  7

Solution
 7 7!  7
a)   = = 5040 = 1 b)   = 7! = 5040 = 7
 0  0!(7 − 0)! 1 × 5040  1  1!6! 1 × 720

 7  
c)   = 7! = 5040 = 21 d)  7  = 7! = 5040 = 35
 2  2!5! 2 × 120  3  3!4! 6 × 24

 7  7 7! 5040
e)   = 7! = 5040 = 35 f)   = 5!2! = 120 × 2 = 21
 4  4!3! 24 × 6  5

 7 7! 5040  7
g)   = 6!1! = 720 × 1 = 7 7! 5040
h)   = 7!0! = 5040 × 1 = 1
 6  7

Note
Most scientific calculators have factorial buttons, e.g. x! . Many also
have nCr buttons. Find out how best to use your calculator to find
binomial coefficients, as well as practising non-calculator methods.

Worked example
Find the coefficient of x 19 in the expansion of (x + 3)25.
Notice how 19!
was cancelled in Solution
working out  25  .
   25   25  x 19 36 + …  25  325
(x + 3)25 =   x 25 +  25  x 24 31 +  25  x 23 32 + … +
 6  0  1   2   6   25 
Factorials become
 25 
large numbers So the required term is   × x19 36
 6
very quickly and
 25 
you should keep   = 25! = 25 × 24 × 23 × 22 × 21 × 20 × 19!
 6  6!19! 6! × 19!
a look-out for  
such opportunities = 177 100
to simplify So the coefficient of x 19 is 177 100 × 36 = 129 105 900.
calculations.
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 12 Series

Worked example
Find the value of the term that is independent of x in the expansion of

(3x + )
1 8
x .

Solution
(3x + 1x )  8  8
( ) + ... +  84 (3x) ( 1x )
8 1 4
=   ( 3x )8 +   ( 3x ) 7 1 4
+. . .
 0  1 x

 8
()
4
The required term is   ( 3 x ) 4 1 .
 4 x
Notice that the powers are the same; the x terms will cancel out when the term
is simplified.
 8 8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!
 4  = 4!4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 4! = 70

 8
()
4
⇒   ( 3 x ) 4 1 = 70 × 81 x 4 × 14 = 5670
 4 x x
So the term that is independent of x is 5670.

The expansion of (1 + x)n

 n
When deriving the result for   you found the binomial coefficients in
 r
the form
n( n – 1) n( n – 1)( n – 2) n( n – 1)( n – 2)( n – 3)
1 n 2! 3! 4!
…

This form is commonly used in the expansion of expressions of the type

(1 + x)n.
The first few (1 + x) n = 1 + nx +
n( n – 1) x 2
+
n( n – 1)( n – 2) x 3
+
n( n – 1)( n – 2)( n – 3) x 4
+…
1×2 1×2×3 1×2×3×4
terms n( n – 1)
The last few terms + 1 × 2 x n –2 + nx n –1 + 1x n

Worked example
Use the binomial expansion to write down the first four terms, in ascending
powers of x, of (1 + x)8.
The power of x is the
Solution same as the largest
(1 + x)8 = 1 + 8 x + 18 ×× 27 x 2 + 81 ×× 27 ×× 36 x 3 + … number underneath.

Two numbers on top, Three numbers on top,

two underneath. three underneath.
= 1 + 8x + 28x 2 + 56x 3 + …

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 The binomial theorem

An expression like 1 + 8x + 28x 2 + 56x 3 ... is said to be in ascending

powers of x, because the powers of x are increasing from one term to
the next.
An expression like x8 + 8x 7 + 28x6 + 56x5 ... is in descending powers of
x, because the powers of x are decreasing from one term to the next.

Worked example
Use the binomial expansion to write down the first four terms, in ascending
powers of x, of (1 − 2x)6. Simplify the terms.

Solution
Think of (1 − 2x)6 as (1 + (−2x))6. Keep the brackets while you write out the
terms.
(1 + (–2 x)) 6 = 1 + 6(–2 x) + 6 × 5 (–2 x) 2 + 6 × 5 × 4 (–2 x) 3 + …
1×2 1×2×3
= 1 – 12x + 60x 2 – 160x 3 + … Notice how the
signs alternate.

