ENERGY STORAGE

SYSTEM ( EE3032 )

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REVIEW ON VARIOUS ENERGY STORAGE
SYSTEMS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

For our group assignment on energy storage systems, we students of LOYOLA

ICAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY from EEE Department (sem
6), prepared this comprehensive review paper on this particular topic with
excessive researched information.

CHANDANI I - 311122105013

CLAWERENCE MOTHA C J -
311122105014

DAMINI S - 31122105015

DEIVADHARSHAN U - 311122105016

DEVANESAN J- 311122105017

DIPANA S - 311122105018

Through this assignment, we aim to provide a well-researched and insightful

analysis of energy storage technologies, their applications, and future potential.

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HIGHLIGHTS
 A broad and recent review of various energy storage types is provided.
 Applications of various energy storage types in utility, building, and
transportation sectors are mentioned and compared.
 Technical specifications of various energy storage types are included and
compared.
 Costs of various energy storage types are compared.
 Advantages and disadvantages of various energy storage types are included
and discussed.

ABSTRACT
Energy storage systems are essential in modern energy infrastructure, addressing
efficiency, power quality, and reliability challenges in DC/AC power systems.
Recognized for their indispensable role in ensuring grid stability and seamless
integration with renewable energy sources. These storage systems prove crucial
for aircraft, shipboard systems, and electric vehicles, addressing peak load
demands economically while enhancing overall system reliability and efficiency.
Recent advancements and research have focused on high-power storage
technologies, including supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic energy
storage, and flywheels, characterized by high-power density and rapid response,
ideally suited for applications requiring rapid charging and discharging. Hybrid
energy storage systems and multiple energy storage devices represent enhanced
flexibility and resilience, making them increasingly attractive for diverse
applications, including critical loads. This paper provides a comprehensive
overview of recent technological advancements in high-power storage devices,
including lithium-ion batteries, recognized for their high energy density. In
addition, a summary of hybrid energy storage system applications in microgrids
and scenarios involving critical and pulse loads is provided. The research further
discusses power, energy, cost, life, and performance technologies.

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INTRODUCTION
Energy systems play a key role in harvesting energy from various sources and converting it to the energy
forms required for applications in various sectors, e.g., utility, industry, building and transportation.
Energy sources like fossil fuels can be used to provide energy according to customer demand, i.e. they
are readily storable when not required. But other sources such as solar and wind energy need to be
harvested when available and stored until needed. Applying energy storage can provide several
advantages for energy systems, such as permitting increased penetration of renewable energy and better
economic performance. Also, energy storage is important to electrical systems, allowing for load leveling
and peak shaving, frequency regulation, damping energy oscillations, and improving power quality and
reliability.
Energy storage systems have been used for centuries and undergone continual improvements to reach
their present levels of development, which for many storage types is mature. Storage energy density is
the energy accumulated per unit volume or mass, and power density is the energy transfer rate per unit
volume or mass. When generated energy is not available for a long duration, a high energy density
device that can store large amounts of energy is required. When the discharge period is short, as for
devices with charge/discharge fluctuations over short periods, a high power density device is needed.
Energy storage systems also can be classified based on storage period. Short-term energy storage
typically involves the storage of energy for hours to days, while long-term storage refers to storage of
energy from a few months to a season (3–6 months). For instance, a long term thermal energy storage
retains thermal energy in the ground over the summer for use in winter.

ENERGY DEMAND

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

These fundamental energy-based storage systems can be categorized into three primary types:
mechanical, electrochemical, and thermal energy storage. Furthermore, energy storage systems can be
classified based on several criteria, such as the type of stored energy, the technology employed, their
intended application, and their capacity.