Exercise 12.1 1 Write out the following binomial expressions:

a) (1 + x ) 4 b) (1 + 2 x ) 4 c) (1 + 3 x ) 4
2 Write out the following binomial expressions:
a) ( 2 + x ) 4 b) ( 3 + x ) 4 c) ( 4 + x ) 4
3 Write out the following binomial expressions:
4
a) ( x + y) 4 b) ( x + 2 y) 4 c) ( x + 3 y)
4 Use a non-calculator method to calculate the following binomial
coefficients. Check your answers using your calculator’s shortest
method.
5  7  7
a)   b)   c)  
 3 2 4
 7 5  13 
d)   e)   f)  
5 0 3
5 Find the coefficients of the term shown for each expansion:
a) x4 in (1 + x)6 b) x5 in (1 + x)7 c) x6 in (1 + x)8
6 Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of
(3 + kx)5.
7 Find the first three terms, in descending powers of x, in the expansion of
( )
6
3x − 3x .
8 a) Simplify (1 + t ) 3 − (1 − t ) 3 .
b) Show that x 3 − y 3 = ( x − y) ( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) .
c) Substitute x = 1 + t and y = 1 − t in the result in part b and show that
your answer is the same as that for part a.

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 12 Series

Exercise 12.1 (cont) 9 Find the coefficients of x 3 and x4 for each of the following:
a) (1 + x )(1 − x ) 6 b) (1 − x )(1 + x ) 6
10 Write down the first four terms, in ascending powers of x, of the
following binomial expressions:
a) (1 − 2 x ) 6 b) ( 2 − 3 x ) 6 c) ( 3 − 4 x ) 6
11 Find the first four terms, in descending powers of x, of the following
binomial expressions:

( ) ( ) (x )
5
( )
5 1 5 5
a) x 2 + 1x b) x 2 − x c) 3 + 1x d) x 3 − 1x
12 Find the coefficients of the term shown for each expansion:

(
a) x 6 in 2 x +
1 10
x )
b) x 3 in x 2 +
1 12
x ( )
13 Find the term that is independent of x in the following expansions:

( ) ( )
14 10
1 2
a) 3 x + b) 5 x −
x x
14 The first three terms in the expansion of ( 2 − ax ) n in ascending powers
of x are 32, −240 and 720. Find the values of a and n.

Arithmetic progressions
The smallest
square shape in
this toy has sides
1 cm long, and the
lengths of the sides
increase in steps of
1 cm.

Any ordered set of numbers, like the areas of the squares in this toy,
form a sequence. In mathematics, we are particularly interested in
sequences with a well-defined pattern, often in the form of an algebraic
formula linking the terms. The area of the squares in the toy, in cm 2 ,
are 12 , 22 , 32 , 42 , … or 1, 4, 9, 16….
A sequence in which the terms increase by the addition of a fixed
amount (or decrease by the subtraction of a fixed amount) is described
as an arithmetic sequence or arithmetic progression (A. P.). The
increase from one term to the next is called the common difference.

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 Arithmetic progressions

Thus the sequence 8   11   14   17… is arithmetic with

)
)
)
           +3 +3 +3
common difference 3. This sequence can be written algebraically as
uk = 5 + 3k for k = 1, 2, 3, …
When k = 1, u1 = 5 + 3 = 8 This version has the
k = 2, u 2 = 5 + 6 = 11 advantage that the right-
hand side begins with the
k = 3, u3 = 5 + 9 = 14 and so on. first term of the sequence.
(You can also write this as uk = 8 + 3(k − 1) for k = 1, 2, 3, … .)
As successive terms of an arithmetic progression increase (or decrease)
by a fixed amount called the common difference, d, you can define each
term in the sequence in relation to the previous term:
uk+1 = uk + d.
When the terms of an arithmetic progression are added together, the
sum is called an arithmetic series.

Notation
The following conventions are used in this book to describe arithmetic
progressions and sequences:
» first term, u1 = a
» number of terms = n
» last term, un = l
» common difference = d
» the general term, uk, is that in position k (i.e. the k th term).
Thus in the arithmetic progression 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19
a = 7, l = 19, d = 2 and n = 7.
The terms are formed as follows:
u1 = a =7
u2 = a + d =7+2 =9
u3 = a + 2d = 7 + 2 × 2 = 11
u 4 = a + 3d = 7 + 3 × 2 = 13
The 7th term is the 1st
u5 = a + 4d = 7 + 4 × 2 = 15 term (7) plus six times the
u 6 = a + 5d = 7 + 5 × 2 = 17 common difference (2).
u7 = a + 6d = 7 + 6 × 2 = 19
This shows that any term is given by the first term plus a number of
differences. The number of differences is, in each case, one less than
the number of the term. You can express this mathematically as
uk = a + (k − 1)d.
For the last term, this becomes
l = a + (n − 1)d.
These are both general formulae so apply to any arithmetic progression.

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 12 Series

Worked example
Find the 19th term in the arithmetic progression 20, 16, 12, …

Solution
In this case a = 20 and d = −4.
Using uk = a + (k − 1)d, you obtain
u19 = 20 + (19 − 1) × (−4)
= 20 − 72

Note = −52.

The 19th term is −52.
The relationship l
= a + (n − 1)d may
be rearranged to Worked example
give
How many terms are there in the sequence 12, 16, 20, …, 556?
n= l –a +1
d Solution
This gives the This is an arithmetic sequence with first term a = 12, last term l = 556 and
number of terms common difference d = 4.
in an A.P. directly Using the result l = a + (n − 1)d, you have
if you know the 556 = 12 + 4(n − 1)
first term, the
⇒ 4n = 556 − 12 + 4
last term and
the common ⇒ n = 137
difference. There are 137 terms.

The sum of the terms of an arithmetic

progression
When Carl Friederich Gauss (1777−1855) was at school he was always
quick to answer mathematics questions. One day his teacher, hoping
for half an hour of peace and quiet, told his class to add up all the
whole numbers from 1 to 100. Almost at once the 10-year-old Gauss
announced that he had done it and that the answer was 5050.
Gauss had not of course added the terms one by one. Instead he wrote
the series down twice, once in the given order and once backwards, and
added the two together:
S =   1 +   2 +   3 + … + 98 + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + … +   3 +   2 +   1.

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 Arithmetic progressions

Adding,    2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + … + 101 + 101 + 101.

Since there are 100 terms in the series,
2S = 101 × 100
S = 5050.

The numbers 1, 2, 3, … , 100 form an arithmetic sequence with common

difference 1. Gauss’ method can be used for finding the sum of any
arithmetic series.
It is common to use the letter S to denote the sum of a series. When
there is any doubt as to the number of terms that are being summed,
this is indicated by a subscript: S 5 indicates five terms, Sn indicates n
terms.

Worked example
Find the value of 6 + 4 + 2 + … + (−32).

Solution
This is an arithmetic progression, with common difference −2. The number of
terms, n, can be calculated using

n= l –a +1
d

n = –32 – 6 + 1
–2
= 20
The sum S of the progression is then found as follows:
S= 6 +     4 + … − 30   − 32
S = −32 + (−30) − … + 4   + 6
2S = −26 + (−26) + … + (−26) + (−26).
Since there are 20 terms, this gives 2S = −26 × 20, so S = −26 × 10 = -260.

Generalising this method by writing the series in the conventional

notation gives:
Sn = [a] + [a + d] + … + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 1)d]
Sn = [a + (n − 1)d] + [a + (n − 2)d] + … + [a + d] + [a]
2Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] + … + [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d]

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 12 Series

Since there are n terms, it follows that

S n = 1 n[ 2 a + ( n − 1) d ] .
2

This result can also be written as

Sn = 1 n(a + l ).
2

Worked example
Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression
3 1 , 3 2 , 4, …
3 3

Solution
In this arithmetic progression
1 1
Using a = 3 3 , d = 3 and n = 100.

S n = 21 n  2a +(n – 1)d  (

S n = 1 × 100 6 2 + 99 × 1 )
2 3 3
1
= 1983 3

Worked example
Tatjana starts a part-time job on a salary of $10 000 per year, and this increases
by $500 each year. Assuming that, apart from the annual increment, Tatjana’s
salary does not increase, find
a) her salary in the 5th year
b) the length of time she has been working to receive total earnings of
$122 500.

Solution
Tatjana’s annual salaries (in dollars) form the arithmetic sequence
10 000, 10 500, 11 000, ...
with first term a = 10 000, and common difference d = 500.
a) Her salary in the 5th year is calculated using:
   uk = a + (k − 1)d
⇒    u5 = 10 000 + (5 − 1) × 500
= 12 000

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 Arithmetic progressions

b) The number of years that have elapsed when her total earnings are
$122 500 is given by:

S = 1 n[ 2a + ( n – 1)d ]
2
where S = 122 500, a = 10 000 and d = 500.
This gives 122 500 = 1 n[ 2 × 10 000 + 500( n – 1)].
2
This simplifies to the quadratic equation:
n 2 + 39n − 490 = 0.
Factorising,
(n − 10)(n + 49) = 0
⇒  n = 10 or n = −49.
The root n = −49 is irrelevant, so the answer is n = 10.
Tatjana has earned a total of $122 500 after 10 years.