These classifications lead to the division of energy storage into five main types:

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i) Mechanical Energy Storage
ii) Chemical Energy Storage
iii) Electrochemical Energy Storage
iv) Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Energy Storage
v) Thermal Energy Storage

Mechanical Energy Storage

Mechanical energy storage systems are most commonly used throughout the world due to their
advantages, which include their capability to quickly convert and release stored mechanical energy.
These systems store energy by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy in either potential or
kinetic forms. Additionally, they play a vital role in integrating renewable energy sources into the power
grid. Unlike fossil fuel power plants which can be easily adjusted to meet demand fluctuations,
renewable sources like solar and wind are variable in nature. Mechanical energy storage helps bridge
this gap by storing excess energy generated during low-demand periods and releasing it back to stabilize
the power grid, reduce peak demand, and provide backup power.

Mechanical energies are divided into four types:

 Pumped hydroelectric energy storage

 flywheel energy storage
 compressed air energy storage
 gravity energy storage.

These are prominent examples of widely employed mechanical energy storage systems in energy storage
technology .

Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES)

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The PHES system effectively stores and generates electricity by transferring water between two
reservoirs at varying elevations. It is one of the most established and efficient large-scale energy storage
and grid stabilization methods. PHS working mechanism involves three levels:

i) Reservoirs: A pumped hydroelectric storage system consists of an upper and lower reservoir.
These reservoirs can be natural or artificial.
ii) Storage (pumping phase): Excess electricity is used in electric pumps during low electricity
demand or high renewable energy generation periods. These pumps move water from the lower
reservoir to the upper reservoir. This process effectively stores the excess energy as gravitational
potential energy. The water is held at a higher elevation, creating a reservoir of potential energy.
iii) Energy generating (releasing phase): When electricity demand increases or during periods of
low energy generation, the system changes into generating mode. The stored water from the
upper reservoir is released back to the lower reservoir, passing through turbines as it descends.
The turbines capture this kinetic energy and convert it into mechanical rotation, which the
generators transform into electrical energy .

This generated electricity is fed into the grid to meet the demand. PHES systems have long lifespans,
typically exceeding several decades, with minimal degradation of their energy storage capacity over
time, and this system is environmentally friendly .

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

CAES is a technology utilized for storing energy through air compression. This method has found effective
application as a large-scale energy storage system, often reaching capacities in the hundreds of
megawatts. The quantity of energy stored is directly influenced by factors such as the storage container’s
volume and the specific pressure and temperature conditions under which the air is stored. During
periods of excess electricity on the grid, like when the wind is blowing vigorously, or the sun is shining
brightly, the extra power is harnessed to operate an air compressor. This compressor pressurizes and
stores the air within an underground cavern. When the demand for electricity rises, the compressed air
is released from the storage facility and allowed to expand through a turbine. This turbine, in turn,
generates electricity that can be seamlessly integrated into the grid .This CAES method was divided into
diabatic, adiabatic, and isothermal CAES. Most of the CAES plants are currently in the research and
development stage.

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Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)

Flywheels are an electromechanical arrangement designed to store kinetic energy by harnessing the
angular momentum of rotating masses such as discs or cylinders. Despite their longstanding presence in
technology, they have recently gained recognition as a viable solution for storing substantial amounts of
energy on a large scale

A flywheel operates by accumulating excess energy within the wheel’s rotation (spinning mass) and
later converts that stored energy, which is accelerated through the assistance of an electric device
functioning as a motor. The spinning wheel acts like a storage bank for energy. This process occurs during

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the charging of a flywheel energy storage system. The same motor switches to being a generator when it
gives out energy from the spinning flywheel to the power system. FES systems come in two types: low-
speed and high-speed. Low-speed FES is used in industries and spins around 10,000 times per minute or
less. High-speed FES is a bit more complex . This FES stabilizes power grids, provides backup power, and
manages renewable energy fluctuations .