Exercise 12.2 1 Are the following sequences arithmetic?

If so, state the common difference and the seventh term.
a) 28, 30, 32, 34, …
b) 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …
c) 3, 9, 27, 81, …
d) 5, 9, 13, 17, …
e) 12, 8, 4, 0, …
2 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is −7 and the common
difference is 4.
a) Find the eighth term of the sequence.
b) The last term of the sequence is 65. How many terms are there in
the sequence?
3 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 10, the seventh term is 46
and the last term is 100.
a) Find the common difference.
b) Find how many terms there are in the sequence.
4 There are 30 terms in an arithmetic progression.
The first term is −4 and the last term is 141.
a) Find the common difference.
b) Find the sum of the terms in the progression.
5 The kth term of an arithmetic progression is given by
uk = 12 + 4k.
a) Write down the first three terms of the progression.
b) Calculate the sum of the first 12 terms of this progression.
6 Below is an arithmetic progression.
118 + 112 + … + 34
a) How many terms are there in the progression?
b) What is the sum of the terms in the progression?
7 The fifth term of an arithmetic progression is 32 and the tenth term is 62.
a) Find the first term and the common difference.
b) The sum of all the terms in this progression is 350.
How many terms are there?

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 12 Series

Exercise 12.2 (cont) 8 The ninth term of an arithmetic progression is three times the second
term, and the first term is 5. The sequence has 20 terms.
a) Find the common difference.
b) Find the sum of all the terms in the progression.
9 a) Find the sum of all the odd numbers between 150 and 250.
b) Find the sum of all the even numbers from 150 to 250 inclusive.
c) Find the sum of the terms of the arithmetic sequence with first term
150, common difference 1 and 101 terms.
d) Explain the relationship between your answers to parts a, b and c.
10 The first term of an arithmetic progression is 9000 and the tenth term
is 3600.
a) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the progression.
b) After how many terms does the sum of the progression become
negative?
11 An arithmetic progression has first term −2 and common difference 7.
a) Write down a formula for the nth term of the progression. Which
term of the progression equals 110?
b) Write down a formula for the sum of the first n terms of the
progression. How many terms of the progression are required to
give a sum equal to 2050?
12 Luca’s starting salary in a company is $45 000. During the time he stays
with the company, it increases by $1800 each year.
a) What is his salary in his sixth year?
b) How many years has Luca been working for the company when his
total earnings for all his years there are $531 000?
13 A jogger is training for a 5 km charity run. He starts with a run of 400 m,
then increases the distance he runs in training by 100 m each day.
a) How many days does it take the jogger to reach a distance of 5 km in
training?
b) What total distance will he have run in training by then?
14 A piece of string 20 m long is to be cut into pieces such that the lengths
of the pieces form an arithmetic sequence.
a) If the lengths of the longest and shortest pieces are 2 m and 50 cm
respectively, how many pieces are there?
b) The string is cut into 20 pieces. If the length of the longest piece is
185 cm, how long is the shortest piece?
15 The ninth term of an arithmetic progression is 95 and the sum of the
first four terms is -10.
a) Find the first term of the progression and the common difference.
The nth term of the progression is 200.
b) Find the value of n.
16 Following knee surgery, Adankwo has to do squats as part of her
physiotherapy programme. Each day she must do 4 more squats than
the day before. On the eighth day she did 31 squats. Calculate how
many squats Adankwo completed:
a) on the first day
b) in total by the end of the seventh day
c) in total by the end of the nth day
d) in total from the end of the nth day to the end of the (2n)th day.
Simplify your answer.

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 Geometric progressions

Geometric progressions

A human being begins life as one cell, which divides into two, then four…
The terms of a geometric sequence or geometric progression (G.P.)
are formed by multiplying one term by a fixed number, the common
ratio, to obtain the next. This can be written inductively as:
uk+1 = ruk  with first term u1.
The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence is called a geometric series.

Notation
The following conventions are used in this book to describe geometric
progressions:
» first term u1 = a
» common ratio = r
» number of terms = n
» the general term, uk , is that in position k (i.e. the kth term).
Thus in the geometric progression 2, 6, 18, 54, 162
a = 2, r = 3 and n = 5.
The terms of this sequence are formed as follows:
u1 =a =2
u2 =a ×r =2×3 =6
u3 =a × r2 = 2 × 32 = 18
u4 =a × r3 = 2 × 33 = 54
u5 =a × r4 = 2 × 34 = 162.

This shows that in each case the power of r is one less than the number
of the term: u5 = ar 4 and 4 is one less than 5. This can be written
deductively as
uk = ar k–1.
For the last term this becomes
un = ar n–1.

These are both general formulae so apply to any geometric sequence.

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 12 Series

Given two consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, you can always

find the common ratio by dividing the later term by the earlier term. For
9
example, the geometric sequence … 7, 9, … has common ratio r = 7 .

Worked example
Find the ninth term in the geometric sequence 7, 28, 112, 448, …

Solution
In the sequence, the first term a = 7 and the common ratio r = 4.
Using uk = ar k–1
u9 = 7 × 48
= 458 752

Worked example
How many terms are there in the geometric sequence 3, 15, 75, … , 29 296 875?

Solution
Since it is a geometric sequence and the first two terms are 3 and 15, you
can immediately write down
First term: a=3
Common ratio: r=5
The third term allows you to check you are right.
15 × 5 = 75 ✓
The nth term of a geometric sequence is ar n–1, so in this case
3 × 5n–1 = 29 296 875
Alternatively, Dividing by 3 gives
you could find
5n–1 = 9 765 625
the solution by
using trial and Using logarithms, lg(5n-1) = lg 9 765 625
improvement and ⇒ (n - 1)lg 5 = lg 9 765 625
a calculator, since lg 9 765625
⇒ n−1= = 10
you know n must lg 5
be a whole number. So n = 11 and there are 11 terms in the sequence.

Discussion point
How would you use a spreadsheet to solve the equation 5n–1 = 9 765 625?

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

The sum of the terms of a

geometric progression
This chapter began with the story of Sissa ben Dahir’s reward for
inventing chess. In the discussion point you were asked how much grain
would have been placed on the last square. This situation also gives rise
to another question:
How many grains of wheat was the inventor actually asking for?
The answer is the geometric series with 64 terms and common ratio 2:
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 263.
This can be summed as follows.
Call the series S:

Note S = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 263. 1

Now multiply it by the common ratio, 2:
The method
shown here can 2S = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … + 264. 2

be used to sum Then subtract 
1 from 
2:
any geometric
progression.
2
 2S =   2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … + 263 + 264
1
 S = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8   + … + 263
Subtracting: S = –1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + … + 264.

The total number of wheat grains requested was therefore 264 − 1 (which is
about 1.84 × 1019).

Discussion point
How many tonnes of wheat is this, and how many tonnes would you
expect there to be in China at any time?
(One hundred grains of wheat weigh about 2 grams. The world annual
production of all cereals is about 1.8 × 10 9 tonnes.)

Worked example
Find the sum of  0.04 + 0.2 + 1 + … + 78 125.

Solution
This is a geometric progression with common ratio 5.
Let S = 0.04 + 0.2 + 1 + … + 78 125. 1

Multiplying by the common ratio, 5, gives:
5S = 0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125 + 390 625. 2


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 12 Series

Subtracting 
1 from 
2 :

5S = 0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125 + 390 625

S =   0.04 + 0.2 + 1 + 5 + … + 78 125

4S = −0.04 + 0 + … + 0 + 390 625

This gives    4S = 390 624.96
⇒ S = 97 656.24

The same method can be applied to the general geometric progression

to give a formula for its value:

Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + … + ar n–1. 1

Multiplying by the common ratio, r, gives:
rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + … + ar n. 2

Subtracting 
1 from 
2 , as before, gives:

rS n − S n = ar n − a

S n ( r − 1) = a ( r n − 1)
a(r − 1) n
Sn = (r − 1) .
so  

This can also be written as:

n
Sn = a(1 – r )
.
(1 – r )

Worked example
a) Solve the simultaneous equations ar 2 = 6
ar 4 = 54
b) Find in each case the sum of the first five terms of the geometric
progression.

Solution
a) ar 2 = 6 ⇒ a = 62
r
6
Substituting into ar 4 = 54 gives 2 × r 4 = 54
r
⇒ r 2 = 9
⇒ r = ±3

Substituting in ar 2 = 6 gives a = 2 in both cases.

3
b) When r = +3 terms are 2 , 2, 6, 18, 54 Sum = 80 2
3 3
2 , −2, 6, −18, 54 2
When r = −3 terms are 3 Sum = 40
3

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

Infinite geometric progressions

1 1 1 1
The progression 1 + 2
+ 4
+ 8
+ 16 + … is geometric, with common ratio 12 .

Summing the terms one by one gives 1, 1 12 , 1 43 , 1 87 , 1 16

15
…

Clearly the more terms you add, the nearer the sum gets to 2. In the
limit, as the number of terms tends to infinity, the sum tends to 2.