Gravity Energy Storage (GES)

Gravity energy storage systems that store and release energy using gravity. These systems work by
raising heavy objects to a higher elevation to store potential energy and then allowing them to fall back
down to a lower height, changing the potential energy back into kinetic energy and converting it to
electricity. A generating machine lifts a high-weight piston to a higher elevation with abundant power.
This work used various methods, such as electric motors, hydraulic pumps, or compressed air. The piston
is stored at the higher elevation until it is needed. When energy is required, the piston is released to a
lower elevation, converting the mass’s gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy. Then kinetic
energy is used to power a generator, which produces electricity. Research into enhancing this technology
for future widespread use, encompassing improvements in size, storage capacity, materials utilization,
and extended lifespan, should be diligently pursued .

Chemical Energy Storage

Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. This energy is released when a
chemical reaction happens, often transforming the substance into another. We primarily use chemical
fuels for making electricity and powering vehicles. Common types of chemical fuels include coal,
gasoline, natural gas, and hydrogen. These fuels are turned into heat and mechanical energy, which
becomes electricity in power plants and also get electricity directly from stored chemical energy using
fuel cells (it involves electrochemical reactions). Chemical energy storage is a promising technology for
storing large amounts of energy for long periods. The most common chemical energy storage systems
include hydrogen, synthetic natural gas, and solar fuel storage.

Hydrogen Energy Storage

Hydrogen fuel energy is a clean and abundant renewable fuel that is safe to use. The hydrogen energy
can be produced from electrolysis or sunlight through photocatalytic water splitting . Hydrogen could
become a substantial part of our clean energy solutions with more research. When there’s extra power
on the grid, an electrolyzer breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen goes into the air, and
hydrogen is stored in a tank, which is stored in various ways, like squeezing it, making it liquid, using

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special chemicals, and underground storage. When there is demand, then stored hydrogen is converted
to electricity through fuel cells. A hydrogen fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the
chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity. Fuel cells are commonly classified based on the
type of electrolyte utilized:

1) Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC),

2) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC),
3) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC
4) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
5) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), and
6) Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC).

The hydrogen fuel cell consists of four main parts:

i) Anode: This is the negative electrode of the fuel cell.

Hydrogen gas is fed to the anode, oxidising it into
protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and
electrons.
ii) Cathode: This is the positive electrode of the fuel cell,
where, Oxygen gas is fed to the cathode, which
combines with the protons and electrons to form
water.
iii) Electrolyte: It allows only protons to flow from the
anode to the cathode and restrict the electrons flow
through it.
iv) External circuit: This is a pathway for the electrons to
flow from the anode to the cathode, where, an
electric current is produced. The overall reaction that
takes place in a hydrogen fuel cell is:

This reaction produces water and heat as the only

byproducts.

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Synthetic Natural Gas Energy Storage (SNGS)

A SNGS system is a technology that converts electrical energy into synthetic or substitute natural gas,
which can be stored and later used as a source of energy. The SNGS commonly classified into the
following types, namely
i) Hydrogen- SNG is produced from hydrogen (from renewable sources like solar
and wind power) and carbon dioxide (from industrial processes), which are
combined to produce methane through a process called methanation.
ii) Methane hydrate - SNG, a solid methane trapped in water molecules found in
marine sediments and permafrost. They were extracted and converted into
methane through depressurization process.
iii) Biomass-SNG is generated from organic materials like wood, waste, and food
scraps through anaerobic digestion, which turns biomass into methane without
using oxygen. This methane is collected and stored for energy use.

Solar Fuel Storage

Solar-to-fuel technologies encompass diverse processes designed for harnessing renewable solar energy,
converting it into readily usable forms, storing it within synthetic fuels chemical structures, and
deploying it as a flexible and sustainable energy source as required . This solar fuel storage is done by
artificial photosynthesis and thermochemical reactions.

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1. Artificial Photosynthesis: Storing solar energy within chemical bonds paves the way for creating an
artificial photosynthetic system. In this innovative setup, sunlight is utilized to oxidize water into
oxygen, and the resulting electrons can be directed toward two essential pathways: one involving
the reduction of carbon dioxide to produce fuels such as methane, methanol, formaldehyde,
formate, carbon monoxide, or oxalate, while the other requires proton reduction to generate
hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy resource .
2. Thermochemical Reaction: It works at high-temperature thermochemical reactions, such as solar
water splitting, to produce hydrogen or carbon dioxide reduction to generate synthetic gasoline at
temperatures ranging from 800 to 1,500 ° C . Solar fuels are still in the early stages of development,
but significant research and development are underway to improve the efficiency and cost-
effectiveness of solar fuel production.