As n → ∞, Sn → 2.

This is an example of a convergent series. The sum to infinity is a finite

number.
You can see this by substituting a = 1 and r = 1 in the formula for the
2
sum of the series:
a (1 – r n )
Sn =
1–r

giving Sn =
(
1 × 1 – (1)
2
n
)
(1 – ) 1
2

(
= 2 × 1 – ( 12 ) .
n
)
The larger the number of terms, n, the smaller ( 12 ) becomes and so the
n

nearer Sn is to the limiting value of 2, as shown on the left. Notice that

( 12 )
n
can never be negative, however large n becomes; so Sn can never
exceed 2.
n 31
1––
32
Notice how 6
15
1––
T
H
representing all
16
5 7
1–8 E
of the terms of 4 –12
1–34 L
the geometric 3
I
1–12 1
progression as in 2 M –18
1

these diagrams 1
1 I –41
shows that the sum –1
T 16

can never exceed 2. 1 1–12 2 s 2

In the general geometric series a + ar + ar 2 + …  the terms become

progressively smaller in size if the common ratio r is between −1 and 1.
In such cases, the geometric series is convergent.
If, on the other hand, the value of r is greater than 1 (or less than −1), the
terms in the series become larger and larger in size and so the series is
described as divergent.

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 12 Series

A series corresponding to a value of r of exactly +1 consists of the first

term a repeated over and over again. A sequence corresponding to a
value of r of exactly −1 oscillates between +a and −a. Neither of these is
convergent.
It only makes sense to talk about the sum of an infinite series if it is
convergent. Otherwise the sum is undefined.
The condition for a geometric series to converge, −1 < r < 1, ensures that as
n → ∞, rn → 0, and so the formula for the sum of a geometric series:
a(1 – r n )
Sn =
(1 – r )
can be rewritten for an infinite series as:
a
S∞ = .
1–r

Note Worked example

You may have Find the sum of the terms of the infinite progression 0.4, 0.04, 0.004, …
noticed that the
sum of the series
Solution
This is a geometric progression with a = 0.4 and r = 0.1.
0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004
+ … is 0.4̇, and Its sum is given by:
that this recurring a
S∞ =
decimal is the 1–r
same as 49 . = 0.4
1 – 0.1
= 0.4
0.9
=4
9

Worked example
The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 75, 45 and 27.
a) Write down the common ratio.
b) Find the sum of the terms of the progression.

Solution
a) The common ratio is 45 = 3.
75 5
using S∞ = a .
b) S∞ = 75 = 187.5
1–r 1– 3
5

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

Discussion point
A paradox
Consider the following arguments.
i  S = 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + 64 − …
⇒ S = 1 − 2(1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + …)
= 1 − 2S
⇒ 3S = 1
⇒ S=1
3
ii S = 1 + (−2 + 4) + (−8 + 16) + (−32 + 64) + …
⇒   S = 1 + 2 + 8 + 32 + …
So S diverges towards +∞.
iii S = (1 − 2) + (4 − 8) + (16 − 32) + …
⇒ S = –1 − 4 − 8 − 16 …
So S diverges towards −∞.
What is the sum of the series: 1 , + ∞, −∞, or something else?
3

Exercise 12.3 1 Are the following sequences geometric?

If so, state the common ratio and calculate the seventh term.
a) 3, 6, 12, 24, …
b) 3, 6, 9, 12, …
c) 10, −10, 10, −10, 10, …
d) 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, …
e) 15, 10, 5, 0, −5, …
f) 10, 5, 5 , 5 , 5 , ...
2 4 8
g) 2, 2.2, 2.22, 2.222, …
2 A geometric sequence has first term 5 and common ratio 2.
The sequence has seven terms.
a) Find the last term.
b) Find the sum of the terms in the sequence.
3 The first term of a geometric sequence of positive terms is 3 and the
fifth term is 768.
a) Find the common ratio of the sequence.
b) Find the eighth term of the sequence.
4 A geometric sequence has first term 161 and common ratio 4.
a) Find the fifth term.
b) Which is the first term of the sequence that exceeds 1000?
5 a) Find how many terms there are in the following geometric sequence:
7, 14, …, 3584.
b) Find the sum of the terms in this sequence.
6 a) Find how many terms there are in the following geometric sequence:
100, 50, …, 0.390 625.
b) Find the sum of the terms in this sequence.