Electrochemical Energy Storage

Electrochemical energy storage system undergoes chemical process to store and produce electricity.
Batteries are the most widely used electrochemical energy storage systems in industrial and household
applications . They are classified into two types namely primary and secondary batteries. Among them,
primary batteries are the non-rechargeable when the chemicals present in them were completely
consumed, whereas, secondary batteries can be recharged and discharged multiple times . The
rechargeable secondary batteries were widely used in the power system applications. It consists of a
cathode, an anode and an electrolyte medium. When the battery is connected to an external circuit,
chemical reaction occurs, results in the flow of electrons between the electrodes through the electrolyte
and external circuit, and the electromotive force (EMF) is induced . The output voltage produced by
these batteries will be less than 2 V. To achieve the required voltage and current, they will be connected
together in parallel or series configurations. Based on the electrode materials and electrolytes used in
the system, the secondary batteries were further classified as Lead-acid battery, Nickel-cadmium battery,
Sodium-sulfur battery, Lithium-ion battery and flow batteries .

Lead-Acid (LA) Battery

Lead-acid (LA) battery is one of commonly used batteries and the oldest technology developed in 1859.
It primarily consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte as a spongy metallic lead, lead dioxide and

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37% sulfuric acid (5.99 Molar) . The following equations represent the reaction that takes place at the
cathode and anode .

Both the electrodes were turned into lead sulfate at their discharged state and get back to their original
state during charging. This battery technology is heavier and bulkier size and requires more time during
charging and discharging. LA batteries can be operated at the temperature between and can deliver the
voltage of 2 V. They exhibit 1000 to 2000 cycle life and at low and high temperatures, it shows slow
performances. The LA batteries were used in UPS and some spinning reserve applications. They have
relatively low power density as 180 W/kg and specific energy as 30 Wh/kg and its infrequent
requirement of water maintenance became its major limitation .

Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery

Nickel-cadmium batteries were comprised of an anode made up of cadmium hydroxide, nickel hydroxide
as cathode and potassium hydroxide as an electrolyte. The following equation represent the reaction
takes place during charging and discharging

While discharging, at positive electrode, Ni(OH)2 act as active materials. Whereas, in negative electrode,
the active material is Cd(OH)2 . On the other hand, NiO(OH) acts as active material at positive electrode
during charging and Cd metal at negative electrode. These batteries need less maintenance and can
undergo faster charge/discharge process due to their smaller internal resistance and exhibits long cycle
life (3000- 4000 cycles) and energy density as 50-75 Wh/kg. However, due to the toxicity of cadmium, it
was replaced by nickel metal hydride battery (Ni-MH). It was widely used in portable devices, UPS,
emergency lighting, generator starting and telecoms.

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Sodium-Sulfur Battery

Sodium-sulfur (NaS) batteries were fabricated using the liquid sulfur as a cathode, liquid sodium as an
anode separated by ceramic electrolyte (solid beta alumina) (35).

The above-mentioned equation represents the reversible reaction that takes place in the NaS battery
during charging and discharging. The Na+ ions will react with the sulfur by passing through the ceramic
electrolyte and forms sodium polysulphides (Na2S4), during discharge process. The reverse reaction takes
place by releasing the Na+ from Na2S4, that penetrate through the electrolyte, during the charging
process. Since, the above reaction is an exothermic reaction and produces heat upto 300°C − 350°C . The
higher operating temperature and an exposure of sulfur to air and moisture lead to explosion were the
major concerns for application purpose. The NaS batteries exhibit 150-240 Wh/kg and 150-230W/kg as
an energy and power density with ~2500 cycle life.

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Battery

Lithium-ion batteries were commercialized in 1991, becomes the most widely used batteries of all types.
These batteries were comprised with lithium metal as the positive electrode (cathode), layered structure
of graphite carbon as the negative electrode (anode) and an organic carbonate dissolved with lithium
salt (LiPF6) were used as an electrolyte .

When charging this battery, lithium ions travel through the electrolyte to the negative electrode from the
positive electrode and the electrons will travel in the same direction through the external circuit. This
process will take place reversibly while discharging the battery. Li-ion battery can deliver power density
upto 1000 - 2000 W/kg and energy density as 100 - 200 Wh/kg and the cell voltage of 3.6 V. The fast
charge/discharge cycle, light weight and higher efficiency upto 90% made it as widely applicable battery
from smaller electronic devices to large scale applications like car batteries. In spite of their wider
applicability, instability at higher temperatures is the problem behind. To overcome this, solid-state Li-ion
batteries comprised of solid electrodes and electrolytes that can bear the above-mentioned issue and
provides higher energy density .

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Flow Batteries

Flow batteries have different kind of energy storage properties compared to that of conventional
batteries. Flow batteries stores electrical energy externally by forming the oxidized and reduced form of
electroactive species in the liquid electrolytes inside the tanks .

When the electroactive species dissolved in the electrolyte is pumped through the electrochemical cells,
it converts chemical energy into electrical energy.The energy density of the flow batteries depends on
the tank size and the design of the electrochemical cells determines its power density. The process of
charge storage is reversible and hence the flow batteries can act like secondary batteries. Flow batteries
are classified as redox (reduction-oxidation) flow battery and hybrid flow battery . When the
electroactive species were dissolved in a liquid electrolyte (i.e., in both the electrodes), it is called as
redox flow battery. However, hybrid flow batteries consist of the configurations as that of redox flow
batteries except one of the electrodes (either cathode or anode) involving phase changes (solid or
gaseous). Zinc/Cerium redox flow battery, Soluble Lead-Acid flow battery and Iron-chromium redox flow
batteries were belongs to the types of hybrid redox flow batteries.

Redox flow batteries comprised of two different electrolytes. Among them, one of the electrolyte stores
electroactive material for the positive electrode reaction and that of other for the negative electrode
reaction . The equation shows the reaction that takes place at the two electrodes.

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There are different types of redox flow batteries were available for commercial purposes, namely
Vanadium redox flow battery, Bromide/polysulfide flow battery, Zinc/cerium redox flow battery, Soluble
Lead-acid flow battery and Iron-chromium redox flow battery

1.Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRB)

The chemical form of energy is stored in VRB by using four different oxidation states of vanadium ions.
Namely, V2+/V3+ ions couple as negative half-cell electrolyte and V4+/V5+ ions as positive half-cell
electrolyte and were separated by proton exchange membranes. When charging the battery, the
conversion of V3+ ions to V2+ takes place at negative electrode with the potential of -0.26V vs. SHE
(Standard Hydrogen Electrode) and simultaneously, at the positive electrode, the conversion of V 4+ to
V5+ occurs at the potential of +1.00V vs. SHE and the energy was stored as chemical energy in the cell.

While discharging, reverse process takes place and the chemical energy that is stored is converted into
electrical energy . The following equations show the reaction that take place during charging and
discharging processes .

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The VRB system exhibits 75-150 W/kg power density, 35-60 Wh/kg energy density and long lifespan of
more than 15000 cycles (15-20 years) .

2.Bromide/Polysulfide Flow Battery (PSB)

PSB flow battery consists of salt solutions of sodium bromide and sodium polysulfide as electrolytes,
separated by membrane that allows positive Na+ ions for maintaining the electroneutrality of the cell.
The equation shows the reaction involving at both the electrodes.