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 12 Series

Exercise 12.3 (cont) 7 The fourth term of a geometric progression is 36 and the eighth term
is 576. All the terms are positive.
a) Find the common ratio.
b) Find the first term.
c) Find the sum of the first ten terms.
8 The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 8, 4 and 2.
a) State the common ratio of this progression.
b) Calculate the sum to infinity of its terms.
9 The first three terms of an infinite geometric progression are 0.8, 0.08
and 0.008.
a) Write down the common ratio for this progression.
b) Find, as a fraction, the sum to infinity of the terms of this
progression.
c) Find the sum to infinity of the geometric progression
0.8 − 0.08 + 0.008 − …
8 ..
and hence show that 11 = 0.72 .
10 The first three terms of a geometric sequence are 100, 70 and 49.
a) Write down the common ratio of the sequence.
b) Which is the position of the first term in the sequence that has a
value less than 1?
c) Find the sum to infinity of the terms of this sequence.
d) After how many terms is the sum of the sequence greater than 99%
of the sum to infinity?
11 A geometric progression has first term 10 and its sum to infinity is 15.
a) Find the common ratio.
b) Find the sum to infinity if the first term is excluded from the
progression.
12 The first four terms in an infinite geometric series are 216, 72, 24, 8.
a) What is the common ratio r?
b) Write down an expression for the nth term of the series.
c) Find the sum of the first n terms of the series.
d) Find the sum to infinity.
e) How many terms are needed for the sum to be greater than 323.999?
13 A tank is filled with 10 litres of water. Half the water is removed and
replaced with anti-freeze and then thoroughly mixed. Half this mixture
is then removed and replaced with anti-freeze. The process continues.
a) Find the first five terms in the sequence of amounts of water in the
tank at each stage.
b) Find the first five terms in the sequence of amounts of anti-freeze in
the tank at each stage.
c) Is either of these sequences geometric? Explain.
14 A pendulum is set swinging. Its first oscillation is through an angle of
20°, and each following oscillation is through 95% of the angle of the
one before it.
a) After how many swings is the angle through which it swings less
than 1°?
b) What is the total angle it has swung through at the end of its tenth
oscillation?

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 The sum of the terms of a geometric progression

15 A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground. It rises to a height

of 15 m and then falls and bounces. After each bounce it rises vertically
to 85 of the height from which it fell.
a) Find the height to which the ball bounces after the nth impact with
the ground.
b) Find the total distance travelled by the ball from the first throw to
the tenth impact with the ground.
16 The first three terms of an arithmetic sequence, a, a + d and a + 2d, are the
same as the first three terms, a, ar, ar², of a geometric sequence (a ≠ 0).
Show that this is only possible if r = 1 and d = 0.
17 a, b and c are three consecutive terms in a sequence.
a) Prove that if the sequence is an arithmetic progression then a + c = 2b.
b) Prove that if the sequence is a geometric progression then ac = b².
18 a) Solve the simultaneous equations ar = 12, ar 5 = 3072 (there are two
possible answers).
b) In each case, find the sum of the first ten terms of the geometric
progression with first term a and common ratio r.

Past-paper questions
1 Find the values of the positive constants p and q such that, in the
binomial expansion of ( p + qx)10, the coefficient of x5 is 252 and the
coefficient of x 3 is 6 times the coefficient of x 2 .[8]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 11 Q9, June 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 11 Q9, June 2012

( )
12
2 (i) Find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of 1 − x .[2]
2

( )
12
(ii) Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (1 + 4x) 1 − x .[3]
2
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 21 Q2, June 2011
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 21 Q2, June 2011

3 (i) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (2 + x)6 in

ascending powers of x.[3]
(ii) Hence find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of
(1 + 3 x )(1 − x )( 2 + x ) 6 . [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 21 Q7, June 2013
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 21 Q7, June 2013

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 12 Series

Now you should be able to:

H use the binomial theorem for expansion of (a + b)n for positive
integer n
 n
H use the general term   a n−r b r , 0  r  n
r
H recognise arithmetic and geometric progressions and understand
the difference between them
H use the formulae for the nth term and for the sum of the first
n terms to solve problems involving arithmetic or geometric
progressions
H use the condition for the convergence of a geometric
progression, and the formula for the sum to infinity of a
convergent geometric progression.