When PSB is charged, at positive electrode, oxidation of three bromide ions takes place and forms
tribromide ions. At the same time in negative electrode, sodium particles dissolved in the polysulfide
electrolyte were reduced to sulfide ions. On discharging, the same reactions take place in reversible
manner. The PSB can be operatable at the temperature of and exhibit a lifespan of 15000 - 20000 cycles.
Inspite of their highlights, the PSB performance will be affected by the usage of different electrolyte

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solutions that causes contamination and formation of crystals of sodium sulfate and bromine will cause
environmental issues .

3.Zinc/Cerium Redox Flow Battery

The Zn-Ce redox flow battery is the combination of negative zinc couple and positive cerium couple as
electrolytes. This system is under development since 1990s. In 2004, the modified system of this redox
flow battery with platinized titanium mesh as cathode and carbon plastic as an anode were developed
and were separated by the Nafion membrane. The following expressions indicates the reactions at both
the electrodes ,

These oxidation-reduction reactions occur within the respective electrolytes of the Zinc/Cerium Redox
Flow Battery, separated by a membrane that allows the transfer of ions while preventing mixing of the
electrolytes. This flow battery design enables the storage and release of electrical energy through the
reversible conversion of chemical species at the electrodes.

4.Soluble Lead-Acid Flow Battery

The soluble Lead-acid flow battery made up of the electrolyte containing single active species (Pb2+). The
equations show the charge and discharges processes in cathode and anode. On charging this battery,
the Pb2+ ions were converted from soluble phase to solid phases (Pb and PbO2). In the discharge process,
dissolution takes place. The electrolyte used in this batteries is methane sulphonic acid.

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The electrolyte used in this battery typically consists of methane sulfonic acid. During charging, lead ions
are converted from the soluble phase to solid phases (lead and lead dioxide), while in the discharge
process, dissolution of these solids occurs back into the electrolyte. This reversible conversion of lead
species enables the storage and release of electrical energy in the Soluble Lead-Acid Flow Battery

5.Iron-Chromium Redox Flow Battery

Iron-chromium redox flow battery uses redox couples namely, ferric-ferrous couple dissolved in aqueous
solution as positive reactant and negative reactant as chromous-chromic couple and both were acidified
with HCl . These two half cells were separated by the ion-exchange membrane for the conduction of
ions. The following equations were the reactions that take place during charging and discharging process
in this system .

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The last three flow batteries that are discussed above comes under the type of hybrid flow batteries.
Since, one of their electrodes involves phase changes (i.e., deposition of ions on the electrode) during
the storage processes . These systems, represented prominently by batteries, are classified into primary
and secondary types, with secondary batteries offering the advantage of rechargeability. Among
secondary batteries, a diverse range of technologies exists, each with its unique characteristics and
applications. These diverse electrochemical energy storage systems cater to various needs across
industries, from small electronic devices to grid-scale applications, with ongoing research aimed at
improving efficiency, lifespan, and environmental sustainability.

Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Energy Storage System

Electrostatic and electromagnetic energy storage systems store electrical energy, with no conversion to
other forms of energy (i.e., stores as electric field). Capacitors, Supercapacitors and Superconducting
magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) belong to this type of energy storage system.

Capacitor

Capacitors are the energy storage system that stores electric energy in the form of electric field. It
consists of non-conducting layer namely dielectric acts as separator, separating the two metal plates as
oppositely charged electrodes. It stores direct current at the electrode and dielectric interface by the
polarization of dipole around them. The capacitors can accept and deliver high currents but their energy
density was very low and its extreme short span of time exhibiting it. It was mainly used in electrical
circuits, sensors etc.

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Supercapacitor

Supercapacitor is also known as ultra-capacitors or double-layer capacitors or electrochemical

capacitors . The supercapacitors are similar to that of conventional capacitors, but, the difference is that
the supercapacitor having liquid or polymer electrolytes instead of dielectric medium that are present in
the capacitors. Supercapacitors can store 10-100 times more energy than conventional capacitors and
response 10 times faster than that of batteries. The charge stored at the interfaces of electrode and
electrolyte solution is categorized as double layer capacitors. Whereas, in electrochemical capacitors, the
charge store takes place by redox behavior of the metal oxide/sulphides present in the electrode
materials . Since, the supercapacitors doesn’t involve any chemical reactions like in batteries, they can
able to deliver more power density than batteries. Also, the porous nature and higher surface area of the
electrodes helps in more amount of charge storage. Supercapacitor was classified into three types,
namely, Electrical double layer capacitor (EDLC), pseudocapacitor and hybrid capacitors. In EDLC
capacitors, carbon-based electrode materials were employed (non-faradaic interaction occurs), whereas,
in pseudocapacitors, metal oxides, sulphides, selenides, conducting polymers were employed (faradaic
interaction occurs) . On combining the EDLC and pseudocapacitive materials were used as an electrode
material, then it was classified as hybrid capacitors.

Equation represents the capacitance (C) of a system, where A is the surface area of the electrodes, d is
the separation between the electrodes, and ε is the dielectric constant of the separator. This equation
highlights the key factors influencing the capacitance of the system, including the size of the electrodes,
the distance between them, and the properties of the separator material. The energy density (i.e., the
amount of energy stored) of the supercapacitor can be calculated using the formula,

The formula calculates the energy density (E) of a supercapacitor, with C representing the capacitance
value and V denoting the applied voltage. Supercapacitors are renowned for their extensive lifespan,
boasting cycles ranging from 105 to 107, and their rapid response times. This advantageous combination

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makes them prevalent in various applications, including actuators, engine starters, and electric vehicles,
where they excel in regenerating braking systems.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

Superconducting magnetic energy storage stores electric energy by magnetic field. These magnets were
cooled cryogenically below to their superconducting critical temperature . Electricity will reach the coil
via power conditioning system (i.e., AC to DC converter) and it is stored as magnetic field. On
discharging, the current stored in the coil runs to the grid and gets converted by DC to AC converter. The
wires will be maintained under superconducting temperature to deplete ohmic losses. The DC current (I)
flowing through the coil and the induction of the superconducting coil (L) decides the energy density of
SMES . It is expressed in the following equation as,

High temperature SMES coil can be operated at and at the temperature of, the low temperature SMES
can be operated. SMES exhibits upto 4kW/l of energy density, faster response time and long lifetime of
almost 30 years. It was used in the small-scale applications such as UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply),
(Flexible AC Transmission) FACTS and pulse power source. The high cost of superconducting wire and the
energy required for maintaining the cooling systems limits it from large application .

These electrostatic and electromagnetic energy storage systems offer vital means of directly storing
electrical energy as electric fields. These systems include capacitors, supercapacitors, and
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES). Capacitors, characterized by dielectric separators and
oppositely charged electrodes, store direct current through dipole polarization, although they have low
energy density and short discharge durations. Supercapacitors, on the other hand, boast liquid or
polymer electrolytes and can store energy 10-100 times more efficiently than conventional capacitors,
with response times 10 times faster than batteries. SMES systems operate by storing electric energy in a
magnetic field generated by superconducting coils cooled below their critical temperature. Despite
offering high energy density, rapid response times, and long lifetimes of up to 30 years, SMES systems

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face challenges such as the high cost of superconducting wire and the energy required for cooling
systems, limiting their deployment to small-scale applications.

Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

Thermal energy storage system converts heat energy into electrical energy and stores electricity. It was
classified into three types, such as sensible heat, latent heat and thermochemical heat storage system
(absorption and adsorption system). the schematic representation of each thermal energy storage
systems is shown as follows.

Sensible Heat Storage (SHS)

Sensible heat storage stores thermal energy into the solid or liquid materials by raising its temperature
with no change in the phase of the material . The amount of heat energy stored into the material
depends on the heat capacity of the material, quantity of the material and difference in temperature of
the material’s initial and final state. Sand, bricks, soil or oil, rock beds and water were used as the
storage medium.30 SHS has various advantages like reduced corrosion, broad operating temperature
range and low cost of the material. However, this system exhibits very low energy density. The storage
capacity of this was determined by using mass of the medium and specific heat capacity of the medium.
It is used in dwellings to supply hot water for offices and houses. Also, used in solar heating systems and
air-based systems .