Key points
✔ An expression of the form ( ax + b) where n is an integer is called a binomial expression.
n

 n
✔ Binomial coefficients, denoted by   or nC r can be found:
 r
● using Pascal’s triangle
● using tables
 n n!
● using the formula   = r !( n − r )!
r
✔ The binomial expansion of (1 + x ) can also be written as
n

n ( n − 1) 2 n ( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
(1 + x ) n = 1 + nx + x + x + … nx n−1 + x n
2! 3!
✔ A sequence is an ordered set of numbers, u1 , u2 , u3 ,…, uk , …u n, where uk is the general
term.
✔ In an arithmetic sequence, uk + 1 = uk + d where d is a fixed number called the common
difference.
✔ In a geometric sequence, uk + 1 = ruk where r is a fixed number called the common ratio.
✔ For an arithmetic progression with first term a, common difference d and n terms
● the kth term uk = a + ( k − 1) d
● the last term l = a + ( n − 1) d
1 1
● the sum of the terms = n ( a + l ) = n [ 2 a + ( n − 1) d ]
2 2
✔ For a geometric progression with first term a, common ratio r and n terms
● the kth term a k = ar k −1
● the last term a n = ar n−1
a ( r n − 1) a (1 − r n )
● the sum of the terms = ( r − 1) for r > 1 or (1 − r ) for r < 1
✔ For an infinite geometric series to converge, −1 < r < 1. In this case the sum of all terms is
given by 1 −a r .

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 REVIEW EXERCISE 4

Review exercise 4
Ch 11 1 Arrangements containing 4 different letters from the word ALGORITHM are to be made.
Find
a the number of 4-letter arrangements if there are no restrictions [1]
b the number of 4-letter arrangements which start with the letter G and end with the letter T. [1]
2 a Find how many different 4-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 3, 4, 7 and 9 if
each digit may be used just once. [1]
b How many of these 4-digit numbers are odd? [1]
3 A team of 8 scientists are required for an expedition. They are to be selected from 12
ecologists and 6 meteorologists. Find the number of different teams that can be selected if
a there are no restrictions [1]
b the team contains all of the meteorologists [1]
c the team contains at least 3 ecologists. [2]
4 A panel consisting of 7 people is to be assembled in order to carry out an investigation. The
people are to be chosen from a group of 10 police officers and 15 civilians. Calculate the
number of ways that the panel can be selected if
a there are no restrictions [1]
b there must be at least 3 civilians on the panel. [2]
After the panel has been chosen, a chairperson and secretary must be selected from the 7
panel members.
c Calculate the number of ways in which a chairperson and secretary can be selected. [1]
Ch 12 5 a Find the first four terms in the expansion of ( 3 + x ) 8 in ascending powers of x. [3]
Ch 5, Ch 12 b Hence find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of ( 2 − x 2 )( 3 + x ) 8. [3]
Ch 12 6 The tenth term of an arithmetic progression is -27 and the sum of the first five terms is 40.
a Find the first term of the progression and the common difference. [4]
b The nth term of the progression is -212. Find the value of n. [2]
7 a The sum of the first two terms of a geometric progression is 10 and the third term is 9.
i Find the possible values of the common ratio and the first term. [5]
ii Find the sum to infinity of the convergent progression. [1]
b In an arithmetic progression, u1 = −10 and u4 = 14 . Find u100 + u101 + u102 + … + u200 , the
sum of the 100th to the 200th terms of the progression. [4]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 22 Q13, February/March 2020
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 22 Q13, February/March 2020
Ch 13 8 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A and B are 2i – 5j and 6i + 9j
4
respectively. The point C lies on AB such that AC = AB. Find the position vector of the
5
point C and the magnitude of OC. [5]

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 Review exercise 4

9 A

O B
M

The diagram shows the quadrilateral OABC such that OA = a, OB = b and OC = c. It is

given that AM : MC = 2 : 1 and OM : MB = 3 : 2.
i Find AC in terms of a and c. [1]
ii Find OM in terms of a and c. [2]
iii Find OM in terms of b. [1]
iv Find 5a + 10c in terms of b. [2]
v Find AB in terms of a and c, giving your answer in its simplest form. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 12 Q6, February/March 2018
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 12 Q6, February/March 2018

10 In this question, i is a unit vector due East and j is a unit vector due North. At 13 00 hours,
a ship leaves port P and travels with a velocity of (7i – 24j) km h–1.
a State the speed of the ship. [1]
b Find the bearing on which the ship is travelling. Give your answer to 3 significant
figures. [2]
c Find the position vector of the ship, relative to P, t hours after 17 00 hours. [2]
At 17 00 hours, a helicopter leaves its base which has position vector (409i + 141j),
relative to P, in order to intercept the ship. The helicopter has velocity (–120i – 103j) km h–1.
d Find the time at which the helicopter intercepts the ship and its position vector,
relative to P, at the point of interception. [5]
 Total marks [57]

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