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Latent Heat Storage (LHS)

Latent heat storage involves the storage of energy during the changes in phase. Materials that were used
in LHS are called as phase-change materials (PCMs). The capacity of LHS was determined by the density
and enthalpy at the phase transition. The conversion of phases from solid to liquid or liquid to solid takes
place in PCM, while charging or discharging the LHS. When the temperature rises, the thermal energy
will be absorbed by the PCM and at certain temperature, it starts to melt and involves phase change.
Paraffin and salt hydrates have been used in LHS system .

Thermochemical Energy Storage

Thermochemical energy storage system involves the dissociation or breaking of bonds and the energy
storage takes place during this process. The release of energy occurs during the reverse process. Like
other system, the charging, discharging and storing process takes place in this system. This system
exhibits higher energy density and more compact in nature. Metal hydrides like magnesium and calcium
hydrides, oxides, lead carbonates, calcium carbonates and various organic materials were used for this
energy storage system . Pumped thermal energy storage system is an example of the above system,
which involves the storage of electrical energy as thermal energy. figure illustrates the charging and
discharging process involves in the PTES system. When this system is charging, heat energy will be
moved from low temperature reservoir to high-temperature reservoir with the help of heat pump using
electrical energy. On discharging, thermal energy will be converted back to the electrical energy by heat
engine, which is powered by thermal reservoirs. It has various advantages like high capacity, quick
response time and life span upto 30 years .

These TES systems play a crucial role in converting heat energy into electrical energy and storing
electricity. Pumped Thermal Energy Storage (PTES) is an example of thermochemical energy storage,

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where electrical energy is stored as thermal energy. During charging, heat is moved from a low-
temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir using a heat pump, while on discharging, thermal
energy is converted back to electrical energy using a heat engine. PTES offers advantages like high
capacity, quick response time, and a long lifespan of up to 30 years. These diverse TES systems find
applications in various sectors, including solar heating systems, dwellings, and grid energy storage,
contributing to energy efficiency and sustainability.

Conclusion
The increase in energy production as per the current need and environmental concern increases the
demand for developing better energy storage systems for storing and future purposes. In present,
various types of energy storage systems are available and are categorized based on their physical form of
energy such as thermal, electrical, electrochemical, chemical and mechanical energy storage system. The
energy density, storage capacity, efficiency, charge and discharge power and response time of the system
decides their applications in short term and long-term storage systems. The cost of developing and
storing of energies in various forms decides its feasibility in the large-scale applications. Till date various
developments in the energy storage systems have been implemented. But, the increasing demand of
energy storage systems and the cost-effective way of achieving the global need is becoming the
challenging one. SMES are considered as better option in minimizing the power fluctuations for the
energy produced from wind and PV, since, they have advantages like shorter response time and high-
power density. Similarly, finding the effective integration of energy storage systems with the renewable
energy resources will paves way for the betterment in the quality of the power output as well as in
improving the efficiency of power output to meet the global demand. In future, the most efficient and
cost-effective energy storage systems that meet all global demands are will be developed by bringing
various changes in the parts of these energy storage systems.

References

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review Energies 2023 16 9 3893 . https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093893

2. Krishan O. Suhag S. An Updated Review of Energy Storage Systems: Classification and

Applications in Distributed Generation Power Systems Incorporating Renewable Energy
Resources Int. J. Energy Res. 2019 43 12 6171 6210 . https://doi.org/ 10.1002/er.4285

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3. Aneke, M.; Wang, M. Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications - A State of the
Art Review. Appl. Energy; Elsevier Ltd, 2016; Vol. 179,
pp 350− 377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.097.

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